Fertilizer Technology 43500

CH2032-FERTILIZER TECHNOLOGY Chemical Engineering 2014-2015
St. JOSEPH'S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
FERTILIZER TECHNOLOGY – CH-2032 [ QUESTION BANK]
2012 – 2013
PART – A & PART – B WITH ANSWERS
PART – A CHAPTER- 1 AN OVERVIEW
1. What is a Fertilizer? What is the need for fertilizers? (May/June 2009)

A fertilizer may be defined as an extraneous material provided for the cultivable land in
order to supplement the nutrition the crops and trees etc. can draw from the land. Plants
need sun, water and nutrients to grow. The nutrients can be taken from air or soil. If there is
an ample supply of nutrients in the soil, crops are more likely to grow well and produce
high yields. If even one of the nutrients needed is in short supply, plant growth is limited
and crop yields are reduced. Fertilizers are needed to obtain high yields because they
supply crops with the nutrients the soil lacks. By adding fertilizers, crop yields can often be
doubled or even tripled. Fertilizers contribute to efficient use of land and water. Fertilizers
ensure the most effective use of both land and water. Where rainfall is low or crops are
irrigated, the yield per unit of water used may be more than doubled and the rooting depth
of the crop increased through fertilizer application.
2. What are the various processes by which Ammonia is synthesized? (April 2014)
Claude process, Haber’s process
3. What are the factors that affect the cost of ammonia production?(April 2014)
Factors that increase cost include:
high pressures (they increase the cost of the equipment)
high temperatures (they increase the energy costs).
For any given temperature the yield of ammonia increases as the pressure increases.
4. What are the chief requisites of a fertilizer? State them. (April/May2011), (May/June
2013)
The chief requisites of a good artificial fertilizer are:
 It must contain at least one substance fit for plant food, and this substance must be
easily convertible, by the action of rain and moisture, to such a form that plants can
assimilate it.
 It must be dry and finely powdered, so that it may be evenly distributed over the
surface of the ground.
 It must be cheap.
 A complete fertilizer should supply the three essentials, potassium, nitrogen and
phosphorus. But the majority of artificial fertilizers afford only one or two of these
elements, and are usually sold for certain crops, or for use on particular kinds of
soil.
5. What is natural gas? Give its composition. (April/May2010)
It is a flammable gas, consisting largely of methane and other hydrocarbons, occurring
naturally underground (often in association with petroleum) and used as fuel.
Natural gas contains – 95% Methane (CH4) and four other hydrocarbons: Ethane (C2H6) -
2.5%, Propane (C3H8) - 0.2%, Butane (C4H10) - 0.06%, Pentane (C5H12 + C10H22) – 0.02%.
It also contains small amounts of: Nitrogen (N 2) - 1.6%, Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - 0.7%,
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) - trace, Water (H2O) – Trace.
6. What is coke-oven gas? How it is obtained? Give its composition. (May/June 2009)
Coke-oven gas is a fuel gas having a medium calorific value that is produced during the
manufacture of metallurgical coke by heating bituminous coal to temperatures of 900°C to
St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 1 ISO 9001-2008

1000°C in a chamber from which air is excluded. The main constituents are, by volume,
about 50% hydrogen, 30% methane and 3% higher hydrocarbons, 7% carbon monoxide,
3% carbon dioxide and 7% nitrogen. The gas has a heating value of about 20,000 kJ/m3.
7. What is fuel oil? Give its composition. (May/June 2009)
Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleumdistillation, either as a distillate or a residue.
Broadly speaking fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or
boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except
oils having a flash point of approximately 40 °C (104 °F) and oils burned in cotton or
wool-wick burners. All fuel oils consist of complex mixtures of aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons. The aliphatic alkanes (paraffins) and cycloalkanes (naphthenes) are
hydrogen saturated and compose approximately 80-90% of the fuel oils. Aromatics (e.g.,
benzene) and olefins (e.g., styrene and indene) compose 10-20% and l%, respectively, of
the fuel oils.
8. Name the promoter for iron oxide in all Ammonia Synthesis Catalysts.
Oxides of Al, Zn, Si and K are the promoters for Iron oxide.
9. State the function of nitrogen in nitrogenous fertilizer. (Nov/Dec 2011)
These are fertilizers that contain nitrogen. Common examples are nitrates, like
Ammonium Nitrate, Potassium nitrate, and Urea. Nitrogen is useful to plants to produce
cellulose and chlorophyll and they grow very vigorously when given nitrogen rich
fertilizers.
10. How is ammonium sulphate nitrate obtained? (Nov/Dec 2011)
Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate is a nitrogen fertilizer, formed by a mixture of ammonium
sulphate and ammonium nitrate. It contains 26 % N and 13 % S.
11. Mention the characteristics of ammonium sulphate nitrate. (May/June 2013)
Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate has a form of 2 - 5 mm large whitish till light yellow color
granules; the fertilizer has excellent physico-mechanical properties and properties for
storage. The granulation of this fertilizer ensures a quick and exact dosing. Because ASN
contains high ammonium nitrogen content it furthermore guarantees long-term and
sustainable nitrogen supply, and prevents the nitrogen from being washed out of the soil. In
addition, ASN supports the availability of secondary nutrients like manganese, iron, and
boron in the soil.
12. Distinguish between direct and indirect fertilizers. (April/May2010), (Nov/Dec 2011)
Direct Fertilizers
A material that can serve the purpose of providing nutrition to plants, trees and crops by
easily getting assimilated by the land, can be termed as direct fertilizer.
Indirect Fertilizers
Fertilizers used to change the reaction of the soil solution, to improve the physical
properties of the soil, and to activate its useful microflora. Among the indirect fertilizers
are lime fertilizers of all types (limestones, calcareous tuff, chalk, marl), which eliminate
excess soil acidity; gypsum, an agent for chemical improvement of solonets soils; sulfur
fertilizers, which reduce soil alkalinity; and sodium fertilizers, which create soil potassium
by using sodium to force it out of the absorbing complex of the soil into solution.
13. What is organic Manure?
Organic waste matter- food waste, deceased animal parts, animal excreta etc. can be
composed together with mud and slime to form a good natural fertilizer material for crops.
Such material is called organic manure. Before the invention of chemical Fertilizers
farmers in our country were dependent on organic manure only.
14. What is a chemical Fertilizer?
A chemical material that can serve the purpose of providing nutrition to plants, trees and
crops by easily getting assimilated by the land, can be termed to be a chemical fertilizer.
15. What are the different types of Chemical Fertilizers?

Based on the classification of the Chemical content the different types of chemical
fertilizers can be named as follows: Nitrogenous Fertilizers, Phosphatic fertilizers, Potassic
Fertilizers, Complex Fertilizers, NPK Fertilizers etc.
16. Name the two huge fertilizer Units in our country.
Nangal Fertilizers, Sindri and Rashtreeya Chemicals & Fertilizers, Chembur, Bombay can
be named as two large sized Fertilizer industries in the country.
17. Name two large fertilizer industries in Tamil Nadu.
Madras Fertilizers Ltd., and E.I.D. Parry Ltd.
18. Energy visa-vis Fertilizer industry. Write in four sentences.
Any Chemical Industry is energy based and more so a Fertilizer Industry. Nitrogen being
the primary nutrient, most Fertilizer industries need to manufacture Ammonia which
involves usage of enormous amount of energy for the separation of Air and for the
separation of the Steam reforming process gases for the generation of Hydrogen. Therefore
Energy economy plays a very important part in any Fertilizer Industry.
19. What are the major materials of consumption in a fertilizer industry?
Taking a Urea manufacturing plant as example one can state the materials of Consumption
in such Fertilizer Industry as follows: Raw Materials are such as Naphtha or Light fuel oil
or Coal. The Utilities are Water both for Process as well as cooling purposes. Steam for
Process as well as heating purposes and Electrical Energy for running the various
equipment. The consumption Chemicals can be mentioned in respect of Mono-, Di- and
Tri- Ethanolamines required in the CO2 separation section.
20. Water conservation in Fertilizer industry – write a few points of importance.
Enormous amounts of water is required in a Fertilizer plant, both for process and cooling
purposes. In addition to these, water is also required for potable and other human facilities.
Process water is certainly a consumable item. Water, used for cooling and in respect of the
portion of steam for heating purposes can always be recycled by using equipments like
Cooling Tower and Reverse Osmosis facilitating conservation of water.
21. What is the nature of ammonia synthesis reaction?
Ammonia synthesis reaction is an exothermic reaction.
Oxides of Al, Zn, Si and k are the promoters of Iron oxide as ammonia synthesis catalysts.
23. What is the hydrogen content of coke oven gas?
Hydrogen content of coke oven gas is 55%.
24. Which catalyst is used in the steam naphtha reforming?
Nickel (14-16%) on Calcium aluminate with possible promoters such as Potassium
hydroxide is the catalyst used in steam reforming of naphtha.
25. What are the Temperature and Pressure conditions in Ammonia converter?
100-1000 atmospheres pressure and 500-5500C Temperature
26. In the production of which gas Naphtha is a source in a fertilizer plant?
Hydrogen gas
27. What is the concentration of the Nitric acid produced by the oxidation of Ammonia
and absorption of Nitrogen Oxides with water?
The concentration of Nitric Acid produced by the oxidation of ammonia and absorption on
nitrogen oxides with water is 57-60%
28. At what temperature is the equilibrium favoured in the oxidation of NO to NO2 ,
which is a slow reaction?
40-500C is the temperature at which the equilibrium is favoured in the oxidation of NO to
NO2 and it is a slow reaction.
29. Which is the Catalyst used in de sulphurisation of naphtha?
The naphtha together with some recycled synthesis gas from the later process is passed
over o hydro-treater, which is a catalyst consisting of one or a mixture of Cobalt

Molybdate, cobalt-nickel and cobalt-nickel-alumina for desulphurisation by hydrogenation

of the organic sulphur compounds.
30. What is the reaction temperature range that must be maintained in the steam -
naphtha reforming process?
The reaction temperature range that must be maintained in the steam-naphtha reforming
process is 700-10000C
31. Due to the presence of which material Nitric acid is generally light yellow in colour?
Nitric acid is light yellow in colour due to the presence of nitrogen dioxide.
32. What are the raw materials for the manufacture of Nitric Acid?
Ammonia and air are the raw materials for the manufacture of Nitric Acid.
33. Which is the catalyst used in the manufacture of nitric acid by Ammonia Oxidation
process?
Platinum-Rhodium alloy in the form of 60-80 mesh wire gage is the catalyst used in the
manufacture of Nitric acid by the oxidation of ammonia.
34. What is Fuming Nitric acid?
Nitric acid having > 86% concentration is called fuming nitric acid and it is called Red
fuming nitric acid if the concentration is >95% with 10-15% excess dissolved oxides of
Nitrogen.
35. Which process is used for the manufacture of Ammonia gas from coal?
TVA ammonia process is used for the manufacture of ammonia gas from coal or coke.
36. Though liquid Ammonia itself is a fertilizer yet it is not commonly used in a tropical
country like India. Why?
In a tropical country like India the temperatures are high and the soil will not retain the
Ammonia long enough for the plants to absorb the nitrogen from Ammonia. Also
transportation of anhydrous ammonia to the usage points by pipe lines will also involve
complications.
37. Why is purge off essential In an Ammonia plant?
The Ammonia synthesis gases contain some quantities of inert gases like methane, Argon
and Helium bequeathed from the air liquefaction process. The NH 3 content in the outlet
gases from the converter is about 12-14% there will be recycling of the unconverted gases
thereby causing increase in the percentage of these inert gases with each recycle. Hence
Purge off is essential in the Ammonia manufacturing process.
*****************************************************************
PART – B CHAPTER- 1 AN OVERVIEW
1. With a neat flow diagram explain the manufacture of Ammonium Sulphate.
Manufacture of Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2 SO4]
– It is the most popular nitrogenous fertilizer.
– best fertilizer for paddies
– 20–21% Nitrogen, low concentration nitrogenous fertilizer

– repeated use of the material leads to acidification of soil – neutralized by addition of lime
FLOW SHEET FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIAM SULPHATE
There are 3 types of Processes used:
1) From direct reaction between NH3 and H2SO4
 Produces high grade Ammonium Sulphate from synthetic Ammonia and Sulphuric acid
 After the reaction, concentrated and granulated
 Employs Oslo type of crystallizer. Crystallizer operates at 760C & 451–508 mm Hg
vacuum. pH is kept below 7.
 Tray driers are used for drying and then it is baggage and dispatched.
2) From coke oven gas
Get Ammonium Sulphate as a by product from steel industry (10 Kg per ton of steel
production) used in Eastern countries, Japan etc. The coke oven gases, apart from CO, CO2,
etc. contain some ammonia which after removing CO, CO2, etc. is scrubbed with Sulphuric
acid to get Ammonium Sulphate. It is concentrated, dried and bagged.
3) When Elemental Sulphur is expensive a process based on gypsum and carbon dioxide from
combustion is used:
(NH4)2CO3 (aq) + CaSO4.2H2O(s)  CaCO3(s) + 2H2O + (NH4)2 SO4
Anhydride can also be used.This process is widely used in India, Pakisthan and England due to
abundance of Gypsum.

4) Some quantum of Amm. Sulphate is also obtained as a byproduct of Caprolactum(Nylon–6).
2. With a neat flow diagram explain the manufacture of Ammonium Nitrate.
NH3 + HNO3  NH4NO3 H = – 20.6 K. Cal
1. Prilling Process:
The ammonia vapour is reacted with aqueous nitric acid in a stainless steel reaction
vessel with agitation. The heat of reaction causes water to boil off and the final salt solution is
75% and at 1400C. It is pumped to a vacuum evaporator to further concentrate to 95% solids.
The hot liquid is sprayed from the top of a prilling tower (60–75 m high) counter current to
conditioned air flow. The solidified spherical pellets or prills are about 1.5 mm in dia. And are
screened and dried before coating with clay. Fines and oversized material are redissolved and
sent to the neutralizing reactor for recycle. [Later development is usage of a centrifugal oil-
quenching process for prill production]

The above flowsheeet depicts the process for the production of Ammonium nitrate as well as
nitrolime or nitrochalk[calcium ammonium nitrate]
3. With a neat flow sheet explain the method of manufacture of Prills of Urea.
Reactions:
0
CO + 2 NH3 14 MPa ; 180C NH2COONH4, H = – 155 Mj/ Kg mol.
→
(exothermic) (ammonium carbamate)
NH2COONH4  NH2CONH2 + H2O H = + 42 Mj/ Kg mol.
(endothermic decomposition)
Both are equilibrium reactions.
Undesirable side reaction:
2 NH2CONH2  NH2.CO. NH.CO.NH2.H2O + NH3

(UREA) (BIURET)
Process Description: (Montecatini solution recycle)
 Ammonia and CO2 are compressed separately and added to the high pressure autoclave
which must be water cooled due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction. The
average residence time in the autoclave, which is operated on a continuous basis, is 1.5 – 2
hours. A mixture of Urea, ammonium carbamate, H2O, and un-reacted NH3 + CO2 results.
 This liquid effluent is let down to 27 atms. And fed to a special flash evaporator containing
a gas – liquid separator and condensor. Un-reacted NH 3, CO2, and H2O as a solution are
thus removed and recycled(partial recycle operation).
 An aqueous solution of Carbama te-Urea is passed to the atmospheric flash drum where
further decomposition of carbamate takes place. The off gases from this step are can be
either recycled (total recycle option) or sent to NH 3 processes for making chemical
fertilizer.
 The 80% aqueous urea solution can be used as it is, or sent to a vacuum evaporator to
obtain molten urea containing less than 1% water.
 The molten mass is sprayed then into a prilling or granular solidification tower. In this
phase of the operation the temperature must be kept just above the melting point for
processing times of 1-2 seconds in order to avoid the formation of Biuret through the
undesirable reaction mentioned above.
4. With a neat flow diagram explain the manufacture of Ammonium Chloride.
Draw the above flow sheet and explain the process.
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), also called Sal Ammoniac, the salt of ammonia and hydrogen
chloride. Its principal use is as an electrolyte in dry cells, and it is also extensively employed as
a constituent of galvanizing, tinning, and soldering fluxes to remove oxide coatings from
metals and thereby improve the adhesion of the solders. It is a component of many proprietary
cold medicines and cough remedies. Ammonium chloride is a colourless, crystalline substance.
It is highly soluble in water, readily forming a slightly acidic solution. It vaporizes without
melting at 340° C (644° F) to form equal volumes of ammonia and hydrogen chloride.
Ammonium chloride is yielded as a by-product in the ammonia-soda process for making
sodium carbonate. It also is produced by reaction of ammonium sulfate and sodium chloride
solutions.

