Urban Evolution: From Roots to Skylines

In the heart of India, where centuries-old traditions meet the relentless march of progress, a new
narrative is unfolding- one where cities emerge and thrive amidst the enduring symphony of rural
landscapes, reshaping the nation's destiny. Urbanisation is an unbiased coin of growth; it carries flaws
on the reverse of perks.

Urban Unveiling
(Introducing the dynamic world of urbanisation)

Urbanisation serves as a pivotal indicator of the shift from traditional rural economies to
contemporary industrialised ones, embodying a progressive concentration of population in urban
centres (Davis, 1965).Kingsley Davis elucidates urbanisation as a transformative process, marking the
transition from a dispersed pattern of human settlements to a focal point in urban centres (Davis,
1962). This evolution is finite, comprising a cycle through which nations progress from agrarian to
industrial societies (Davis and Golden, 1954). Davis identifies three stages in this urbanisation
process.

The initial stage, stage one, is characterised by a predominantly rural traditional society with a focus
on agriculture and a dispersed settlement pattern. Stage two signifies an acceleration stage, marked by
fundamental restructuring of the economy and investments in social overhead capitals, including
transportation and communication. The third stage, the terminal stage, is reached when the urban
population surpasses 70%, leading to a stabilisation in the level of urbanisation (Davis, 1965). At this
point, the rate of growth of urban population aligns with the total population growth.

Urbanisation is intricately intertwined with modernisation, industrialisation, and the sociological

process of rationalisation. Beyond being a contemporary phenomenon, it stands as a rapid and historic
transformation of global human social roots. This transformation involves the swift replacement of
predominantly rural culture with an urban one. Urbanisation unfolds through individual, commercial,
and governmental initiatives that streamline commuting, enhance job opportunities, and improve
access to education, housing, and transportation. The migration of rural inhabitants to cities in pursuit
of fortune and social mobility plays a significant role, yet the reality of urbanisation reveals
challenges arising from haphazard and unplanned urban growth due to rapid industrialisation.

Diverse Cityscapes
(Exploring regional nuances in urban development)

According to the Census of 2011,the landscape of urbanisation in India exhibits a notable diversity
among its states. Goa takes the lead as the most urbanised state, where a substantial 62.17% of the
population resides in urban areas. In the league of larger states, Tamil Nadu leads with 48.45%,
followed closely by Kerala (47.72%), Maharashtra (45.23%), Gujarat (42.58%), Karnataka (38.57%),
and Punjab (37.49%), where urban living surpasses one-third of the population. In contrast, Himachal
Pradesh holds the record for the lowest urbanisation rate, with merely ten percent of its residents
dwelling in urban spaces. The percentage of urban population to total population falls below the
national average in Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, Meghalaya,
Assam, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh.
Delving into the realm of union territories, Delhi and Chandigarh emerge as the epitomes of urban
development, boasting striking urban populations of 97.50% and 97.25%, respectively. On the flip
side, Andaman & Nicobar Islands trail behind, registering a modest 35.67% urban population. With
exceptions like Dadra & Nagar Haveli, most union territories display a remarkably high degree of
urbanisation.

A fascinating facet emerges as we scrutinise the urban demographic distribution on a broader scale.
The quintet of Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh
accommodates more than half of India's urban inhabitants. Simultaneously, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Bihar, and Rajasthan constitute another quintet, contributing a significant quarter. This
dual ensemble remarkably constitutes over three-fourths of India's total urban populace, underscoring
the concentrated nature of urbanisation in the country.

Past Meets Present

(Unravelling the historical threads of urbanisation)

The historical trajectory of urbanisation in India lays the foundation for understanding its intricate
evolution into the present times. Ancient marvels like the planned cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-
daro bear testament to early urban sophistication. However, the subsequent dominance of agrarian
societies prevailed until medieval dynasties such as the Mughals ushered in urban centres like Delhi
and Agra, demonstrating a fusion of architectural grandeur and civic planning.

The British colonial period marked a pivotal shift, introducing industrialisation and laying the
groundwork for cities like Mumbai and Kolkata to emerge as economic hubs. Post-independence,
urbanisation gained momentum as rural-to-urban migration intensified, spurred by economic
opportunities and infrastructural developments. The Green Revolution in the 1960s, while primarily
transforming agriculture, also redirected demographic patterns, influencing the urban landscape.