11(a)(i) Discuss with a flow sheet the manufacture of Ammonium Nitrate by Stengel
process.[10]
Stengel Process: This process is patented by L.A. Stengel in 1951. It involves in vapour phase
reaction in a packed stainless reactor. Ammonia vapour is pre heated to 140–150 0C in a single
stage heat exchanger while 60% HNO3 is pre heated first to 950C in a stainless steel unit and
then to 1600C in a tantalum unit to avoid high temperature HNO 3 corrosion. The molten
ammonium nitrate and water vapour at 200 0C are passed through the tangential entry of a
cyclone separator where air aids in removal of steam from the molten salt. The latter is
removed at the bottom and solidified on a water–cooled stainless steel belt. The solids are
crushed, ground to flake size and screened. Oversize is reground and returned to nitric acid
preheater stream. The prouct flakes are coated with clay and bagged and transported.
5. Write the characteristics, and specifications of Ammonium nitrate.
Ammonium Nitrate is an important nitrogenous fertilizer because of its high nitrogen content
(33%), the simplicity and cheapness of its manufacture, and its valuable combination of quick
acting nitrate and the slower-acting ammoniacal nitrogen. Its acceptability was low initially
because of its tendency to cake. However proper granulation, addition of antihygroscopic
agents, and better packaging methodology, have overcome this aspect to a great extent. Most
commercial and many military explosives contain cheap ammonium nitrate as the major
explosive ingredient. It is difficult to detonate, but, when sensitized with oil or mixed with
other explosive materials, it can be detonated with a large booster-primer. Ammonium nitrate
mixtures are considered “permissibles” – permitted for use in coal mines where combustible
vapour may be encountered.
6. Explain with a neat flow sheet the manufacture of prills of urea from CO2 and
Ammonia.
UREA
 Urea is the most convenient form for fixed Nitrogen

 It has highest nitrogen content (46%) available in a solid fertilizer
 Easy to produce as prills or granules and easily transported in bulk / bags with no
explosive hazard
 Dissolves readily in water, leaves no residue and can often be used for foliar feeding.

 In addition to fertilizer use, it is used as a protein food supplement for ruminants , in

melamine production, an ingredient in the manufacture of resins, plastics, adhesives,
coatings, textile anti-shrink agents and ion exchange resins.
 an intermediate in the manufacture of ammonium sulfamate, Sulfanic acid &
phthalocyanines
Reactions:
0
CO + 2 NH3 14 MPa ; 180C NH2COONH4, H = – 155 Mj/ Kg mol.
→
(exothermic) (ammonium carbamate)
NH2COONH4  NH2CONH2 + H2O H = + 42 Mj/ Kg mol.
(endothermic decomposition)
Both are equilibrium reactions.
Undesirable side reaction:
2 NH2CONH2  NH2.CO. NH.CO.NH2.H2O + NH3
(UREA) (BIURET)
Raw materials: The principal raw materials are CO2 from synthesis gas manufacture and NH3.

Process Description: (Montecatini solution recycle)
 Ammonia and CO2 are compressed separately and added to the high pressure autoclave
which must be water cooled due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction. The
average residence time in the autoclave, which is operated on a continuous basis, is 1.5 – 2
hours. A mixture of Urea, ammonium carbamate, H2O, and un-reacted NH3 + CO2 results.
 This liquid effluent is let down to 27 atms. And fed to a special flash evaporator containing
a gas – liquid separator and condensor. Un-reacted NH 3, CO2, and H2O as a solution are
thus removed and recycled(partial recycle operation).
 An aqueous solution of Carbamate-Urea is passed to the atmospheric flash drum where
further decomposition of carbamate takes place. The off gases from this step are can be
either recycled (total recycle option) or sent to NH 3 processes for making chemical
fertilizer.
 The 80% aqueous urea solution can be used as it is, or sent to a vacuum evaporator to
obtain molten urea containing less than 1% water.
 The molten mass is sprayed then into a prilling or granular solidification tower. In this
phase of the operation the temperature must be kept just above the melting point for
processing times of 1-2 seconds in order to avoid the formation of Biuret through the
undesirable reaction mentioned above.
7. Why will you keep the biuret formation low in the process for urea?
Presence of biuret in excess in urea will lead to poisoning of the plants being
phytotoxic when placed very near the plant. To avoid formation of Biuret in percentages >1%,
the temperature must be kept just above the melting point for processing times of 1 – 2 seconds
in the granu;lation or prilling phase of the operation.
*****************************************************************
PART – A CHAPTER- 2 NITROGENOUS FERTILIZERS
1. What is a Fertilizer? What is the need for fertilizers? (May/June 2009)

A fertilizer may be defined as an extraneous material provided for the cultivable land in
order to supplement the nutrition the crops and trees etc. can draw from the land. Plants
need sun, water and nutrients to grow. The nutrients can be taken from air or soil. If there is
an ample supply of nutrients in the soil, crops are more likely to grow well and produce
high yields. If even one of the nutrients needed is in short supply, plant growth is limited
and crop yields are reduced. Fertilizers are needed to obtain high yields because they
supply crops with the nutrients the soil lacks. By adding fertilizers, crop yields can often be
doubled or even tripled. Fertilizers contribute to efficient use of land and water. Fertilizers
ensure the most effective use of both land and water. Where rainfall is low or crops are
irrigated, the yield per unit of water used may be more than doubled and the rooting depth
of the crop increased through fertilizer application.
2. What are the various processes by which Ammonia is synthesized? (April 2014)

Claude process, Haber’s process

3. What are the factors that affect the cost of ammonia production?(April 2014)
Factors that increase cost include:
high pressures (they increase the cost of the equipment)
high temperatures (they increase the energy costs).
For any given temperature the yield of ammonia increases as the pressure increases.
4. What are the chief requisites of a fertilizer? State them. (April/May2011),
(May/June 2013)
The chief requisites of a good artificial fertilizer are:
 It must contain at least one substance fit for plant food, and this substance must be
easily convertible, by the action of rain and moisture, to such a form that plants can
assimilate it.
 It must be dry and finely powdered, so that it may be evenly distributed over the
surface of the ground.
 It must be cheap.
 A complete fertilizer should supply the three essentials, potassium, nitrogen and
phosphorus. But the majority of artificial fertilizers afford only one or two of these
elements, and are usually sold for certain crops, or for use on particular kinds of
soil.
5. What is natural gas? Give its composition. (April/May2010)
It is a flammable gas, consisting largely of methane and other hydrocarbons, occurring
naturally underground (often in association with petroleum) and used as fuel.
Natural gas contains – 95% Methane (CH4) and four other hydrocarbons: Ethane (C2H6) -
2.5%, Propane (C3H8) - 0.2%, Butane (C4H10) - 0.06%, Pentane (C5H12 + C10H22) – 0.02%.
It also contains small amounts of: Nitrogen (N 2) - 1.6%, Carbon Dioxide (CO2) - 0.7%,
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) - trace, Water (H2O) – Trace.
6. What is coke-oven gas? How it is obtained? Give its composition. (May/June 2009)
Coke-oven gas is a fuel gas having a medium calorific value that is produced during the
manufacture of metallurgical coke by heating bituminous coal to temperatures of 900°C to
1000°C in a chamber from which air is excluded. The main constituents are, by volume,
about 50% hydrogen, 30% methane and 3% higher hydrocarbons, 7% carbon monoxide,
3% carbon dioxide and 7% nitrogen. The gas has a heating value of about 20,000 kJ/m3.
7. What is fuel oil? Give its composition. (May/June 2009)
Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleumdistillation, either as a distillate or a residue.
Broadly speaking fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or
boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except
oils having a flash point of approximately 40 °C (104 °F) and oils burned in cotton or
wool-wick burners. All fuel oils consist of complex mixtures of aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons. The aliphatic alkanes (paraffins) and cycloalkanes (naphthenes) are
hydrogen saturated and compose approximately 80-90% of the fuel oils. Aromatics (e.g.,
benzene) and olefins (e.g., styrene and indene) compose 10-20% and l%, respectively, of
the fuel oils.
Oxides of Al, Zn, Si and K are the promoters for Iron oxide.
9. State the function of nitrogen in nitrogenous fertilizer. (Nov/Dec 2011)
These are fertilizers that contain nitrogen. Common examples are nitrates, like
Ammonium Nitrate, Potassium nitrate, and Urea. Nitrogen is useful to plants to produce
cellulose and chlorophyll and they grow very vigorously when given nitrogen rich
fertilizers.
10. How is ammonium sulphate nitrate obtained? (Nov/Dec 2011)

Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate is a nitrogen fertilizer, formed by a mixture of ammonium

sulphate and ammonium nitrate. It contains 26 % N and 13 % S.
11. Mention the characteristics of ammonium sulphate nitrate. (May/June 2013)
Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate has a form of 2 - 5 mm large whitish till light yellow color
granules; the fertilizer has excellent physico-mechanical properties and properties for
storage. The granulation of this fertilizer ensures a quick and exact dosing. Because ASN
contains high ammonium nitrogen content it furthermore guarantees long-term and
sustainable nitrogen supply, and prevents the nitrogen from being washed out of the soil. In
addition, ASN supports the availability of secondary nutrients like manganese, iron, and
boron in the soil.
12. Distinguish between direct and indirect fertilizers. (April/May2010), (Nov/Dec
2011)
Direct Fertilizers
A material that can serve the purpose of providing nutrition to plants, trees and crops by
easily getting assimilated by the land, can be termed as direct fertilizer.
Indirect Fertilizers
Fertilizers used to change the reaction of the soil solution, to improve the physical
properties of the soil, and to activate its useful microflora. Among the indirect fertilizers
are lime fertilizers of all types (limestones, calcareous tuff, chalk, marl), which eliminate
excess soil acidity; gypsum, an agent for chemical improvement of solonets soils; sulfur
fertilizers, which reduce soil alkalinity; and sodium fertilizers, which create soil potassium
by using sodium to force it out of the absorbing complex of the soil into solution.
13. What is organic Manure?
Organic waste matter- food waste, deceased animal parts, animal excreta etc. can be
composed together with mud and slime to form a good natural fertilizer material for crops.
Such material is called organic manure. Before the invention of chemical Fertilizers
farmers in our country were dependent on organic manure only.
14. What is a chemical Fertilizer?
A chemical material that can serve the purpose of providing nutrition to plants, trees and
crops by easily getting assimilated by the land, can be termed to be a chemical fertilizer.
15. What are the different types of Chemical Fertilizers?
Based on the classification of the Chemical content the different types of chemical
fertilizers can be named as follows: Nitrogenous Fertilizers, Phosphatic fertilizers, Potassic
Fertilizers, Complex Fertilizers, NPK Fertilizers etc.
16. Name the two huge fertilizer Units in our country.
Nangal Fertilizers, Sindri and Rashtreeya Chemicals & Fertilizers, Chembur, Bombay can
be named as two large sized Fertilizer industries in the country.
17. Name two large fertilizer industries in Tamil Nadu.
Madras Fertilizers Ltd., and E.I.D. Parry Ltd.
18. Energy visa-vis Fertilizer industry. Write in four sentences.
Any Chemical Industry is energy based and more so a Fertilizer Industry. Nitrogen being
the primary nutrient, most Fertilizer industries need to manufacture Ammonia which
involves usage of enormous amount of energy for the separation of Air and for the
separation of the Steam reforming process gases for the generation of Hydrogen. Therefore
Energy economy plays a very important part in any Fertilizer Industry.
19. What are the major materials of consumption in a fertilizer industry?
Taking a Urea manufacturing plant as example one can state the materials of Consumption
in such Fertilizer Industry as follows: Raw Materials are such as Naphtha or Light fuel oil
or Coal. The Utilities are Water both for Process as well as cooling purposes. Steam for
Process as well as heating purposes and Electrical Energy for running the various

equipment. The consumption Chemicals can be mentioned in respect of Mono-, Di- and
Tri- Ethanolamines required in the CO2 separation section.
20. Water conservation in Fertilizer industry – write a few points of importance.
Enormous amounts of water is required in a Fertilizer plant, both for process and cooling
purposes. In addition to these, water is also required for potable and other human facilities.
Process water is certainly a consumable item. Water, used for cooling and in respect of the
portion of steam for heating purposes can always be recycled by using equipments like
Cooling Tower and Reverse Osmosis facilitating conservation of water.
21. What is the nature of ammonia synthesis reaction?
Ammonia synthesis reaction is an exothermic reaction.
Oxides of Al, Zn, Si and k are the promoters of Iron oxide as ammonia synthesis catalysts.
23. What is the hydrogen content of coke oven gas?
Hydrogen content of coke oven gas is 55%.
24. Which catalyst is used in the steam naphtha reforming?
Nickel (14-16%) on Calcium aluminate with possible promoters such as Potassium
hydroxide is the catalyst used in steam reforming of naphtha.
25. What are the Temperature and Pressure conditions in Ammonia converter?
100-1000 atmospheres pressure and 500-5500C Temperature
26. In the production of which gas Naphtha is a source in a fertilizer plant?
Hydrogen gas
27. What is the concentration of the Nitric acid produced by the oxidation of
Ammonia and absorption of Nitrogen Oxides with water?
The concentration of Nitric Acid produced by the oxidation of ammonia and absorption on
nitrogen oxides with water is 57-60%
28. At what temperature is the equilibrium favoured in the oxidation of NO to NO2 ,
which is a slow reaction?
40-500C is the temperature at which the equilibrium is favoured in the oxidation of NO to
NO2 and it is a slow reaction.
29. Which is the Catalyst used in de sulphurisation of naphtha?
The naphtha together with some recycled synthesis gas from the later process is passed
over o hydro-treater, which is a catalyst consisting of one or a mixture of Cobalt
Molybdate, cobalt-nickel and cobalt-nickel-alumina for desulphurisation by hydrogenation
of the organic sulphur compounds.
30. What is the reaction temperature range that must be maintained in the steam -
naphtha reforming process?
The reaction temperature range that must be maintained in the steam-naphtha reforming
process is 700-10000C
31. Due to the presence of which material Nitric acid is generally light yellow in
colour?
Nitric acid is light yellow in colour due to the presence of nitrogen dioxide.
32. What are the raw materials for the manufacture of Nitric Acid?
Ammonia and air are the raw materials for the manufacture of Nitric Acid.
33. Which is the catalyst used in the manufacture of nitric acid by Ammonia
Oxidation process?
Platinum-Rhodium alloy in the form of 60-80 mesh wire gage is the catalyst used in the
manufacture of Nitric acid by the oxidation of ammonia.
34. What is Fuming Nitric acid?

Nitric acid having > 86% concentration is called fuming nitric acid and it is called Red
fuming nitric acid if the concentration is >95% with 10-15% excess dissolved oxides of
Nitrogen.
35. Which process is used for the manufacture of Ammonia gas from coal?
TVA ammonia process is used for the manufacture of ammonia gas from coal or coke.
36. Though liquid Ammonia itself is a fertilizer yet it is not commonly used in a
tropical country like India. Why?
In a tropical country like India the temperatures are high and the soil will not retain the
Ammonia long enough for the plants to absorb the nitrogen from Ammonia. Also
transportation of anhydrous ammonia to the usage points by pipe lines will also involve
complications.
37. Why is purge off essential In an Ammonia plant?
The Ammonia synthesis gases contain some quantities of inert gases like methane, Argon
and Helium bequeathed from the air liquefaction process. The NH 3 content in the outlet
gases from the converter is about 12-14% there will be recycling of the unconverted gases
thereby causing increase in the percentage of these inert gases with each recycle. Hence
Purge off is essential in the Ammonia manufacturing process.
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********
PART – B CHAPTER- 2 NITROGENOUS FERTILIZERS
1. Explain in detail the procedure for the beneficiation of Phosphate Rock.
The rocks may contain 75% of bone phosphate of lime having a soft structure with a moisture
content of 4.6%. (BPL: Bone Phosphate of Lime).
Pebble
Pebble
product
product
Washer no.1 Washer No. 2
Desliming Slime Waste Desliming

hydrocyclones hydrocyclones
Sandwich Screens Stationary Screen sizing

+16
O’ size U’ size –16

–24 –35
Dewatering & Dewatering & Dewatering &
Spiral Separation Coarse Filtration Fine Filtration
Tail Tail Conc
Conc
Tail
Scavenger Stationary & Dewatering &

Filtration Sandwich Acid Scrub
Tail Conc O’size U’size

Washing
Dewatering &
Spiral Concentrate
Product
Amine Filtration
Tail Conc
Filtration
Concentration
Product Product
General Mill Tailing

Waste
FLORIDA PHOSPHATE ROCK BENEFICIATION FLOWSHEET
BENEFICIATION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK

The coarse phosphate rock is recovered which had a high content of BPL. A Froth
Floatation process was developed to increase the BPL content of fines as described by the
Beneficiation process detailed in the chart above. Beneficiation results in a higher grade of
product and also allows larger amounts to be recovered, beneficiated and used.
The matrix of the phosphate rock deposits is obtained at the beneficiation plant as a
slurry, washed to remove clay and fine particles. The +16 mesh pebble is drained and sent to
storage bins as a marketable product. The –16 mesh pebble is deslimed in hydrocyclones to
remove –150 mesh material.
The –16 to –150 mesh feed is sized on inclined stationary screens, the –16 to –24 mesh
is treated, as described in the chart, to produce spiral concentrated product. (Humphrey Spirals)
The froth floatation circuit is separated into fine and coarse floats at 35 mesh because
this allows for greater recovery of coarser fractions. Floatation reagents such as saponified
fatty acids (soap skimmings) are added. The coarse concentrates are further treated with
another floatation step using an amine floatation agent. The final concentrate has a72 to 78%
BPL range. The waste contains small % of phosphorous ore running to tailing area.
The slime wastes from the desliming hydrocyclones occupy 32 times the initial volume
of the rock because of process water added to separate matrix from slime. This volume of
waste material and tailings are impounded in earthern dams which act as holding tanks to
dewater the waste, as reservoirs to minimize water discharge from mining area and to capture
& hold dam water (store-clay).
2. What is the general chemical formula of Phosphate rock? Name the different types of
Phosphate rock found in nature.
Specifications of phosphate rock:
The phosphate rock is usually graded based on the BPL: Bare Phosphate of Lime. The
different grades are a) Below 60% BPL; 60-66% BPL; 66-70% BPL; 70-72% BPL; 72-74%
BPL; Plus 74% BPL.
4 [FOUR] TYPES OF Phosphate rock are found in nature: 1. Nodular, 2. Blue, 3. White & 4.
Brown
The rocks may contain 75% of bone phosphate of lime having a soft structure with a moisture
content of 4.6%. (BPL: Bone Phosphate of Lime)
3. Name the sources of Sulphur. Explain any two methods of recovery of Sulphur.
Methods of Sulphur production:
Elemental Sulphur ores were mined manually before the development of the Frasch process.
Frasch process has rendered the manual mining impossibly expensive. Another source of
Sulphur is the sulphur bearing ores[ from volcanic and similar deposits]. Without upgrading

these ores can be roasted (burned) to make sulphur dioxide gas which is used to produce
Sulphuric acid and for other purposes.
Frasch process for mining of Sulphur
Raw materials: Sulphur deposits in Salt Domes, & Large supply of hot water.
PROCESS: Wells are drilled into Sulphur bearing domes and treated hot water is pumped into
these deposits to melt Sulphur. Water moves upwards and outwards to bleeder wells on outer
periphery where it is aerated and discharged. Molten sulphur sinks to bottom of casing and is
jet pumped with compressed air to sump-separation units and shipment or storage.
Major Engineering Problems: (a) Heat transfer in melting and shipping operations, (b) finding
suitable sources of treated water and (c) Corrosion.
Production of Sulphur by Oxidation – reduction of H2S.
Raw materials: H2S from natural (sour) gas and petroleum refinery streams [recovered by
scrubbing with ethanol amines and high-temperature stripping]
Process description: Refer to the flow chart below.
H2S is burned with air as per the reaction:
2 H2S + 3O2 2 SO2 + 2 H2O; H0= – 247.89 K cal
The produced SO2 oxidizes H2S further by the reaction:
4 H2S + 2 SO2 Al→

2 O 3 S6 (g)+ 4H2O; H0= – 42.24 K cal
These reactions occur in a 2-stage Bauxite Catalytic reactor (converter) provided with inter
cooling and condensing. Final waste gas is scrubbed with molten Sulphur.
4. With a flow diagram explain the production of triple superphosphate.
Triple Superphosphate:
Chemical Reaction: [Ca3(PO4)2]3 CaF2 + 14 H3PO4  10 CaH4(PO4)2 + 2HF
Phosphate rock Triplesuperphosphate
Process description:
 A process similar to that for Superphosphate production is used.

 The acid at 60–700C is mixed with ground rock in a conti8nuous mixer and passed to a
continuous belt where reaction is completed in 15–20 minutes.
 The product is granulated, dried and bagged.
 Where a complete fertilizer is desired, excess phosphoric acid is used and neutralized with
Ammonia. Potassium slats are also added.
5. Discuss the manufacture of Sulphuric acid by contact process with a neat flow sheet.
H2SO4 BY CONTACT PROCESS
Raw materials: SO2 obtained from the following sources: Sulphur (burning), Pickle liquors
(FeSO4 refinery sludge reuse) Pyrites, Smelter gases(non ferrous sulphide ores)
Process Description: Air - SO2 gas containing 7–10% SO2, 11–14% O2 is preheated by
converter gas and sent to I stage reactors of steel construction. The below reaction occurs at the
Sulphur burning stage:
S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2 H = – 70.9 Kcal
The first stage is high temperature (500–600 0C) stage, contains 30% of total catalyst
and converts about 80% of SO2.Then the converter product is cooled by heat exchange at
3000C [steam generation] and fed to the second stage where total yield is increased to 97% by
operating at 400–4500C for favourable equilibrium. For the reaction:
SO2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) V 2 O5 Catalyst
⇔
SO3 (g) H = – 23.0 Kcal
High yield product gases are cooled to 150 0C by water and air in heat exchangers and
absorbed in Oleum fed at a rate not to allow the acid strength rise beyond 1%. Final scrubbing

is done with a lower strength (97%) acid. Oleum concentrations up to 40% can be made by
tower absorption. Higher strength Oleum up to 65% is prepared by distilling 20% Oleum.
Active catalytic agent: V2O5 (Most widely used) (Earlier Pt catalyst used but gets poisoned
easily)
Promoters: Alkali / metallic compounds in trace amounts to enhance activity of catalyst.
Characteristics of Catalyst:
1. Porous carrier to provide large surface area.
2. Pore size controlled &
3. Resistance to process gases at high temperature
Major Engineering Problems:
1. Design of multistage Catalytic converter for exothermic reaction
2. Optimization of space velocity in catalyst chambers
3. Corrosion problems
4. Adoption of process to various types of gas feeds
5. As a result of the problems 1 and 2 above, thin catalyst beds prevail. (30–50 cm height).
Yield might drop due to longitudinal mixing if the convective gas velocity through the bed is
too low.
6. Removal of heat of absorption of SO3 in acid. Pumping costs and fixed costs.
Advantages and disadvantages of Vanadium Pentoxide catalyst
Advantages Disadvantages
 Immune to poisons  Must use only dilute SO2 input(7-10%)

 Low initial investment  Larger converters and higher initial investments are
necessary
 Less quantity of catalyst is
needed

6. Give a brief account of various sources of phosphorus and sulphur.

Sulfuric acid may be produced from elemental sulfur, pyrites (sulfides of iron), hydrogen
sulfide
as contained in sour gas and petroleum, waste gases from the burning of fuel and smelting
operations such as pyrites of copper, iron, zinc and lead. Explain the different sources
briefly.
Phosphorous in its elemental form is derived from commercial deposits of phosphate rock, in
mineral form fluorapatite [Ca10(PO4)6 F2] or CaF2.3Ca3(PO4)2
7. Discuss with a neat flow sheet the production of Phosphoric acid from rock phosphate
by wet process using Sulphuric Acid.
Methods of manufacture of phosphoric acid:
Wet Process – H2SO4 leaching process & HCl leaching process
Manufacture of Phosphoric acid by wet process using H2SO4
Raw Materials: High grade phosphate rock and H2SO4

Chemical Reactions:
(a) Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 H2SO4 + 6 H2O  2H3PO4 + 3(CaSO4.2H2O)
Gypsum
(b) Side reactions
CaF2 + H2SO4 +2H2O  2HF + CaSO4.2H2O

6HF + SiO2  H2SiF6 + 2H2O
Process details: Phosphate rock is ground to 65% –200 mesh and fed to a chute where a
recycle stream of weak H3PO4 washes it into a reaction tank. Strong H 2SO4 is metered with
automatic control which keeps the acid and rock feed ratio at the desired setting.
Reactor is designed by proper baffling and residence time capacitance to get 98%
conversion in 4-6 hours.
Gypsum-H3PO4 slurry goes to a travelling pan vacuum filter where the 40% acid is
removed and the cake washed with water.
Filtrate from the latter is returned to the reactor. Gypsum is free-filtering and cake
thicknesses of 5cm can readily be obtained. The gypsum can be dried for use in plaster, paints
and cements or reacted with ammonium carbonates to give Ammonium Sulphate and
Calcium Carbonate.
The dilute acid is concentrated in a single effect evaporator to any grade >50% acid.
Pyro phosphoric acid (H4P2O7)can be made by heating the ortho phosphoric acid to 250 0C and
to get meta acid ( HPO3) by raising the temperature to red heat (~9000C)
Engineering Problems:
Grinding options, Control of Temperature and control of Sulphuric acid.
Part – A CHAPTER – 3 PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS

1. Give the composition of a) Chile saltpotre b)Rock phosphate (April/May2011)

a) Chile saltpotre: Sodium nitrate is the chemical compound with the formula
NaNO3. This salt is also known as Chile saltpeter or Peru saltpeter (due to the large
deposits found in each country) to distinguish it from ordinary saltpeter, potassium
nitrate. The mineral form is also known as nitratine, nitratite or soda niter.Sodium
nitrate is a white solid which is very soluble in water. It is a readily available source
of the nitrate anion (NO3−), which is useful in several reactions carried out on
industrial scales for the production of fertilizers, pyrotechnics and smoke bombs,
glass and pottery enamels, food preservatives, and solid rocket propellant. It has
been mined extensively for these purposes.
b) Rock phosphate :
Total Phosphate - 32.0 - 35.0%
Calcium Oxide - 48.0 - 52.0%
Moisture - 1.5% Max
Silica - 2.5 - 5.0%
Fluoride - 4.0% Max
Sulfate - 0.7 - 1.9%
Iron -1.0% Max
Aluminium - 2.0% Max
Soluble Chloride - 0.05% Max
Potassium Oxide - 0.3% Max
Magnesium Oxide - 0.5% Max
2. What is phosphate rock? (April/May2010), (May/June 2009), (May/June 2012),
(May/June 2013) (April 2014)
Phosphorite,phosphate rock or rock phosphate is a non-detrital sedimentary rock which
contains high amounts of phosphate bearing minerals. The phosphate content of
phosphorite is at least 15 to 20%, which is a large enrichment over the typical sedimentary
rock content of less than 0.2%
3. Give the composition of rock phosphate. (Nov/Dec 2011) (April 2014)
Total Phosphate - 32.0 - 35.0%
Calcium Oxide - 48.0 - 52.0%
Moisture - 1.5% Max
Silica - 2.5 - 5.0%
Fluoride - 4.0% Max
Sulfate - 0.7 - 1.9%
Iron -1.0% Max
Aluminium - 2.0% Max
Soluble Chloride - 0.05% Max
Potassium Oxide - 0.3% Max
Magnesium Oxide - 0.5% Max
4. Mention the product and byproduct obtained from phosphate rock?(April 2014)
Single super phosphate,Triple Super Phosphate,Mono ammonium phosphate
5. What are thermal phosphates? (Nov/Dec 2011), (May/June 2012)
Phosphate rocks contain 1-4% fluorine which forms stable fluorapatite. In order to produce
soluble phosphates by thermal processes, fluorine in the phosphate rock must be
substantially removed or converted to other forms so that fluorapatite is decomposed.
Thermal phosphates may be divided into fused or calcined phosphates. Both are insoluble
in water and soluble in weak acids
6. What is meant by phosphate fixation? (May/June 2012) (April 2014)

Phosphate fixation is a process by which ionic forms of phosphorus are made unavailable
to plants by precipitation with Fe, Al and Mn (case in acidic soils) or by Ca compounds (in
alkaline soils). At intermediate pH, phosphates tend to bound with clay minerals.
7. What are pyrites? Mention its composition. (April/May2010)
A shiny yellow mineral consisting of iron disulphide and typically occurring as intersecting
cubic crystals. Iron: 46.55 % Fe; Sulfur:53.45 % S
8. What are a) Pyrites b) Copper pyrites? (April/May2011)
a) A shiny yellow mineral consisting of iron disulphide and typically occurring as
intersecting cubic crystals. Iron: 46.55 % Fe; Sulfur:53.45 % S
b) A yellow copper ore (CuFeS2) made up of copper and iron sulfide
9. Give the chemical composition of a) Galena. b)Pyrites. (May/June 2013)
a.Galena - Lead-86.60 % Pb, Sulfur-13.40 % S
b. Pyrites - Iron: 46.55 % Fe; Sulfur:53.45 % S
10. What is bone-meal? Give it composition. (Nov/Dec 2011)
Bone meal is a mixture of finely and coarsely ground animal bones and slaughter-house
waste products. It is used as an organic fertilizer for plants and as a nutritional supplement
for animals. As a slow-release fertilizer, bone meal is primarily used as a source of
phosphorus. Finely ground bone meal may provide a quicker release of nutrients than the
coarser ground version of bone meal.
11. What is the mixture from which Phosphorus is manufactured in electric furnace?
Rock phosphate, coke and Silica is the mixture from which Phosphorus is manufactured in
electric furnace.
12. What does Rock phosphate contain mainly?
Rock Phosphate mainly contains Calcium Phosphate[Ca3(PO4)2]and Calcium
fluoride[CaF2]in minor quantities.(fluoropatite)
13. How triple super phosphate is made?
Triple superphosphate is made by reacting phosphate rock with Phosphoric Acid.
14. In what percentage range lies the P2O5 content in superphosphate?
16- 20% is the percentage range in which lies the P2O5 content in superphosphate.
15. Define Sylvinite
Sylvinite is a natural mixture of Potassium chloride and Sodium chloride.
16. Explain the reaction of sodium tripolyphosphate.
Sodium tripolyphosphate is made by reacting Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash) with Ortho
phosphoric acid as per the reaction
5Na2CO3 + 6H3PO4 2 Na5P3O10 + 9H20 + 5CO2
17. Which type of fertilizer is Ammonium Phosphate?
Ammonium Phosphate is a complex type of fertilizer.
18. In wet process for the manufacture of phosphoric acid what are the raw materials?
Phosphate rock and Sulphuric acid are the raw materials in the wet process for the
manufacture of Phosphoric acid.
19. How ammonium phosphate is made?
Ammonium Phosphate is made by reacting anhydrous liquid ammonia with phosphoric
acid.
20. Which fertilizers are less likely to cake?
Granulated and Pellitized fertilizers are less likely to cake.
21. Which is the most important and almost ideal nitrogen fertilizer? Why?
Ammonium Nitrate is the most important and almost ideal nitrogen fertilizer. It has highest
nitrogen content and has very effective action on the soil.
22. What is the formula for Carnalite?
The chemical formula for carnmallite is KCl.MgCl2.6H2O.
23. What type of nutrients are Calcium and magnesium compounds in a fertilizer?
Calcium and magnesium compounds in a Fetilizer are called secondary nutrients.
*****************************************************************

Part – B CHAPTER – 3 PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS
1. Enunciate in detail the methods of manufacture of Potassium Chloride.
Mining: Potassium bearing minerals are mined from underground ore deposits, salt lakes and
brines. The most abundant mineral in commercial deposits is Sylvite (KCl). Sylvite and Halite
(NaCl) form the common ore called Sylvinite. In brines, Carallite (KCl . MgCl 2 . 6H2O) is
present with Halite.
Two methods are used to recover K from underground ore bodies. (1) Conventional shaft
mining and (2) Solution mining. Most mines are serviced by vertical shafts about 5 m in dia
and 900 to 1100 m deep. The deposits are mined by electrically operated machines and
conveyed to the surface where it is crushed and processed. The flow sheet above describes the
method of mined ore processing for obtaining KCl.
Solution mining is used when the ore body is too deep for economical mining by conventional
methods. It comprises of drilling into the ore bode 1500 m deep, by injecting water and and
recycled spent water streams to dissolve the salts. The resultant brine is pumped to the surface
and treated in evaporators to recover the NaCl and increase the KCl concentration to the
saturation point. The saturated brine is then treated by crystallization process to recover the K.
Potassium chloride and other salts are produced from naturally occurring beines (such as salt
lake in US; Dead sea in Israel and Jordan) The process in the dead sea case consists in charging
evaporation pans with brine from the sea. Natural evaporation concentrates the solution and
most of the NaCl is precipitated. The concentrated brine is then pumped into a second series of
open pans, where carnallite settles naturally to the bottom. Special harvesters dredge the ponds
and pump the carnallite directly to the refineries, where flotation and crystallization methods
are used to recover the potash.