The late 20th and early 21st centuries witnessed an unprecedented surge in urbanisation, driven by
globalisation, technological advancements, and demographic shifts. Metropolitan areas expanded
rapidly, becoming economic powerhouses. However, this rapid growth came with its set of
challenges. Issues such as slums, traffic congestion, and environmental degradation became
increasingly pronounced, necessitating strategic urban planning.

In the present era, government initiatives like the Smart Cities Mission reflect a concerted effort to
address these challenges. Integrating technology and sustainable practices into urban development has
become imperative. Yet, the outcomes remain diverse, with some cities experiencing robust growth
and infrastructural advancements, while others grapple with deficits and disparities, underscoring the
complexities of India's urbanisation.

Roots of Change
(Understanding the causes behind urbanisation)

Urbanisation in India is a dynamic process driven by a multitude of interconnected factors. From the
relentless forces of industrialisation and economic opportunities to rural-to-urban migration,
population growth, and government initiatives, the causes of urbanisation are complex and
multifaceted. This brief exploration delves into the key elements that contribute to the ongoing
transformation of India's landscape, shedding light on the diverse forces shaping the urban narrative.
1.Industrialisation and economic opportunities:
The rapid industrialisation in India, particularly since the economic reforms of the early 1990s, has
been a significant catalyst for urbanisation. The growth of industries in urban centres creates job
opportunities, attracting a substantial rural-to-urban migration.The rapid growth of Information
Technology (IT) hubs like Bengaluru and Hyderabad showcases how industrialisation, particularly in
the tech sector, has driven urbanisation. Companies such as Infosys and Microsoft have not only
transformed these cities economically but have also drawn a skilled workforce from across the
country.

2.Rural-to-urban migration and employment opportunities:

The pull of employment opportunities in urban areas serves as a compelling force for people from
rural regions to migrate. This migration is not solely driven by unemployment in rural areas but also
by the allure of diverse job prospects in cities.Mumbai's exponential urban growth can be dissected
through the lens of rural-to-urban migration. The city's financial and film industries, known globally,
act as magnets for job seekers. This migration isn't merely a response to unemployment but a strategic
move toward diverse employment opportunities available in the urban landscape.

3. Population growth and occupational shift:

India's burgeoning population contributes to urbanisation as a larger workforce seeks employment in
expanding urban sectors. Simultaneously, there's a shift from agrarian occupations to diverse urban-
centric jobs, reflecting the changing economic landscape.Delhi's evolution into a bustling metropolis
reflects India's population growth and occupational shift. As the national capital, it has witnessed a
transformation from primarily administrative functions to a hub for various industries, thereby
altering the occupational landscape.

4.Education and healthcare facilities:

Urban areas tend to offer better educational and healthcare facilities, acting as magnets for those
seeking improved standards of living. This is especially evident as individuals prioritise access to
quality education and healthcare for themselves and their families.Chennai's development as a
healthcare and educational hub exemplifies how the availability of renowned institutions like Apollo
Hospitals and educational establishments like IIT Madras has attracted individuals not only for
employment but also for a higher quality of life.

5.Government initiatives and urban transformation:

Government policies and initiatives promoting urban development and infrastructure play a pivotal
role in the migration of people to cities. Urban-centric policies often aim at transforming rural areas
into urban centres, further accelerating the urbanisation process.The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Renewal Mission (JNNURM) launched in 2005 aimed at transforming cities, improving
infrastructure, and providing housing. Cities like Ahmedabad and Pune have undergone significant
changes due to such initiatives, influencing urban migration patterns.

6.Climatic conditions and technological advancement:

Favourable climatic conditions in certain urban areas, coupled with technological advancements,
attract people seeking better living standards and employment prospects. Cities equipped with
advanced infrastructure become attractive hubs for a diverse population.Bengaluru's emergence as the
'Silicon Valley of India' is intricately linked to climatic conditions and technological progress. The
city's pleasant climate, combined with the establishment of IT parks and a conducive ecosystem for
innovation, has attracted professionals, fostering technological advancement and urban growth.

7.Social and cultural aspects:

Urban areas are often seen as centres of cultural and social dynamism. The cosmopolitan nature of
cities provides exposure to diverse cultures, fostering a spirit of inclusivity and openness, which is an
attractive aspect for migrants.Kolkata's sustained urbanisation is characterised by the preservation of
its rich cultural heritage amidst modernisation. The city's ability to embrace progress while retaining
its cultural identity makes it an appealing destination for those seeking a harmonious blend of
tradition and contemporary living.

City Dilemmas
(Confronting issues and challenges in urban spaces)

Problem of urbanisation is manifestation of lopsided urbanisation, faulty urban planning, and

urbanisation with poor economic base without having functional categories.Class I cities such as
Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Madras have reached saturation level of employment generating capacity
(Kundu, 1997). Most of these cities using capital intensive technologies cannot generate employment
for these distressed rural poor. So, there is a transfer from rural poverty to urban poverty.
The effects of urbanisation may be seen on various lines in the following
components:

1.Overcrowding:
Overcrowding is a situation in which too many people live in too little space. Overcrowding is a
logical consequence of overpopulation in urban areas. It is naturally expected that cities having a large
size of population squeezed in a small space must suffer from overcrowding. This is well exhibited by
almost all the big cities of India. For example, Mumbai has one-sixth of an acre of open space per
thousand populations though four acres is suggested standard by the Master Plan of Greater Mumbai.
Metropolitan cities of India are overcrowded both in ‘absolute’ and ‘relative’ terms.

2. Slums and housing problems:

In Indian urban centres, the critical lack of housing options poses a significant challenge, affecting
both metropolitan areas and smaller towns. This issue stems from the insufficient expansion of
housing facilities to keep pace with the demands of rapid urbanisation. Consequently, a substantial
portion of the population, particularly the economically disadvantaged, is compelled to reside in
slums. These informal settlements, known by various names such as Bustees in Calcutta, Jhuggis in
Delhi, Chawl in Mumbai, and Cheri in Chennai, have proliferated across the country. Approximately
40% of residents in major cities like Calcutta, Mumbai, and Delhi find themselves living in these
substandard conditions. Slums exhibit highly unsanitary living conditions, with makeshift lavatories
constructed over shallow pits between huts, often covered by sackcloth "curtains." Children
frequently defecate in open areas, contributing to the prevalence of diseases like blood dysentery,
diarrhoea, malaria, typhoid, jaundice, and conjunctivitis. Additionally, daily activities such as
washing clothes and utensils under hand pumps further contribute to the spread of diseases, leading to
a persistent health crisis, especially affecting malnourished children susceptible to ailments like polio.

3. Transport:
With traffic bottlenecks and traffic congestion, almost all cities and towns of India are suffering from
acute forms of transport problems. Transport problems increase and become more complex as the
town grows in size. With its growth, the town performs varied and complex functions and more
people travel to work or shop.This puts tremendous pressure on public transport and causes journeys
to take much longer periods than they normally would. In most cities the rush hour or peak traffic
hour lasts for about two hours and during that period buses and trains are crammed to capacity, roads
are overcrowded with vehicles and the movement of traffic becomes very slow.

4.Trash disposal
As Indian cities grow in number and size the problem of trash disposal is assuming alarming
proportions. Huge quantities of garbage produced by our cities pose a serious health problem. Most
cites do not have proper arrangements for garbage disposal and the existing landfills are full to the
brim. These landfills are hotbeds of disease and innumerable poisons leaking into their surroundings.
Wastes putrefy in the open inviting disease carrying flies and a filthy, poisonous liquid, called
leachate, which leaks out from below and contaminates groundwater. People who live near the rotting
garbage and raw sewage fall easy victims to several diseases like dysentery, malaria, plague, jaundice,
diarrhoea, typhoid, etc.

5.Sewage problems:
Urban areas in India are almost invariably plagued with insufficient and inefficient sewage facilities.
Not a single city in India is fully sewered. Resource crunch faced by the municipalities and
unauthorised growth of the cities are two major causes of this pathetic state of affairs.The reason for
this is that the unauthorised constructions in and around the city lie outside the purview of the main
systems. It has been estimated that only 38 per
cent of the urban population has a sewage system. Mumbai’s crumbling sewer network is a century
old, put in place by the British planners when the city was no more than a series of fishing villages.
Today, it breaks down frequently with the waste of about eight million more people than it was
designed for. Most cities do not have proper arrangements for treating the sewage waste and it is
drained into a nearby river (as in Delhi) or in sea (as in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai), thereby
polluting the water bodies. In most Indian cities, water pipes run in close proximity to sewer lines.
Any leakage leads to contamination of water which results in the spread of several water borne
diseases.

6. Water supply:
Water stands as a vital element for sustaining life, influencing the selection of settlement sites since
the dawn of urban civilisations. However, with urban expansion, the demand for water began
exceeding the available supply. Today we have reached a stage where practically no city in India gets
sufficient water to meet the needs of city dwellers. In many cities people get water from the municipal
sources for less than half an hour every alternate day.During dry summers, taps remain dry for
extended periods, leaving people without water when they need it the most. Intermittent supply results
in a vacuum being created in empty water lines which often suck in pollution through leaking joints.