2. Discuss characteristics and specifications of Potassium chloride.
Potassium chloride accounts for most of the K used in world agriculture. It represents 96% of
the world’s potash capacity, the balance 4% is Potassium Sulphate (K 2SO4), potassium nitrate
(KNO3) and potassium-magnesium salts. The K content of KCl fertilizer is expressed on the
basis of its oxide equivalent (K 2O). commercial KCl fertilizers contain between 60-62% K 2O –
the largest content of all potassic fertilizers.
Like many salts, potassium chloride has a crystalline structure, in this case what's known as
"face-centered cubic." This means that the mineral cleaves easily, or sheers across the lattice
formation in three different directions when tapped.
Pharmacological Effects
Potassium chloride has several effects in the body. For instance, according to the IPCS,
potassium chloride is an essential element, 98 percent of which is concentrated in virtually
every cell in the body. In fact, this substance initiates a variety of enzymatic reactions and is
involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates. Potassium chloride also plays a role in muscle
movement and nerve conduction. According to the drug information database from Drugs.com,
potassium itself is necessary for your heart to function normally. Potassium deficiency, a
condition known as hypokalemia, is treated with potassium chloride therapy.
3. Write in detail all the particulars about Potassium Schoenite such as composition,
methods of preparation, characteristics and specifications.
 Mixed Salt is the basic raw material for production of Potassium Schoenite or Potassium
Chloride and Sodium Sulphate. Mixed salt is obtained by solar evaporation of 29.5 o Be'
bittern. The mother liquor after evaporation contains Magnesium Chloride, Potassium and
Sodium Chloride along with Magnesium Sulphate.

 in one process, 29o Be' bittern is mixed with 38.5o Be' bittern in such a ratio as to raise the
Magnesium Chloride concentration to correspond with Carnallite point. Any further
evaporation of the mixed bittern separates Potassium Chloride in bittern as Carnallite.
 In another process, 36o Be' bittern is heated to above 100o C and its equilibrium gets
changed and it becomes unsaturated with respect to Potassium Chloride. This unsaturation
is satisfied by mixing it with calculated amount of mixed salt so that Potassium Sulphate is
dissolved and Magnesium Sulphate is converted into its insoluble form Kieserite. After
removal of insoluble solids, hot slurry is cooled to room temperature and Potassium is
crystallised as Carnallite. In Semi- commercial trials at Kandia, the technology was found
to be capital and energy intensive. The technology has been modified to Continuous
Extraction technique.
 For extraction of Potassium chloride from Carnallite, it is stirred with a calculated quantity
of water at room temperature. Magnesium Chloride dissolves while impure Potassium
chloride with 40% Sodium Chloride is separated by Centrifuging. Potassium Chloride is
separated by heating impure Potassium chloride with saturated KCL- NACLI solution and
heated to 110o C, when Potassium Chloride dissolves while Sodium Chloride is. left as
solid residue. The slurry is filtered and allowed to cool to room temperature when pure
crystallised Potassium Chloride is separated by centrifuging, dried and packed.
 Potassium Chloride is separated by flotation to the extent of 58-70% from mixed salt. It has
a purity of 96 to 97%. CSMCRI has tried out Potassium Chloride recovery technique in a
pilot plant of batch size 10 and 25 kg./ batch. Product quality meets requirement of IS
2779.
 Potassium Schoenite, a double salt of Potassium and Magnesium Sulphate is prepared by
separating Kainite from Mixed salt by flotation technique and converting it to Potassium
Schoenite in presence of water. CSMCRI had fabricated a complete plant for recovery of
Potassium Schoenite and supplied to Burma and commissioned in May, 1981. The end
product quality confirms to IS 6661.
 Potassium Sulphate is prepared from Mixed salt in three stages. Kainite is obtained by
flotation and the floated mixture is treated with water at room temperature to obtain
Potassium Schoenite. It is reacted with excess Potassium Chloride to obtain Potassium
Sulphate. Recovery is 70-75% with a purity of 95% Potassium Sulphate.
 CSMCRI has developed a process to prepare high purity Potassium Nitrate 99.5% pure
with 90-92% yield utilising Potassium Sulphate, limestone and Nitric Acid as raw
materials. The technique has been patented. End product confirms to IS 301 Grade 1 & 2.
 Regional Research laboratory has work on a process similar to CSMCRI but has tried it at
laboratory scale only. Envisaged minimum economic size of plant is 20 tonne per annum.
Plant & equipment based on this process is available indigenously.
 86.7% of the respondents are aware that Potassium bearing salts can be recovered from
bittern. Still none of the Indian Salt producers are presently recovering Potash. Technology
not available is the reason cited by majority of respondents, indicating a poor awareness
about CSMCRI work on Potash recovery from bittern. Cost and investment data for
Potassium Chloride and Potassium Schoenite unit indicate that such units are feasible.
 Market acceptance is not the problem since most of the Fertiliser units have shown their
willingness to use indigenously recovered Potash provided it is competitive in price and
meets the required standard specifications. Indian salt industry has high number of small
Salt producing units, and collection of bittern at a central place for recovery of Potash is
not possible due to wide dispersion of small units. Category 1 units with annual production
of more than 50000 tonne are suitable for min. economic size.
 Natural brine and bittern in Great Rann of Kutch bear good potential for Potash recovery.
Land availability is essential for Solar evaporation of bittern to yield Mixed Salt and

process it for Potash production. Land utilisation in category 1 units of Indian Salt industry
being low, land is available for construction of additional ponds for Potash recovery.
 Higher Magnesium Sulphate content in bittern generated in Indian Salt industries lead to
Kainite type of mixed Salt in place of Carnallite type of mixed salt. Recovery of Potassium
Chloride from Kainite is more energy intensive than that from Carnallite. Units abroad
have the advantage of low sulphate content in the raw material used by them. CSMCRI
technique has been developed considering the high Sulphate content in bittern and is
therefore suited to Indian conditions.
 There are two technology options for recovering Carnallite from bittern Viz. Solar
Evaporation and Hot Extraction. The former requires large tract of land for solar ponds but
lower energy. Hot extraction technique requires heat input of 75000 to 80000 K. Cal. Per
tonne of solution, making it more energy intensive. However, it requires smaller unit area.
Necessary equipment and manpower is easily available in India. However, considering
availability of surplus land with many organised salt units, former method is preferred due
to lower energy and operation cost.
 Similarly, there are two options for recovering Potassium Chloride from Carnallite viz.
Froth Flotation and Hot Crystallisation. Hot Crystallisation has higher yield and purity of
the end product but consumes higher energy. Froth flotation process suffers from lower
yield and purity but consumes less energy. However, due to purity aspects Hot
Crystallisation method is preferred. Potassium Schoenite technique has already been
demonstrated by CSMCRI. Cold crystallisation process being used by Arab Potash and
Dead Sea Works needs to be developed due to its advantage of low energy cost.
 Low quantity of bittern generation in majority of Salt units is one of the constraints
inhibiting Potash recovery in India. Apart from large no. of small units, even units with
large area have poor yield of Salt. Modernisation and mechanisation is essential to improve
the present yield of Salt units. Poor awareness about the type of work done by research
institutes have also led to poor investment in this sector. Another factor affecting adoption
of technology is that research institutes are not geared up to meet the requirement of
providing ready to use technology on turnkey basis with performance guarantee. Last but
not the least is the conservative attitude of the salt industry, which has been continuing
with its old traditional methods and shy of making investments for inducting new
techniques.
 Yet a number of organisations (Appendix B) have shown interest to procure Potash made
indigenously; to recover Potash from bittern if viable technology options are made
available; and to put up units for Potash recovery with technology tie up or joint venture.
 Opportunity exists in Kharaghoda to recover Carnallite type of mixed salt from some area
where Low Magnesium Sulphate brine is available. Similarly, in Great Rann of Kutch,
experiments have proven that natural bittern have potential to yield Potash at Khavda and
Gangtabet.
 Presently Indian salt industry is recovering a very small amount of chemicals from bittern.
Based on evaluation of technologies developed in India, review of technologies being used
abroad, constraints and prospects of recovering Potash form bittern in India, following
recommendations are made:
a) The technique for recovering Potassium Schoenite, a double salt of Potassium Sulphate and
Magnesium Sulphate suited for Fertiliser application, is available with CSMCRI. Dialogue
may be initiated with Fertiliser companies for marketing of this fertiliser that can also
fulfill Magnesium deficiency in soil.
b) A comprehensive program to grow crops using Potassium Schoenite, as fertiliser is
required to be undertaken and its advantages over conventional fertiliser should be
established by Government agencies. Only then avenues for its production by Indian Salt
producers would bear fruit.

c) The technique for recovery of Potash from bittern has been tried out by CSMCRI on pilot
plant basis. Field trials should be carried out in co-ordination with Salt industry to generate
data for its widespread commercialisation.
d) Until sufficient data is generated, Potash recovery alone may not appear to be financially
attractive at present in India. On the other hand simultaneous recovery of High Purity
Magnesium Chemicals, based on CSMCRI technology, would make the overall economics
much more attractive and there is a need to coordinate the activities of Industry and
Fertiliser Ministry.
e) Sub-soil brine in some part of Kharaghoda is found to have low Magnesium Sulphate
content. After extraction of common salt, bittern from such brine can be used to recover
Carnallite type of mixed salt. It is simpler and less energy intensive to recover, Potassium
fertiliser salts from Carnallite than from Kainite. Detailed study for identification of such
areas should be undertaken to assess quantity of sub soil brine that can be utilised for
Potash production, annual yield of such brine etc. Further, field trials should be carried out
for Potash recovery in this area, using solar evaporation technique.
f) The financial viability of Potash recovery unit should be worked out considering
production and marketing of other by-products like Sodium Sulphate, Bromine, which can
also be recovered from the same raw material - bittern.
g) Natural bitterns formed in Great Rann of Kutch, is a more concentrated source of
Potassium Salts. Past studies have shown Gangta Bet and Khavda area to be promising in
this respect. Field trials should be conducted to explore possibility of recovering Potash
from this concentrated brine/ naturally formed bittern. Recovery of other chemicals should
also be examined simultaneously to put up a Marine chemicals complex.
h) For better co-ordination between Salt manufacturing 'units and Research institutes, a joint
committee should be formed having representation of Salt industry, research institutes, and
Salt commissioner's office. Such a committee can meet periodically to facilitate
identification and sponsoring of research projects by the industry, conducting field trials of
technology which are under development/ developed by research institutes and lead to
adoption of developed technology the Industry.
i) The licensing of Salt units as a small-scale industry should be reviewed to encourage larger
area per salt manufacturing unit. To rehabilitate, small salt producers affected by this,
formation of larger co-operative Society of Salt producers should be encouraged.
j) Mechanisation of Salt farms should be encouraged to improve yield in Salt farms. Thus,
even with lower area, larger volume of bittern will be generated, which can be useful for
economic recovery of Potash and other chemicals from bittern. Mechanisation should also
be adopted for Potash recovery production from solar ponds.
k) Recovery of chemicals from bittern would eliminate many harmful chemicals from it.
Disposal of bittern should be regulated to protect marine life and groundwater body, and to
induce recovery of chemicals from bittern.
l) State & Central government should provide suitable incentives by way Tax holidays/
Exemption of Excise or Sales tax to units recovering Potash from Bittern to encourage
industrial units to invest in indigenous development of Potash recovering units.
m) Funds at low rate of interest should be made available to industrialists willing to put up
Potash recovery units using bittern as raw material.
n) Fertilisers are subsidised presently to encourage its usage by farmers to increase
agricultural output. Similar subsidies should be given to units recovering Potassium
fertiliser salts from bittern.
o) Presently, the information about technologies developed, its viability, latest data onits cost
of transfer etc. are not widely circulated amongst Salt manufacturing units. Research
Institutes should explore mechanisms for free flow of information to Salt industrial units,

with the aim of publicising their work resulting in adoption of technologies developed by
them.
p) It is essential that solar energy, which is available in Salt producing areas, be used to the
maximum extent for Potash recovery so that energy cost is minimised. Wherever surplus
land is not available with Salt unit, State government should provide adequate land area for
construction of solar ponds for Potash recovery.
q) Research Institutes should explore possibilities of tying up with Engineering Consultants to
provide a complete package of services and provide technology solutions on turnkey basis
as desired by the industry.
 Implementation of recommendations will lead to following benefits and spin offs:
4. Explain the manufacture of Potassium chloride from Sylvinite ore.

Manufacture of Potassium chloride from Sylvinite Ore:
The process employed by the United States Borax & Chemical Corporation depends
primarily upon the fact that Sodium chloride is less soluble in a hotter than colder saturated
solution of Potassium Chloride. Thus, when a saturated solution of the mixed salts in water is
cooled from its boiling point, Potassium chloride separates out, contaminated only with sodium
chloride that is entrained. The cold mother liquor is heated to 110 0C by the use of heat
exchangers employing exhaust steam. The hot mother liquor is passed through a series of
steam heated turbo mixer dissolvers counter alcina to the flow of ore crushed to – 4 mesh size,
which is moved from dissoler to dissolver by mechanical elevating equipment.
The potassium chloride goes into solution, together with a small amount od sodium
chloride. In this step colloidal and semi colloidal clays present in the ore are suspended in the
potash bearing solution. The enriched mother liquor passes through thickener equipment,
where the insoluble mud settles out. The underflow mud is washed by counter current de-
cantation in a tray thickener, and the unclear saturated overflow solution is pumped to vacuum
cooler and crystallizers. Tailings from this process, largely sodium chloride, after passing
through Bird Centrifuges where adhering potash-bearing brine is removed, are carried away
out of the plant to waste storage. Vacuum in the coolers and crystallizers is maintained by
means of steam ejectors. In these vessels, the solution is cooled to 27 0C, and the potassium
chloride comes out of solution and in suspension, is pumped to settling tanks where a large part
of the liquor is decanted through launders to be used again. The thickened crystal mass is
filtered, washed and dried on Oliver filters. The dried cake is crushed, screened and conveyed
either to a warehouse or to cars.
{ refer to the flow sheet below}

5. Write an account of the characteristics and specifications of Potassium Chloride

and Potassium Schoenite.
Potassium chloride accounts for most of the K used in world agriculture. It represents 96% of
the world’s potash capacity, the balance 4% is Potassium Sulphate (K 2SO4), potassium nitrate
(KNO3) and potassium-magnesium salts. The K content of KCl fertilizer is expressed on the
basis of its oxide equivalent (K 2O). commercial KCl fertilizers contain between 60-62% K 2O –
the largest content of all potassic fertilizers.
Mining: Potassium bearing minerals are mined from underground ore deposits, salt lakes and
brines. The most abundant mineral in commercial deposits is Sylvite (KCl). Sylvite and Halite
(NaCl) form the common ore called Sylvinite. In brines, Carallite (KCl . MgCl 2 . 6H2O) is
present with Halite.
Two methods are used to recover K from underground ore bodies. (1) Conventional shaft
mining and (2) Solution mining. Most mines are serviced by vertical shafts about 5 m in dia
and 900 to 1100 m deep. The deposits are mined by electrically operated machines and
conveyed to the surface where it is crushed and processed. The flow sheet above describes the
method of mined ore processing for obtaining KCl.
 Mixed Salt is the basic raw material for production of Potassium Schoenite or Potassium
Chloride and Sodium Sulphate. Mixed salt is obtained by solar evaporation of 29.5 o Be'
bittern. The mother liquor after evaporation contains Magnesium Chloride, Potassium and
Sodium Chloride along with Magnesium Sulphate.
 in one process, 29o Be' bittern is mixed with 38.5o Be' bittern in such a ratio as to raise the
Magnesium Chloride concentration to correspond with Carnallite point. Any further
evaporation of the mixed bittern separates Potassium Chloride in bittern as Carnallite.
 In another process, 36o Be' bittern is heated to above 100o C and its equilibrium gets
changed and it becomes unsaturated with respect to Potassium Chloride. This unsaturation
is satisfied by mixing it with calculated amount of mixed salt so that Potassium Sulphate is
dissolved and Magnesium Sulphate is converted into its insoluble form Kieserite. After
removal of insoluble solids, hot slurry is cooled to room temperature and Potassium is
crystallised as Carnallite. In Semi- commercial trials at Kandia, the technology was found
to be capital and energy intensive. The technology has been modified to Continuous
Extraction technique.
 For extraction of Potassium chloride from Carnallite, it is stirred with a calculated quantity
of water at room temperature. Magnesium Chloride dissolves while impure Potassium
chloride with 40% Sodium Chloride is separated by Centrifuging. Potassium Chloride is
separated by heating impure Potassium chloride with saturated KCL- NACLI solution and
heated to 110o C, when Potassium Chloride dissolves while Sodium Chloride is. left as
solid residue. The slurry is filtered and allowed to cool to room temperature when pure
crystallised Potassium Chloride is separated by centrifuging, dried and packed.
 Potassium Chloride is separated by flotation to the extent of 58-70% from mixed salt. It has
a purity of 96 to 97%. CSMCRI has tried out Potassium Chloride recovery technique in a
pilot plant of batch size 10 and 25 kg./ batch. Product quality meets requirement of IS
2779.

 Potassium Schoenite, a double salt of Potassium and Magnesium Sulphate is prepared by

separating Kainite from Mixed salt by flotation technique and converting it to Potassium
Schoenite in presence of water. CSMCRI had fabricated a complete plant for recovery of
Potassium Schoenite and supplied to Burma and commissioned in May, 1981. The end
product quality confirms to IS 6661.
 Potassium Sulphate is prepared from Mixed salt in three stages. Kainite is obtained by
 CSMCRI has developed a process to prepare high purity Potassium Nitrate 99.5% pure
with 90-92% yield utilising Potassium Sulphate, limestone and Nitric Acid as raw
materials. The technique has been patented. End product confirms to IS 301 Grade 1 & 2.
 Regional Research laboratory has work on a process similar to CSMCRI but has tried it at
laboratory scale only. Envisaged minimum economic size of plant is 20 tonne per annum.
Plant & equipment based on this process is available indigenously.
 86.7% of the respondents are aware that Potassium bearing salts can be recovered from
bittern. Still none of the Indian Salt producers are presently recovering Potash. Technology
not available is the reason cited by majority of respondents, indicating a poor awareness
about CSMCRI work on Potash recovery from bittern. Cost and investment data for
Potassium Chloride and Potassium Schoenite unit indicate that such units are feasible.
 Market acceptance is not the problem since most of the Fertiliser units have shown their
willingness to use indigenously recovered Potash provided it is competitive in price and
meets the required standard specifications. Indian salt industry has high number of small
Salt producing units, and collection of bittern at a central place for recovery of Potash is
not possible due to wide dispersion of small units. Category 1 units with annual production
of more than 50000 tonne are suitable for min. economic size.
 Natural brine and bittern in Great Rann of Kutch bear good potential for Potash recovery.
Land availability is essential for Solar evaporation of bittern to yield Mixed Salt and
process it for Potash production. Land utilisation in category 1 units of Indian Salt industry
being low, land is available for construction of additional ponds for Potash recovery.
 Higher Magnesium Sulphate content in bittern generated in Indian Salt industries lead to
Kainite type of mixed Salt in place of Carnallite type of mixed salt. Recovery of Potassium
Chloride from Kainite is more energy intensive than that from Carnallite. Units abroad
have the advantage of low sulphate content in the raw material used by them. CSMCRI
technique has been developed considering the high Sulphate content in bittern and is
therefore suited to Indian conditions.
Part – A Unit - IV POTASSIC FERTILIZERS
PART – A
1. What is Muriate of potash? Give its composition. (May/June 2012), (May/June 2013)
(May/June 2014)
The chemical compound potassium chloride (KCl) is a metal halide salt composed of
potassium and chlorine. In its pure state, it is odorless and has a white or colorless vitreous
crystal appearance, with a crystal structure that cleaves easily in three directions. Potassium
chloride crystals are face-centered cubic. Potassium chloride was historically known as
"muriate of potash". This name is occasionally still encountered in association with its use
as a fertilizer. Potash varies in color from pink or red to white depending on the mining and
recovery process used. White potash, sometimes referred to as soluble potash, is usually
higher in analysis and is used primarily for making liquid starter fertilizers. KCl is used in

medicine, scientific applications, and food processing. It occurs naturally as the mineral
sylvite and in combination with sodium chloride as sylvinite.
2. How Potassium Sulphate is produced?(April 2014)
Potassium Sulphate is prepared from Mixed salt in three stages. Kainite is obtained by
3. What is meant by phosphate fixation? (May/June 2012) (April 2014)
Phosphate fixation is a process by which ionic forms of phosphorus are made unavailable
to plants by precipitation with Fe, Al and Mn (case in acidic soils) or by Ca compounds (in
alkaline soils). At intermediate pH, phosphates tend to bound with clay minerals.
4. What is the % purity of Muriate of Potash?
Muriate of Potash is usually 63.1% pure.
5. What is the chemical formula of Carnallite.
KCl.MgCl2.6H2O is the chemical formula of Carnallite.
6. Why are conditioners like finely divided peat added to the fertilizer?
Conditioners like finely divided peat are added to the fertilizer as they prevent caking of
the fertilizer.
7. What is Pottasium Schoenite?
Pottasium Schoenite, which is double sulphate of potassium and magnesium. It is
composed of 22.24 % potassium oxide and 90% magnesium oxide. Our range is widely
used as potash fertilizer in Western countries. This chemical is ideal for crops that do
not tolerate chlorine such as tobacco, potato, sugarcane. Pottasium Schoenite is
formulated using mixed salts that obtained by evaporation of sea bitterns.
8. What is Nitrate of Potash?
Potassium nitrate fertilizer (sometimes referred to as nitrate of potash or NOP) is
typically made by reacting potassium chloride (KCl) with a nitrate source. Depending
on the objectives and available resources, the nitrate may come from sodium nitrate,
nitric acid, or ammonium nitrate. The resulting KNO3 is identical regardless of the
manufacturing process. Potassium nitrate is commonly sold as a water-soluble,
crystalline material primarily intended for dissolving and application with water or in a
prilled form for soil application
9. What is the role of Zinc Sulphate?
Zinc is involved in the elimination of carbon dioxide from the plants, in the production of
chlorophyll the reproductive system of the plant and also for good seed formation.
10. Addition of which will alter the growth of crops?
Addition of Phosphorous will alter the growth of crops and can extend the growing season
and also ripen crops when desired.
11. What is Di-Ammonium Phosphate?
Di-ammonium Phosphate (DAP) is a complex N-P fertilizer. Pure DAP will have the NPK
composition as 12.7: 61.7: 0, but the commercially available grades have the range of 16-
18: 46-48: 0.
12. Name the different feed stocks for the manufacture of Ammonia.
The different feed srtocks for the manufacture of Ammonia are: (i) Naphtha, (ii) Natural
gas or associate gas, (iii) Fuel Oil, (iv) water, (v) Coal and (vi) coke oven gas.
13. Name the different processes for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
Different processes for the manufacture of Sulphuric acid are: a) Contact Process and (b)
Lead Chamber or tower Process
14. Name the different routes for the manufacture of nitric acid.
Different routes for the manufacture of Nitric acid are:
Ammonia oxidation process,
Nitrogen fixation from air (Wisconsin Process)
Nitrogen fixation by nuclear fission fragments

NaNO3 + H2SO4 Process

15. Why lignite is not used as a source of hydrogen at Neyveli ?
At Neyveli the supply of Lignite is not sufficient to meet the power house require-ments as
well as for the urea plant as Hydrogen source and hence is not used as source of hydrogen
although the unit was originally contemplated as lignite based fertilizer plant.
16. How do Granulation and pelletization of fertilizer help?
Granulation and Pelletization of fertilizers help in the following ways:
Prevents caking of the fertilizer
Produces free flowing materials
Fertilizer can be easily distributed over the land.
Granules resist disintegration during storage.
Chemical reaction is prevented
17. Highest grade of coal is not employed for the fertilizer manufacture. Why?
The highest grade of coal such Anthracite is not used for the fertilizer manufacture for the
following reasons:
a. The hydrogen gas generated by steam reforming of any grade of coal will have to be
processed for purification and hence the highest grade coal is not essential
b. Highest grade of coal finds better and inevitable use in metallurgical industry.
18. Mention the properties of potassium sulphate. (May/June 2012)
Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) (in British English potassium sulphate, also called sulphate
of potash, arcanite, or archaically known as potash of sulfur) is a non-flammable white
crystalline salt which is soluble in water. The chemical is commonly used in fertilizers,
providing both potassium and sulfur.The anhydrous crystals form a double six-sided
pyramid, but are in fact classified as rhombic. They are transparent, very hard and have
a bitter, salty taste. The salt is soluble in water, but insoluble in solutions of potassium
hydroxide (sp. gr. 1.35), or in absolute ethanol. It melts at 1067 °C
19. Define handling storage and packing of Potassium Sulphate?
It is imported as bulk cargo and transported to NPK fertilizer mixing plants
and dealers in bulks or in bags.It is stored in bulk in closed storage yards.The
crystalline potassium sulphate is free flowing and does not normally pose any problem
in handling and storage
20. Mention the importance of using potassic fertilizer. (May/June 2013)
The potassium content of potassic fertilizers is usually expressed as potassium oxide.
K2O, referred to as potash. These fertilizers are manufactured form minerals and ores.
The commercial fertilizers are salts of potassium usually chlorides and sulphates which
are soluble hence readily available to the plants.
S. No. Fertiliser % K2O
i Potassium chloride or muriate of potash (KCI) 48 to 62%
ii Potassium sulphate or sulphate of potash (K2SO4) 48 to 52%
iii Potassium Magnesium sulphate (K2SO4. 2MgSO4) 22%
iv Potassium Schoenite (K2SO4.MgSO4.6H2O) 22 to 24%
Potash is a key irreplaceable plant nutrient. It comes to plants as K+ ion and accumulates
mainly in vacuole and cytoplasm without forming organic matter in cells. Like nitrogen,
potash is absorbed by plants in significantly larger quantities than any other nutrient. The
role of potash in the vital functions of plants is versatile:
1. Participation in Metabolism
2. Resistance to Lodging
3. Resistance to diseases and pests
4. Higher Frost-Resistance and Winter-Hardiness
5. Regulation of Water Intake
6. Participation in Metabolism of Nitrogen

7. Impact on Crops Quality

*****************************************************************
Part – B CHAPTER – 4 POTASSIC FERTILIZERS
1. What are the various grades of NPK fertilizers? Give their composition and
characteristics
NPK complex fertilizers are solid fertilizers in the form of uniform granules commonly
referred to by a sequence of three numbers, the first of which represents the percent nitrogen
expressed as Nitrogen , the second, the percent Phosphorous expressed as available P 2O5 and
the third, the percent potassium expressed as soluble K 2O. These fertilizers are very convenient
to use because they contain all the three primary plant nutrients in the desired proportions. The
various grades produced and marketed in the country are 17-17-17, 10-26-26, 12-32-16 and
14-35-14.
Raw materials/ sources:
Required raw materials are Phosphoric acid, ammonia, potash and urea where
necessary to increase the nitrogen content. Fillers (sand, dolomite, etc.) and coating agents
(clay, soapstone etc.) are also required for certain grades.
Methods of manufacture:
FLOWSHEET FOR MANUFACTURE OF NPK COMPLEX FERTILIZERS
AMMO- PHOS- UREA

NIA PHORIC
ACID
PRE NEUTRALIZATION
NEUTRALIZATION
AMMONIATION
POTASH
GRANULATION
DRYING
SCREENING
COOLING
COATING
NPK
COMPLEX
Ammonia and phosphoric acid in the required proportions are metered to the pre
neutralizer and the resultant slurry is pumped to the granulator, which can be a blunger or a
rotating drum. Here the nitrogen content is increased by adding more ammonia and feeding in
urea whenever necessary. Filler(sand or dolomite) and potash are also added to make up the
required product formulation. The granulator discharge is then dried , screened, cooled and
coated with a coating agent (clay or powdered soapstone)to improve the storage properties.
A flow sheet for the process is shown above:
2. Explain the method of production of ammonium phosphate with a neat flow sheet.
AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE
Physical Properties:
Mono ammonium Phosphate (NH4H2PO4); Mol. Wt.: 115; M.P.: Decomposes; Density: 1.80
gm/cc; Solubility in water: 32 gm/100 cc @ 150C.
Diammonium Phosphate: (NH4)2HPO4; Mol. Wt: 132; M.P.: Decomposes; Density: 1.62
gm/cc; Solubility: 131 gm/100 cc @ 150C.
Chemical Reactions:
NH3 + H3PO4  NH4H2HPO4
NH3 + NH4H2PO4  (NH4)2HPO4
NH3 + H2SO4  NH4HSO4
NH3 + NH4HSO4  (NH4)2SO4

2. Give one method of production of 1) mono Ammonium Phosphate and (2)Nitro

Phosphate
MONO AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE
Physical Properties:
Mono ammonium Phosphate (NH4H2PO4); Mol. Wt.: 115; M.P.: Decomposes; Density: 1.80
gm/cc; Solubility in water: 32 gm/100 cc @ 150C.
Diammonium Phosphate: (NH4)2HPO4; Mol. Wt: 132; M.P.: Decomposes; Density: 1.62
gm/cc; Solubility: 131 gm/100 cc @ 150C.
Chemical Reactions:
NH3 + H3PO4  NH4H2HPO4
NH3 + NH4H2PO4  (NH4)2HPO4
NH3 + H2SO4  NH4HSO4
NH3 + NH4HSO4  (NH4)2SO4

(2)Nitro Phosphate
A process for the preparation of nitrophosphate fertilizer by acidulation of phosphate rock by

means of a mixture of HNO3 and NH4 HSO4, wherein the NH4 HSO4, serves for the acidulation
as well as for the precipitation of the calcium present in the phosphate rock as CaSO 4. 2H2 O.
The latter is treated with a gas mixture containing NH 3 and CO2, forming CaCO3 and (NH4)2
SO4. The (NH4)2 SO4 is thermally decomposed to form NH4 HSO4, which is recycled to the
acidulation reaction. The acidulated phosphate rock solution is neutralized with NH 3 to obtain
the nitrophosphate fertilizer.
3. Write an account of the importance of Urea in fertilizer industry in India.
 Urea is the most convenient form for fixed Nitrogen

 It has highest nitrogen content (46%) available in a solid fertilizer
 Easy to produce as prills or granules and easily transported in bulk / bags with no
explosive hazard
 Dissolves readily in water, leaves no residue and can often be used for foliar feeding.
 In addition to fertilizer use, it is used as a protein food supplement for ruminants , in
melamine production, an ingredient in the manufacture of resins, plastics, adhesives,
coatings, textile anti-shrink agents and ion exchange resins.
 an intermediate in the manufacture of ammonium sulfamate, Sulfanic acid &
phthalocyanines.
4. Discuss the importance of use of plant nutrients citing different types of nutrients.
Primary nutrients are normally supplied through chemical fertilizers. They are chemical
compounds containing one or more of the primary nutrients and are generally produced by
chemical reactions. Whatever be the chemical, its more important ingredient for plant growth
is the nutrient content.
The primary nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (N, P and K). However, their
concentration in a chemical fertilizer is expressed as a percentage of total nitrogen (N);
available phosphate (P2O5); and soluble potash (K2O). Thus ammonium sulphate contains
20.6% N, single super phosphate 16% P2O5 and muriate of potash 60% K2O.