7. Environmental problems:
The swift urbanisation process leads to the disproportionate growth of industries and transportation
systems, primarily contributing to environmental pollution, especially in urban areas. A robust India,
both economically and socially, is unattainable if our cities linger in squalor, experiencing a decline in
the quality of urban life, and sustaining irreparable damage to the urban environment. Cities, essential
for economic expansion, are viewed positively as catalysts for economic growth and agents of socio-
political transformation.
An Example of Urban Evolution
( Navigating Bangalore's metamorphosis)

Introduction:
Bangalore, the capital of Karnataka in India, has experienced profound urbanisation over the past few
decades, transforming from a Garden City to the Silicon Valley of India. This case study delves into
the multifaceted aspects of urbanisation in Bangalore, exploring its economic, demographic, and
infrastructural dimensions.

Economic facets:
The Information Technology (IT) boom in the late 20th century played a pivotal role in Bangalore's
urban metamorphosis. The city became a global IT hub, attracting multinational corporations and
fostering a thriving technology ecosystem. This economic shift is exemplified by projects like
Electronic City, a hub hosting tech parks and corporate offices. Electronic City not only elevated the
city's status but also contributed significantly to job creation, accelerating rural-to-urban migration.

Demographic transformation:
The influx of people seeking employment opportunities spurred a demographic surge in Bangalore.
The city witnessed a rapid rise in its population, leading to increased demand for housing, education,
and healthcare. This surge posed challenges to the existing urban infrastructure, requiring adaptive
strategies to accommodate the growing population. The Namma Metro project, launched in 2011, has
played a crucial role in easing commuting challenges, catering to the needs of the growing population.

Infrastructural challenges:
Urbanisation brought forth a host of infrastructural challenges for Bangalore. The city grappled with
issues such as traffic congestion, inadequate public transportation, and strained water resources. The
Bangalore Elevated Tollway Limited (BETL) project introduced elevated toll roads, addressing traffic
bottlenecks and enhancing overall urban mobility.

Technological innovation in urban governance:

As Bangalore embraced its role as a technology hub, the city leveraged technological innovations for
urban governance. Smart city initiatives were introduced to enhance efficiency in service delivery,
waste management, and public safety. The Intelligent Transport System (ITS) was introduced,
optimising traffic flow and enhancing overall urban infrastructure efficiency. This integration of
technology positioned Bangalore as a pioneer in smart urban solutions within the Indian context.

Environmental impacts:
The rapid pace of urbanisation in Bangalore raised concerns about environmental sustainability. The
city's once-lush green cover witnessed depletion due to extensive construction and urban sprawl.
Biodiversity parks like Lalbagh and Cubbon Park showcase Bangalore's commitment to
environmental conservation, providing recreational spaces while contributing to ecological balance.

Conclusion:
Bangalore's case study serves as a microcosm of India's urbanisation narrative, highlighting the
intricate interplay of economic, demographic, and environmental factors. As the city grapples with the
complexities of urban growth, it stands as a testament to the need for holistic urban planning,
sustainable development, and innovative governance models to navigate the challenges of a rapidly
urbanising nation.
Concluding Reflections
(Reflecting on the journey of city evolution)

Since the mega cities have reached saturation level for employment generation and to avoid
overcrowding into the over-congested slums of megacities i.e Bombay, Calcutta,Delhi, Madras, it is
required to build strong economic sector (Kundu and Basu, 1998) in the urban economy. Growth
efforts and investments should be directed towards small cities which have been neglected so that the
functional base of the urban economy is strengthened. Policy should also be related to proper urban
planning where city planning will consist of operational, developmental and restorative planning.
Operational planning should take care of improvement of urban infrastructure, e.g. roads, traffic,
transport.

In the relentless dance between rural pasts and urban futures, India's destiny is inscribed. As villagers
become city dwellers, as fields give way to skyscrapers, and as the heartbeat of a nation pulses
through the bustling streets of its cities, we witness not just urbanisation, but a transformation - a
metamorphosis of dreams, aspirations, and progress. It's a saga of reinvention, where tradition fuels
innovation, where villages echo stories of resilience, and cities resound with opportunities. In this
great migration, India writes a new verse, where the past meets the future, and where hope and
challenges intertwine. Here, in the crucible of urbanisation, India's tale unfolds - a story of hope,
challenges, and the indomitable spirit of a nation forging ahead, inimitable and unparalleled.

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