The grade of a fertilizer is expressed as a set of three numbers in the order of percent N, P2O5,
and K2O. If a nutrient is missing in a fertilizer, it is represented by zero.
Thus, diammonium phosphate is shown as 18- 46- 0, indicating that it contains 18% nitrogen,
46% P2O5 and no potash. Similarly, ‘suphala’, a nitrophosphate fertilizer produced by
Rashtriya Chemical Fertilizers (RCF), Trombay is shown as: 15- 15- 15 indicating that the
product contains 15%N, 15% P2O5 and 15% K2O.
In the case of nitrogenous fertilizers, nitrogen may be in the ammonical, nitrate (or a
combination there of) or amide form. Ammonical form of nitrogen is contained in fertilizers
like ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, etc. Nitrate nitrogen is contained in fertilizers
like ammonium nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate, etc. The amide nitrogen is contained in
urea.
Phosphate fertilizers may be in the water-soluble form or available form. When a phosphatic
fertilizer is soluble in water, the product is called water-soluble phosphate. If it is not soluble in
water but in 2% neutral ammonium citrate, the product is called citrate soluble phosphate. The
sum total of water-soluble and citrate soluble values is termed as available phosphates.
A fertilizer in which phosphate is not soluble either in water or two percent neutral ammonium
citrate solution is termed insoluble. The sum of the available phosphate and the insoluble
phosphate is termed as total phosphate.
5. Explain the manufacture of Di-Ammonium Phosphate with a flow sheet.

MANUFACTURE OF DIAMMONIUM PHOSPHATE (DAP)
Phosphoric acid, being a tribasic acid could theoretically form three ammonium
phosphates by the successive substitution of the acid by ammonia
H3PO4 NH4H2PO4 (NH4)2HPO4 (NH4)3PO4
However, triammonium phosphate is unstable and easily loses ammonia. Both MAP and DAP
are manufactured as fertilizers.
Pure DAP would have the composition in NPK nomenclature 21.19: 53.76: 0
Typically DAP made from wet process of phosphoric acid has the range of compositions
16- 18: 46- 48: 0
DAP may be made in the form of granules for direct distribution or blending and in the form of
powder for incorporation with other fertilizers in compound manufacture.
DAP may be made by neutralizing phosphoric acid with ammonia to pH 5.6 in the molar ratio
2: 1, but on an industrial scale attention is given to the solubility of the product. The
composition of the mixture, which is most soluble in, water beyond the mono ammonium stage
s a molar ratio of 1.4: 1. Therefore, the practice is to remix the reactants in this ratio, ex: in a
tank or in a pipe, where the slurry is most fluid also and to pump it to the granulator where the
slurry meets the fines from a subsequent sieving process and more ammonia to bring the NH3:
H3PO4 molar ratio to 2: 1. The liquid ratio is thereby decreased and the process of granulation
made easier. The conc. of H3PO4 used may vary with the manufacturer, but typically is 40%
P2O5 when the temperature of the slurry rises to about 115˚C. The product from the granulator
falls into a drier and meets the co- current flow of hot combustion gases. The dry granules are
spread on to the screens and those falling within the screen limits pass into a counter current
flow of ambient air and then to the store. The oversize is passed through a crusher ex: of the
cage and chain type and back on the screens. The fines are returned to the granulator. The
recycle ratio of fines to product is usually about 5: 1. The exhaust gases from all equipment are
passed to an absorption tower sprayed with the H3PO4 to be fed to the reactor.

The reactor may be a simple tank or a serried of tanks, as in the triple super phosphate
plant. The reactor may also be a closed vessel. Ex: a pipe in which the steam generated acts as
a kind of lift to the slurry and flashes off when it reaches the atmosphere in the granulator. The
reaction approaches adiabatic condition. Drying cost is much less.
6. Write notes on (i) NPK Fertilizers and their grades.
Manufacture of NPK fertilizer.
NPK complex fertilizers are solid fertilizers in the form of uniform granules commonly
referred to by a sequence of three numbers, the first of which represents the percent nitrogen
expressed as Nitrogen , the second, the percent Phosphorous expressed as available P 2O5 and
the third, the percent potassium expressed as soluble K 2O. These fertilizers are very convenient
to use because they contain all the three primary plant nutrients in the desired proportions. The
various grades produced and marketed in the country are 17-17-17, 10-26-26, 12-32-16 and
14-35-14.
Raw materials/ sources:
Required raw materials are Phosphoric acid, ammonia, potash and urea where
necessary to increase the nitrogen content. Fillers (sand, dolomite, etc.) and coating agents
(clay, soapstone etc.) are also required for certain grades.
Methods of manufacture:
Ammonia and phosphoric acid in the required proportions are metered to the pre
neutralizer and the resultant slurry is pumped to the granulator, which can be a blunger or a
rotating drum. Here the nitrogen content is increased by adding more ammonia and feeding in
urea whenever necessary. Filler(sand or dolomite) and potash are also added to make up the
required product formulation. The granulator discharge is then dried , screened, cooled and
coated with a coating agent (clay or powdered soapstone)to improve the storage properties.
(ii) Urea
Ammonium Carbomate Decomposition Process
Ammonia & CO2 are compressed and reacted at 100-200 atm & 170-190oC in an
autoclave to form ammonium carbomate (NH 4.COO.NH2). Urea is formed by dehydration in a
low pressure stripping operation. Process modifications occurs in recycle of unreacted NH 3-
CO2 and percentage excess NH3 in reactants.
CO2 + 2NH3  NH4.COO.NH2
b) NH4.COO.NH2  NH2.CO.NH2 + H2O
Undesirable Side Reaction
2NH2.CO.NH2  NH2-CO-NH2 + NH3
Ammonia & CO2 are compressed alcinatio & added to the high pressure autoclave which must
be water cooled due to the highly exothermic nature of reaction. The average residence time in
the autoclave which is operated on a continuous basis is 1.5 to 2 hrs. A mixture of urea,
ammonium carbomate, H2O & unreacted NH3& CO2 results. This liquid effluent is let down to
27 atm & fed to a special flash evaporator containing a gas liquid seperator & condenser.
Unreacted
NH3, CO2, H2O as a solution are thus removed & recycled. An aqueous solutions of carbomate-
Urea is passed to the atmospheric flash drum where further decomposition of carbomate takes
place the off gases from this step can either be recycled to or send to Ammonia process for
making chemical fertilizer.
The 80% aqueous urea solution can be used as it is or 40% send to a vacuum operator to
ontain molten urea containing less than 1% water. The molten mass is then sprayed into a

prilling tower. To avoid the formation of biuret in percentage >1% the temperature must be
kept above the melting point for processing times of 1-2sec in this phase of operation.
***************************************************************************
Part – A Unit – V COMPLEX AND NPK FERTILIZERS
PART – A
1. What are mixed fertilizers? (April 2014)
This term is used to denote multi- nutrient fertilizers containing two or three primary
nutrients. Dry mixtures are made by mechanical mixing of fertilizer materials to produce
the grades of products required. They may be in pulverized form or in granulated form
2. Give the composition of mixed fertilizer?(April 2014)
The best mixed fertilizers are obtained when granulated components are mixed. The
nutrient ratio to be used in mixed fertilizers depends on crop requirements and soil
characteristics. For example, a 1 : 1 : 1 ratio of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
(that is, N, P2O5, and K2O) is the basic fertilizer for grain crops, sugar beets, potatoes,
and vegetables on soddy podzols, gray forests, and chernozems, and a 1 : 1.5 : 1 ratio is
applied at planting time for grains, vegetables, and industrial crops.
3. What are granulated fertilizers?(April/May 2010)
Mixtures are made into granules by moistening during the granulation process. The
granular form is easier to apply, less dust formation, free flowing and is preferred over the
pulverized form.
4. Give two advantages of bio fertilizers over chemical fertilizers.
Bio fertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of soil. The main sources of bio
fertilizers are bacteria, fungi, and cynobacteria (blue-green algae).
Bio fertilizers are environment friendly and will help solve such problems as increased
salinity of the soil and chemical run-offs from the agricultural fields
5. Which material will hold back stem growth and halt plants at the desired height?
Addition of Nitrogen will hold back stem growth and halt plants at the desired height.
6. What are biofertilizers? Give one example. (Nov/Dec 2011), (April/May2011),
(May/June 2012), (May/June 2013)
A biofertilizer (also bio-fertilizer) is a substance which contains living microorganisms
which, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the
interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of
primary nutrients to the host plant.Bio-fertilizers add nutrients through the naturalprocesses
of nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the
synthesis of growth-promoting substances.
Some important groups of Bio-fertilizers
1. Azolla-Anabena symbiosis: Azolla is a small, eukaryotic, aquatic fern having global
distribution.Prokaryotic blue green algae Anabena azolla resides in its leaves as a
symbiont. Azolla is an alternative nitrogen source. This association has gained wide
interest because of its potential use as an alternative to chemical fertilizers.
2. Rhizobium: Symbiotic nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium with legumes contribute
substantially to total nitrogen fixation. Rhizobium inoculation is a well-known agronomic
practice to ensure adequate nitrogen
7. What are nitrogen solutions? (May/June 2013)
Nitrogen solutions are water solutions of selected nitrogen chemicals that are blended,
rather than being the products of chemical reaction. Historically, they have been used
almost totally as fertilizers, although some water-based ammonium nitrate slurries are used

in certain commercial explosive and blasting agent markets. However, as a result of

environmental legislation, use of purified urea solutions has begun and will be the fastest-
growing market for nitrogen solutions.Urea–ammonium nitrate solutions, containing 28–
32% nitrogen, account for the bulk of the solutions market. A small but growing amount of
ammonium nitrate and calcium ammonium nitrate solution is also consumed. Fertilizer
applications account for the vast majority of consumption. World supply/demand for
nitrogen solutions is forecast to grow at an average rate of 2.8% annually during 2011–
2016. Nitrogen solutions account for 5.8% of the world nitrogen fertilizer market, but
account for approximately 30% of the market in the United States and approximately 9% in
Western Europe. They are growing faster than dry nitrogen-containing fertilizers.
8. What are nutrients?
Nutrients are such substances which when added to the medium in which plants are grown,
are able to improve the plant growth and quality. The elements which are required for the
growth of plants are known as plant nutrients.
9. Which nutrient makes the plant stems stronger and increases branching?
The nutrient which the plant stem grow stronger and increases branching is nitrogen.
10. How do you prevent caking of fertilizer?
Caking of the fertilizers can be prevented by the addition of conditioners to fertilizers, but
caking of fertilizer is effectively prevented by granulation and pelletization
11. What are primary nutrients?
Primary nutrients are normally supplied through chemical fertilizers as their quantity
required for unhindered and proper growth plant is more. They are namely Nitrogen N,
Phosphorus P, and Potassium K.
12. What are secondary nutrients? (April/May 2011)
Those nutrients, which are not so vital as the NPK and are not required at such large
quantities, are secondary nutrients. They are required only in small levels and they aid in
proper utilization of NPK nutrients and in proper plant growth. They are namely Calcium,
Magnesium and Sulphur.
13. What are micronutrients? (April/May 2010)
Micronutrients are also called minor elements or trace elements are as essential to plants
growth as the major elements. However they are required only in small quantities. Ex:
Zinc, Boron, Molybdenum, Chlorine, and Sodium
14. What are macronutrients?
Those nutrients, which are required in large quantities for the plant growth, are known as
macronutrients. Their application is vital for proper growth of plants. They are Carbon,
Hydrogen and Oxygen.
15. What are fluid fertilizers? Give its advantages. (April/May2010), (May/June 2009),
(April/May2011), (May/June 2012)
Fluid fertilizers offer ease of use. Movement is by pump, and they usually require less
labor to handle. Some pesticides can be injected in the fluid thus saving trips across
thefield. Experienced, well-equipped dealers can custom blend fertilizers to specifications.
The major types of fluid fertilizers are suspension fertilizers and solution fertilizers.
16. What are controlled release fertilizers? (May/June 2014)
These fertilizers are applied in such a way that the mixture in released in a controlled
fashion. Methods of applying CRF including top-dressing and incorporation in to the
media, or dibbling. The latter is a method in which the fertilizer material is placed in a hole
in the container media, allowing the fertilizer to remain at a more controlled release
temperature. Various types:1.poly-s 2.urea formaldehyde 3.magnesium ammonium
phosphate
17. Whar are the Benefits of using Biofertilizers?
As it is living thing, it can symbiotically associate with plant root. Involved
microorganisms could readily and safely convert complex organic material in simple
compound, so that plant easily taken up. Microorganism function is in long duration

causing improvement of the soil fertility. It maintains the natural habitat of the soil. It
increases crop yield by 20-30%. Replace chemical nitrogen and phosphorus by 25% in
addition to stimulating of the plant growth. Finally it can provide protection against
drought and some soil borne diseases.
18. What are types of fluid fertilizer?
The major types of fluid fertilisers are suspension fertilisers and clear liquids. Clear liquids
are dissolved completely in water. Suspensions are partially dissolved in water, and the
nutrients are suspended in the medium with the help of suspending agents. Suspensions
require completely different farm machinery as constant agitation is required to keep the
nutrients in suspension and prevent their sedimentation.
19. Write the role of Fertilizer ?
Fertilizer is generally write "any material, organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, which
supplies one or more of the chemical elements required for the plant growth".
20. What are Organic fertilizers?
Organic Fertilizers are the most convenient forms of fertilizers. They are safe and easily
available. Things like manure, slurry, worm castings, peat moss, seaweed, sewage and
guano are good examples of organic fertilizers. Vegetation material called mulch, such as
hay, peat moss, leaves, grass, bark, wood chips, seed hulls, and corn husks all help to aerate
the soil, insulate the ground against temperature change, and add needed nutrients.
21. What are the Advantages of Organic Fertilizer?
 Improve the structure of the soil.
 Retain soil moisture.
 Release nitrogen slowly and consistently.
 Mobilize existing soil nutrients.
 Do not burn the plants like some chemical fertilizers
 Less subject to leaching
*****************************************************************
Part – B CHAPTER – 5 COMPLEX AND NPK FERTILIZERS
1. Write brief notes on (1) Mixed Fertilizers (2) Granulated Mixtures.
Mixed Fertilizers & Granulated Mixtures
The idea was that if the areas of contact between particles could be reduced, the
material would cake correspondingly less in storage and that if the particles could be rounded
they would flow more easily from distribution hoppers on the farm. Steps taken to achieve
these objectives have included: -
(a) Making the particles of the constituents agglomerate as near to a spherical shape as
possible
(b) Narrowing the size range of the product delivered to the farmer
(c) Making the granules sufficiently mechanically strong to resist disintegration during
storage, transport and distribution
(d) Preventing chemical reaction alter the product was delivered to the farm which would
cause disintegration ex: allotropic transitions or double decomposition which would
involve large volume changes
(e) Coating the granules with an inert dust which makes a sort of ‘no man’s land’ between
the particles and keeps them discrete

(f) Drying the granules to such moisture content that only negligible quantities of solution
can form subsequent to manufacture, provided the product is protected from the entry
of moisture into the container of the product
Granules may be formed from solids by:
(a) Supplying the solids with appropriate proportions of liquid, which may dissolve some
of the solid and enter interstitially between appropriate groups of solid particles and
subsequently either
(i) Evaporate so as to leave appropriately shaped crystals which knit the solid
particles together or
(ii) Freeze so as to form a solid agglomerate with the solid particles
(b) Causing the solids ex: by heating to soften or, in the extreme to melt to a homogenous
liquid, and to comminute the liquid particles, preferably spheres, and subsequently to
solidify the particle ex: by cooling
(c) Including in the mixture which is to be granulated liquids which are in sufficient
proportions to permit the agglomeration of the mixture into parts, but which
subsequently by reaction become totally solid ex: acid with phosphate rock or ammonia
with phosphoric acid.
Techniques for forming agglomerate from suitably treated solids include:
(a) A rotating dish inclined at a small angle to the base. (Enrich mixer)
(b) A rotating drum with axis inclined at a small angle. (Conditioner)
(c) Rotating paddle fitting within a few millimeters to the sides of a
trough, the axis of which is inclined at a small angle (Blunger)
(d) Compressing solid particles together in mould (Pelletizing)
(e) Forming a sheet of mixture either by compression between rolls or by
first melting and the spreading on a cooled roll, and breaking up the sheet ex: with a
‘doctor knife’ or by passing through spiked rolls, and then passing the broken pieces
through a rotating drum which converts pieces into a approx. spherical shapes (flaking
and tumbling)
(f) Pushing the mixture, made plastic by heat or addition of a suitable
substance, through dies and cutting the extruded cord into suitable length and by
drying or other process converting the pieces into rigid solids.
(g) In appropriate cases by crystallization
(h) Spray drying a solution or slurry of the mixture
(i) Forcing the molten mixture through nozzles into vertically falling
threads which separate into appropriate spheres during the fall and for the particles to
be cooled and solidified (prilling)
2. What are Fluid fertilizers? Discuss their properties.
LIQUID FERTILIZERS
One of the newer developments in fertilizer technology is the application of fertilizers
in liquid form. The major forms of liquid fertilizers are anhydrous ammonia aqua- ammonia,

nitrogen solutions, and liquid mixed fertilizers. Those have come to be recognised as
comprising three fairly separate categories:
(1) Anhydrous ammonia
(2) Aqua ammonia and solutions
(3) Liquid mixtures
Differences, which set those categories apart, include geographic distribution, type of
equipment used, and application practice.
ANHYDROUS AMMONIA
The most important liquid fertilizer is anhydrous ammonia. Sandy soils, such as those
found in coastal regions, do not retain anhydrous ammonia as well as do the heavier types of
soil.
Behaviour in the soil:
The action of ammonia, however, is so different from that of other fertilizers. Ammonia has
some advantage over ammonium nitrate, because the nitrate portion of the latter tends to leach
from the soil. Ammonia has been shown to be quite effective in killing fungi and nematodes in
the zone of application. The economic value of this effect has not been determined.
AQUA AMMONIA
Ammonia is used as a fertilizer in the aqueous as well as the anhydrous form. The
complexities of transporting anhydrous ammonia by ship have led to shipment of aqua
ammonia in conventional tank ships. The “converters” used for preparing ammonia solution
have a wide range of complexity, the more complicated arrangements include a high pressure
storage tank, unloading compressor, vaporizers, mixing chamber, cooler and automatic
instrumentation. The grade normally made contains 20% nitrogen (24.4% ammonia).
The major reasons for using aqua ammonia rather than anhydrous ammonia are the
simpler requirements in handling and the elimination of most of the hazards. Ordinary tanks
are usually satisfactory. Since the grade containing 20% nitrogen has no gauge pressure at
normal temperatures, and higher grades have relatively low pressures, relief valves, however,
are usually provided for safety.
NITROGEN SOLUTION:
The use of nitrogen solution as fertilizers for direct application is a fairly recent
development.
Properties of solution:
The main constituents used in nitrogen solutions are ammonium nitrate and urea, with
free ammonia added in some types. Various combinations of those are used to obtain the
desired properties.
The solutions are of two major types- low pressure and non-pressure. The former
contains free ammonia and are made primarily for ammoniating super phosphate. Such
solutions, which are important materials in the solid mixed- fertilizer industry, have a wide
range of vapour pressures. Those in the lower pressure range have been taken up, to same
extent in the direct application field.
For direct application, ammoniating solutions have the advantage over anhydrous
ammonia of having much lower vapour pressures and of being less hazardous. Their advantage

over aqua ammonia is in higher concentration. The combination of ammonia with the nitrogen
salts, especially ammonium nitrate, gives high solubility.
Non- pressure solutions contain either ammonium nitrate or urea, or a mixture of the
two. The high mutual solubility of the two salts gives a relatively high analysis solution for the
mixture and makes it one of the most popular of the nitrogen solutions. The crystallization
temperature of the solution is an important consideration. The main factors that affect
crystallization are
Problems in applying low-pressure solutions are similar to those for anhydrous and aqua
ammonia. Non- pressure solutions allow more leeway in application because injection is not
necessary. Costs of applying nitrogen solution are less.
3. What do you know about Controlled release Fertilizer. Discuss in detail.
CONTROLLED RELEASE FERTILIZER:
Controlled release fertilizer is a two layered one.
Various types:
1.poly-s
2.urea formaldehyde
3.magnesium ammonium phosphate
POLY-S:
Poly-s is a controlled release fertilizer, which has a dual coating, sulphur coated urea and
ammonium phosphorous, are encapsulated in plastic. The rate of N 2 release from poly-s is
temperature dependent, higher and accleration the process.
UREA FORMALDEHYDE:
The rate of N2 release from UF depends on the structure of N2 source.Because shorter C-

chained UF molecule are more soluble and more easily assimilated by micro-organisms than
longer chain UF molecule, N2 is more quickly released from shorter chains. Sufficient media
moisture and O2, media temperature exceeding 55 F and 5.5 LPH promote the release of N2
from this H20 insoluble N2 source. UF can also be used when nursery stock is over wintered.
Encapsulated CRF often rupture when frozen, releasing the total content of soluble material at

one time, causing high soluble salt levels in the root zone and subjecting the roots to fertilizer
injuiry.
ISOBUTYLIDENE DIUREA(IBDU):
IBDU is a urea bonded CRF, release N2 with increasing media moisture and temperature
fertilizer particle size and media. PH influence the rate of nutrient release, smaller particles size
and low pH accelerate the process.
MAGNESIUM AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE:
It is a complete CRF containing magnesium. water solubility of magnesium ammonium

phosphate is minimal but sufficient enough to provide N, P, and Mg at levels that meet plant
needs. K has been added to this material, making it a complete fertilizer.
APPLICATION METHODS:
Methods of applying CRF including top-dressing and incorporation in to the media, or

dibbling. The latter is a method in which the fertilizer material is placed in a hole in the
container media, allowing the fertilizer to remain at a more controlled release temperature.
4. Write detail notes on: (1) Biofertilizers (2) Micronutrients.
(1) Biofertilizers
Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of soil. The main sources of
biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi, and cynobacteria (blue-green algae). The most striking
relationship that these have with plants is symbiosis, in which the partners derive benefits from
each other.
(1) Symbiotic: The organisms live within the plants and help in the absorption of the fertilizers
like in the nodules of leguminous plants like groundnut, soyabean, pulses etc. Ex:
Rhizobium sp
(2) Associative symbiotic: These organisms live partly within the roots and partly outside
crops like paddy, sugarcane, cotton, millets, vegetables, etc. are benefited by those
organisms
Ex: Azospirillum
(3) Non-symbiotic: These organisms live in the soil independent of the plants and fix N2
Ex: Azetobacter

Next only to N2, P is a vital nutrient for plant growth and increasing the crop yields. P is mostly
present in the soil as compounds of Ca, Fe, Al and F. Further; the soluble form of PO 4- es
applied to soil also gets converted into insoluble forms immediately. These forms are not
available for the crops, though they may be present in the soil.
Systematic screening by the universities and research institutions isolates efficient strains of
these organisms. They are then carefully preserved after assigning specific number. The
biofertilizers producer obtains these strains, multiplies them in stages, mixes with a carrier like
lignite and distributes to the consumer.
Some soil organisms, notably the bacteria and fungi possess the ability to bring insoluble
phosphate present in the soil into soluble forms by secreting organic acid. These acids lower
the pH and bring about the dissolution of bound phosphate for the plants to take up.
They are then sub cultured using the respective slant medium and the details, are marked on
the tubes.
A lapful of subculture is transferred in a sterile atmosphere to the sterilized medium prepared
in 500ml flask and kept in rotary shaker for multiplication. It takes 4-6 days to reach the
maximum population level.
The flask culture is then transferred to bottles containing sterile medium and kept on shaker. It
takes 4-6 days to reach maximum population.
Micronutrients
Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S) are the three secondary nutrients required by
plants. They are less likely to be added as fertilizer than the macronutrients (N-P-K). The
standard soil test measures the relative availability of Ca and Mg in soils. There is no accurate
soil test for S at this time. A plant analysis is the best diagnostic tool for confirming S
availability.
If the exchangeable Ca level is in excess of 200 ppm, no response to Ca is expected. If the soil
pH is maintained in the proper range, then the added Ca from lime will maintain an adequate
level for crop production. The required soil exchangeable Mg level is 50 ppm or greater. High
levels of exchangeable K tend to reduce the uptake of Mg. Therefore, if the ratio of Mg to K,
as a percent of the exchangeable bases, is less than 2 to 1, then Mg is recommended for forage
crops. Most Mg deficiencies can be corrected by maintaining proper soil pH using lime high in
Mg. The ratio of Ca to Mg should be considered when lime is added to a soil. If the ratio, as a
percent of the exchangeable bases, is 1 to 1 or less (less Ca than Mg), a high calcium/low
magnesium limestone should be used. Most plants grow well over a wide range of Ca to Mg
soil ratios. Excessive use of K fertilizers can greatly reduce the uptake of Ca and Mg. High
K/low Mg forages can cause grass tetany, milk fever, hypocalcemia and other health problems
for ruminant animals. Potassium recommendations above the critical level are less than crop
removal so as to discourage luxury consumption of K and improve Mg uptake. Sulfur is taken
up as sulfate by plants. Sulfate sulfur is supplied primarily by microbial decomposition of soil
organic matter. Sulfate is a negative ion and easily leaches in soils. Sandy soils low in organic
matter that are subject to excessive leaching may not supply adequate sulfur. Crops such as
wheat and alfalfa that grow rapidly at cool temperatures when mineralization of S is slow are
most likely to be S deficient. If elemental sulfur is used, it should be applied at least 2 months
before the crop is planted. This would allow time for the S to be converted to the plant-
available sulfate form by the soil bacteria. Sulfur should be added in the sulfate form if added
less than 2 months before plant uptake.
5. What are the different plant nutrients? Elaborate.
Table

Essential elements for plant growth
S.No Name of element Nomenclature
1 Carbon
2 Oxygen
3 Hydrogen
4 Nitrogen Primary nutrients
5 Phosphorous
6 Potassium
7 Calcium Secondary nutrients
8 Magnesium
9 Sulphur
10 Boron Micro nutrients
11 Chlorine
12 Copper
13 Iron
14 Manganese
15 Molybdenum
16 Zinc
Primary nutrients are normally supplied through chemical fertilizers. They are chemical
compounds containing one or more of the primary nutrients and are generally produced by
chemical reactions. Whatever be the chemical, its more important ingredient for plant growth
is the nutrient content.
The primary nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (N, P and K). However, their
concentration in a chemical fertilizer is expressed as a percentage of total nitrogen (N);
available phosphate (P2O5); and soluble potash (K2O). Thus ammonium sulphate contains
20.6% N, single super phosphate 16% P2O5 and muriate of potash 60% K2O.

The grade of a fertilizer is expressed as a set of three numbers in the order of percent N, P2O5,
and K2O. If a nutrient is missing in a fertilizer, it is represented by zero.
Thus, diammonium phosphate is shown as 18- 46- 0, indicating that it contains 18% nitrogen,
46% P2O5 and no potash. Similarly, ‘suphala’, a nitrophosphate fertilizer produced by
Rashtriya Chemical Fertilizers (RCF), Trombay is shown as: 15- 15- 15 indicating that the
product contains 15%N, 15% P2O5 and 15% K2O.
In the case of nitrogenous fertilizers, nitrogen may be in the ammonical, nitrate (or a
combination there of) or amide form. Ammonical form of nitrogen is contained in fertilizers
like ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, etc. Nitrate nitrogen is contained in fertilizers
like ammonium nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate, etc. The amide nitrogen is contained in
urea.
Phosphate fertilizers may be in the water-soluble form or available form. When a phosphatic
fertilizer is soluble in water, the product is called water-soluble phosphate. If it is not soluble in
water but in 2% neutral ammonium citrate, the product is called citrate soluble phosphate. The
sum total of water-soluble and citrate soluble values is termed as available phosphates.
A fertilizer in which phosphate is not soluble either in water or two percent neutral ammonium
citrate solution is termed insoluble. The sum of the available phosphate and the insoluble
phosphate is termed as total phosphate.
6. Write what you know about Biofertilizers?
Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of soil. The main sources of
biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi, and cynobacteria (blue-green algae). The most striking
relationship that these have with plants is symbiosis, in which the partners derive benefits from
each other.
Symbiotic:
The organisms live within the plants and help in the absorption of the fertilizers like in the
nodules of leguminous plants like groundnut, soyabean, pulses etc.
Ex: Rhizobium sp
Associative symbiotic:
These organisms live partly within the roots and partly outside crops like paddy, sugarcane,
cotton, millets, vegetables, etc. are benefited by those organisms
Ex: Azospirillum
Non-symbiotic:
These organisms live in the soil independent of the plants and fix N2
Ex: Azetobacter

Next only to N2, P is a vital nutrient for plant growth and increasing the crop yields. P is
mostly present in the soil as compounds of Ca, Fe, Al and F. Further; the soluble form of PO 4-
as applied to soil also gets converted into insoluble forms immediately. These forms are not
available for the crops, though they may be present in the soil.
Systematic screening by the universities and research institutions isolates efficient strains of
these organisms. They are then carefully preserved after assigning specific number. The
biofertilizers producer obtains these strains, multiplies them in stages, mixes with a carrier like
lignite and distributes to the consumer.
Some soil organisms, notably the bacteria and fungi possess the ability to bring insoluble
phosphate present in the soil into soluble forms by secreting organic acid. These acids lower
the pH and bring about the dissolution of bound phosphate for the plants to take up. They are
then sub cultured using the respective slant medium and the details, are marked on the tubes.
A lapful of subculture is transferred in a sterile atmosphere to the sterilized medium
prepared in 500ml flask and kept in rotary shaker for multiplication. It takes 4-6 days to reach
the maximum population level.
The flask culture is then transferred to bottles containing sterile medium and kept on
shaker. It takes 4-6 days to reach maximum population.
Preparation of fermentors:
Fermentor is employed for producing large volume of broth. Any chance introduction of other
organisms may also lead to large multiplication of these organisms. Hence, it is necessary that
utmost care be taken to prevent such a possibility. The following steps achieve this:
 After the discharge of broth the fermentor is filled with H 2O, agitated for 10 minutes, and
drained out fully.
 The fermentor is again filled with H2O and sterilized using steam at 121˚C temperature, 15-
psi pressure for 1 hour and the control drained out.
 After charging the medium, the medium is sterilized using steam as 121˚C temperature, 15-
psi pressure for 1 hour.
 The contents are then cooled by circulating cold H 2O (service H2O) to a temperature of
<40˚C
The bottle culture after optimum growth are transferred to the sterilize medium in the
fermentor. Immediately the details like charge number, strain, time of inoculation are written
and tagged on to the fermentor. An inoculum load of 5 to 10% is adequate. The contents are
agitated intermittently and aerated continuously using sterile conditions. Generally, the culture
broth for mixing with carrier is ready is about 24 hours. This duration may vary to some extent
depending on the ambient temperature.
Carrier used for producing biofertilizer is lignite powder and the source is Neyveli Lignite
Corporation. The lignite powder has a pH of around 4.5. This is neutralized by adding lime
powder (CaCO3) at 10% for azospirillium and 15% for rhizobium and phospho bacteria. Also
0.5- 10% of synthetic polymer is added and it is supposed to increase the H 2O holding capacity
of lignite. The neutralized lignite is then sterilized in autoclave using steam at 121˚C
temperature, 15-psi pressure for 1 hour. The materials is cooled, stored separately and used for
mixing with broth.
Measured quantity of prepared carrier (lignite) is taken in the blender. The broth obtained from
fermentor is collected in carbuoys and poured into the carrier. The ratio between broth and
carrier is normally 1:2. However, this ratio may vary slightly as judged from the consistency of
the final product.
The materials are then mixed thoroughly in a mechanical mixer. A sample is taken and sent to
laboratory for “0” day and “7” day analysis. After mixing, the contents are transferred to

HDPE bag and kept for curing and storage material made from not more than one fermentor
discharge is stored this way.
Generally, the 7th day sample shows at least 10 fold increase in population as compared to “0”
day. When the counts show a satisfactory level of not less than 10 cells a gram, the material is
transferred to large bag and used for bagging in 200g or 1kg preprinted LDPE bags. For quick
operation, containers to deliver the same weight are used. The material is bagged as soon as the
movement plan is received. The material that remains more than one month from the date of
mixing is rejected. The bags bear the batch number, date of manufacturing, expiry date and
price in addition to other details. The batch number relating to the charge number are
immediately recorded in the register. The bags are then packed in cartons to weigh 10kg nett. It
is 50 numbers in the case of 1kg bags. The cartons are closed with gum, taped with adhesive
tape and strapped using polypropylene strap and double folder seal.
7. Write detailed notes on
(i) Fluid fertilizers,

One of the newer developments in fertilizer technology is the application of fertilizers
in liquid form. The major forms of liquid fertilizers are anhydrous ammonia aqua- ammonia,
nitrogen solutions, and liquid mixed fertilizers. Those have come to be recognised as
comprising three fairly separate categories:
(4) Anhydrous ammonia
(5) Aqua ammonia and solutions
(6) Liquid mixtures
Differences, which set those categories apart, include geographic distribution, type of
equipment used, and application practice.
(II) ANHYDROUS AMMONIA
The most important liquid fertilizer is anhydrous ammonia. Sandy soils, such as those
found in coastal regions, do not retain anhydrous ammonia as well as do the heavier types of
soil.
Properties of ammonia:
It is a toxic, hazardous gas, difficult to store and handle. Ammonia is a gas at natural
pressure and temperature, but it is easily liquefied and is handled as a liquid in storing and
transporting. Because of its toxic and explosive properties, safely precautions are highly
important in handling the material. Liquid ammonia or strong solutions of ammonia can cause
serious burns, and at sufficiently high concentration, the gas can cause death form
asphyxiation. Safety precautions include proper installation and operation of pressure relief
devices, wearing of goggles, and providing of gas masks and showers for emergency use.
Ammonia is flammable and explosive when the concentration in air is between 16 and 25% by
volume.
Handling and distribution equipment:
Storage: Ammonia is stored both by distributors and by farmers. The kind of storage on the
form depends on the type of distribution arrangement, which may be

(1) Transport in dealer’s tank truck to farmer’s storage tank

(2) Transport in dealer’s tank truck direct to farmer’s applicator truck
(3) Transport of dealer’s tank to farm where it serves for temporary storage
(4) Transport in farmer’s portable tank
(5) Custom application by dealer or custom applicator.
Storage tanks are of mild steel, ordinarily uninsulated, built to withstand a working pressure of
265 psig or more, and equipped with relief valves. Because of the high thermal- expansion
coefficient of liquid ammonia, tanks are not filled completely.
Application: The volatile nature of ammonia requires that it be injected well beneath the
surface of the soil.
Retention in the soil: Liquid ammonia flashes to the gaseous form as it leaves the application
nozzle. Unlike other forms of fertilizer, ammonia must quickly establish some set of bond with
soil constituents or be lost to the atmosphere. The mechanisms involved in ammonia retention
and fixation by the soil is found to be that sorption of ammonia resulted from neutralization of
exchangeable hydronium and aluminium ions on the clay fraction and from reaction with soil
organic matter. Acid soils sorted more than alkaline soils, but even a soil at a pH of 7.3
absorbed a large amount of ammonia, much of which was due to formation of organic nitrogen
compounds.
Behaviour in the soil:
The action of ammonia, however, is so different from that of other fertilizers. Ammonia has
some advantage over ammonium nitrate, because the nitrate portion of the latter tends to leach
from the soil. Ammonia has been shown to be quite effective in killing fungi and nematodes in
the zone of application. The economic value of this effect has not been determined.
AQUA AMMONIA
Ammonia is used as a fertilizer in the aqueous as well as the anhydrous form. The
complexities of transporting anhydrous ammonia by ship have led to shipment of aqua
ammonia in conventional tank ships. The “converters” used for preparing ammonia solution
have a wide range of complexity, the more complicated arrangements include a high pressure
storage tank, unloading compressor, vaporizers, mixing chamber, cooler and automatic
instrumentation. The grade normally made contains 20% nitrogen (24.4% ammonia).
The major reasons for using aqua ammonia rather than anhydrous ammonia are the
simpler requirements in handling and the elimination of most of the hazards. Ordinary tanks
are usually satisfactory. Since the grade containing 20% nitrogen has no gauge pressure at
normal temperatures, and higher grades have relatively low pressures, relief valves, however,
are usually provided for safety.
For example, ammonium polysulphide is added to correct sulphur efficiency.

Precipitation inhibitors may also be added to the aqua ammonia when hard water is used in
piped irrigation systems the farmer is attracted by factors such as being able to see the material,
the fact that aqua ammonia can be metered with a volumetric meter at the point of delivery,
and uniformity of flow rate at different temperatures because aqua ammonia is a non-pressure
or very low pressure solution.

Unlike anhydrous ammonia, aqua ammonia cannot be moved by its own pressure.
Pumps or air pressure is used for transfer and for forcing the solution through the nozzles into
the soil. The injection equipment is very much like that used for anhydrous ammonia. The
injection depth may be as little as 2 inches, and less care is necessary in application.
An economic comparison between aqua and anhydrous ammonia is difficult to make.

The conversion to the aqueous form is an added expense for the aqua ammonia, and the lower
concentration may increase local transportation and application costs. Tanks and some of the
handling facilities for aqua ammonia, however, are less expensive. Moreover, there is less loss
in transfer between tanks and perhaps less likelihood of loss during application.
NITROGEN SOLUTION:
The use of nitrogen solution as fertilizers for direct application is a fairly recent
development.
Properties of solution:
The main constituents used in nitrogen solutions are ammonium nitrate and urea, with
free ammonia added in some types. Various combinations of those are used to obtain the
desired properties.
The solutions are of two major types- low pressure and non-pressure. The former
contains free ammonia and are made primarily for ammoniating super phosphate. Such
solutions, which are important materials in the solid mixed- fertilizer industry, have a wide
range of vapour pressures. Those in the lower pressure range have been taken up, to same
extent in the direct application field.
For direct application, ammoniating solutions have the advantage over anhydrous
ammonia of having much lower vapour pressures and of being less hazardous. Their advantage
over aqua ammonia is in higher concentration. The combination of ammonia with the nitrogen
salts, especially ammonium nitrate, gives high solubility.
Non- pressure solutions contain either ammonium nitrate or urea, or a mixture of the
two. The high mutual solubility of the two salts gives a relatively high analysis solution for the
mixture and makes it one of the most popular of the nitrogen solutions. The crystallization
temperature of the solution is an important consideration. The main factors that affect
crystallization are
(1) The proportion of free ammonia
(2) The total salt concentration
(3) The use of urea and ammonia nitrate together
There are also a few special solutions, including

(1) Sodium nitrate- ammonium nitrate (20 % nitrogen)
(2) Calcium nitrate- ammonium nitrate (17% nitrogen)
(3) Ammonium bisulfite (8.5% nitrogen; 19.4% sulphur)
(4) Ammonium polysulfide (20.6% nitrogen; 45% sulphur)

These solutions are used to supply the supplemented element- sodium, calcium or sulphur,
when needed for special crop and soil conditions.
Storage and application:
Storage requirements for solutions vary according to the pressure classification of the
solution. The non- pressure solutions require no particular precautions, and the low pressure
ones is similar to aqua ammonia in general requirements. Both types, however, differ from
aqua and anhydrous ammonia in the construction material required for tanks and handling
equipment. The combination of free ammonia with salts in the lower pressure type is quite
corrosive to mild steel. Non- pressure solutions are not as corrosive but are enough so that mild
steel is seldom recommended for use with them.
Problems in applying low-pressure solutions are similar to those for anhydrous and aqua
ammonia. Non- pressure solutions allow more leeway in application because injection is not
necessary. Costs of applying nitrogen solution are less.
LIQUID MIXED FERTILIZERS
Liquid fertilizers include mixtures as well as single- nutrients direct application

materials. The main steps in the manufacture of liquid mixed fertilizers are weighing of
materials, neutralizing of phosphoric acid, addition of supplemental materials, and cooling.
Some continuous plants are in use, but the majority is of the batch type. The ammonia and acid
react in the stainless steel vessel and then enter the main body of solution, thereby keeping
partially neutralized acid away from the main tank wall. Most plants are equipped with coolers.
The neutralization can be carried out without any great loss of ammonia in plants which do not
have a cooler, but high ammonia grades such as 8-24-0 can be made faster if cooling is
provided,
The liquid mixes have an advantage over solid mixed fertilizer because more ammonia
and solutions can be used in producing them. For grades requiring supplemental nitrogen,
liquid mixes have the further advantage that all the supplement can be supplied in solution
form, usually as urea- ammonium nitrate solution.
(ii) Granulated mixtures.

GRANULATION OF FERTILIZERS AND THEIR ADVANTAGES
The idea was that if the areas of contact between particles could be reduced, the
material would cake correspondingly less in storage and that if the particles could be rounded
they would flow more easily from distribution hoppers on the farm. Steps taken to achieve
these objectives have included: -
(g) Making the particles of the constituents agglomerate as near to a spherical shape as
possible
(h) Narrowing the size range of the product delivered to the farmer
(i) Making the granules sufficiently mechanically strong to resist disintegration during
storage, transport and distribution

(j) Preventing chemical reaction alter the product was delivered to the farm which would
cause disintegration ex: allotropic transitions or double decomposition which would
involve large volume changes
(k) Coating the granules with an inert dust which makes a sort of ‘no man’s land’ between
the particles and keeps them discrete
(l) Drying the granules to such moisture content that only negligible quantities of solution
can form subsequent to manufacture, provided the product is protected from the entry
of moisture into the container of the product
Granules may be formed from solids by:
(d) Supplying the solids with appropriate proportions of liquid, which may dissolve some
of the solid and enter interstitially between appropriate groups of solid particles and
subsequently either
(i) Evaporate so as to leave appropriately shaped crystals which knit the solid
particles together or
(ii) Freeze so as to form a solid agglomerate with the solid particles
(e) Causing the solids ex: by heating to soften or, in the extreme to melt to a homogenous
liquid, and to comminute the liquid particles, preferably spheres, and subsequently to
solidify the particle ex: by cooling
(f) Including in the mixture which is to be granulated liquids which are in sufficient
proportions to permit the agglomeration of the mixture into parts, but which
subsequently by reaction become totally solid ex: acid with phosphate rock or ammonia
with phosphoric acid.
Techniques for forming agglomerate from suitably treated solids include:
(a) A rotating dish inclined at a small angle to the base. (Enrich mixer)
(b) A rotating drum with axis inclined at a small angle. (Conditioner)
(c) Rotating paddle fitting within a few millimeters to the sides of a
trough, the axis of which is inclined at a small angle (Blunger)
(d) Compressing solid particles together in mould (Pelletizing)
(e) Forming a sheet of mixture either by compression between rolls or by
first melting and the spreading on a cooled roll, and breaking up the sheet ex: with a
‘doctor knife’ or by passing through spiked rolls, and then passing the broken pieces
through a rotating drum which converts pieces into a approx. spherical shapes (flaking
and tumbling)
(f) Pushing the mixture, made plastic by heat or addition of a suitable
substance, through dies and cutting the extruded cord into suitable length and by
drying or other process converting the pieces into rigid solids.
(g) In appropriate cases by crystallization
(h) Spray drying a solution or slurry of the mixture
(i) Forcing the molten mixture through nozzles into vertically falling
threads which separate into appropriate spheres during the fall and for the particles to
be cooled and solidified (prilling).

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CH2032-FERTILIZER TECHNOLOGY Chemical Engineering 2014-2015

St. JOSEPH'S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

PART – A & PART – B WITH ANSWERS

PART – A CHAPTER- 1 AN OVERVIEW

1. What is a Fertilizer? What is the need for fertilizers? (May/June 2009)

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 1 ISO 9001-2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 2 ISO 9001-2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 3 ISO 9001-2008

Molybdate, cobalt-nickel and cobalt-nickel-alumina for desulphurisation by hydrogenation

PART – B CHAPTER- 1 AN OVERVIEW

1. With a neat flow diagram explain the manufacture of Ammonium Sulphate.

Manufacture of Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2 SO4]

– It is the most popular nitrogenous fertilizer.

– best fertilizer for paddies

– 20–21% Nitrogen, low concentration nitrogenous fertilizer

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 4 ISO 9001-2008

FLOW SHEET FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIAM SULPHATE

There are 3 types of Processes used:

1) From direct reaction between NH3 and H2SO4

(NH4)2CO3 (aq) + CaSO4.2H2O(s)  CaCO3(s) + 2H2O + (NH4)2 SO4

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 5 ISO 9001-2008

4) Some quantum of Amm. Sulphate is also obtained as a byproduct of Caprolactum(Nylon–6).

2. With a neat flow diagram explain the manufacture of Ammonium Nitrate.

NH3 + HNO3  NH4NO3 H = – 20.6 K. Cal

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 6 ISO 9001-2008

(exothermic) (ammonium carbamate)

NH2COONH4  NH2CONH2 + H2O H = + 42 Mj/ Kg mol.

Both are equilibrium reactions.

Undesirable side reaction:

2 NH2CONH2  NH2.CO. NH.CO.NH2.H2O + NH3

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 7 ISO 9001-2008

Process Description: (Montecatini solution recycle)

4. With a neat flow diagram explain the manufacture of Ammonium Chloride.

Draw the above flow sheet and explain the process.

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 8 ISO 9001-2008

5. Write the characteristics, and specifications of Ammonium nitrate.

 Urea is the most convenient form for fixed Nitrogen

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 9 ISO 9001-2008

 In addition to fertilizer use, it is used as a protein food supplement for ruminants , in

(exothermic) (ammonium carbamate)

NH2COONH4  NH2CONH2 + H2O H = + 42 Mj/ Kg mol.

Both are equilibrium reactions.

Undesirable side reaction:

2 NH2CONH2  NH2.CO. NH.CO.NH2.H2O + NH3

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 10 ISO 9001-2008

Process Description: (Montecatini solution recycle)

PART – A CHAPTER- 2 NITROGENOUS FERTILIZERS

1. What is a Fertilizer? What is the need for fertilizers? (May/June 2009)

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 11 ISO 9001-2008

Claude process, Haber’s process

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 12 ISO 9001-2008

Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate is a nitrogen fertilizer, formed by a mixture of ammonium

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 13 ISO 9001-2008

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering 14 ISO 9001-2008

PART – B CHAPTER- 2 NITROGENOUS FERTILIZERS

1. Explain in detail the procedure for the beneficiation of Phosphate Rock.

Desliming Slime Waste Desliming

Sandwich Screens Stationary Screen sizing