PREPARED BY: ENG.PHILIP.

UNIT OF COMPETENCE: SUBSTRUCTURE WORKS.

TOPIC ONE: SETTING OUT

INTRODUCTION TO SETTING OUT:

Setting out in building refers to the process of establishing the exact positions
and dimensions of various elements of a construction project on the ground or
within a structure.

It involves transferring the dimensions and specifications from architectural

and engineering drawings onto the actual construction site. This step is crucial
to ensure that the construction work is carried out accurately, following the
approved plans and designs.

Key aspects of setting out in building include:

✓ Establishing Reference Points: These are fixed and stable points on the
construction site that serve as benchmarks for all measurements. They are
used as a basis for locating and positioning various elements of the
building.

✓ Using Leveling Instruments: Tools like dumpy levels, laser levels, and
theodolites are employed to ensure that horizontal and vertical lines are
accurately established. This is particularly important for ensuring that
foundations and structural elements are level and plumb.

✓ Measuring and Marking: Precise measurements are taken using tools

like measuring tapes, rulers, and squares. These measurements are then
marked on the ground or on the structure itself to indicate where various
elements should be positioned.
 ✓ Transferring Dimensions: Dimensions and specifications from
architectural and engineering drawings are carefully transferred to the
construction site. This includes the layout of walls, columns, beams, and
other structural elements.

✓ Gridlines and Grid References: Gridlines are established on the site to

create a system of references that guide the construction process. They
help ensure that elements are positioned accurately in relation to each
other.

✓ Checking and Adjusting: Regular checks are conducted to verify that

everything is positioned correctly. Any discrepancies or errors are
identified and corrected promptly to maintain accuracy.

Setting out is a critical initial step in the construction process. It serves as the
foundation for all subsequent construction work, ensuring that the building is
constructed according to the approved plans and meets the required standards
of quality and safety.

Setting out in construction is of paramount importance for several reasons:

✓ Alignment and Proportions: It establishes the correct alignment and

proportions of various elements in a building. This ensures that walls,
columns, beams, and other components are positioned accurately
according to the design plans.

✓ Structural Integrity: Precise setting out is crucial for ensuring the

structural integrity of a building. It helps in placing foundations, walls,
and structural members in their intended locations, which is essential for
load-bearing and stability.

✓ Compliance with Regulations: Accurate setting out ensures that the

construction adheres to building codes, zoning regulations, and safety
standards. It helps prevent deviations that might lead to non-compliance
issues.
 ✓ Avoiding Rework and Waste: Incorrectly positioned elements can lead
to costly rework or even demolition of parts of the building. Proper
setting out minimizes the likelihood of errors, saving time, labor, and
materials.

✓ Facilitating Coordination: It serves as a reference point for all trades

involved in the construction process. Plumbers, electricians, and other
contractors rely on accurate setting out to install their systems and
components correctly.

✓ Precision in Finishes: Accurate setting out is crucial for achieving high-

quality finishes. It ensures that tiles, windows, doors, and other finishing
materials are installed correctly, resulting in a polished and aesthetically
pleasing final product.

✓ Cost Efficiency: Proper setting out helps control costs by reducing

material wastage and labor associated with rework. It also helps avoid
potential legal and financial implications of non-compliance.

✓ Quality Assurance and Client Satisfaction: Precise setting out

demonstrates professionalism and attention to detail. This can enhance
client confidence and satisfaction, leading to positive feedback and
potential future business.

✓ Safety Considerations: Accurate setting out plays a role in ensuring the

safety of the building. Properly aligned structural elements contribute to
the stability and integrity of the structure, reducing the risk of accidents
or collapses.

In summary, setting out is the foundation upon which a construction project

is built. It establishes the framework for the entire construction process,
ensuring that the final product is safe, compliant, and of high quality. It is a
critical step that requires precision, attention to detail, and adherence to
industry standards and best practices.
Tools and equipment used for setting out
✓ Measuring Tape:
Description: A flexible tape used to measure distances, lengths, and heights
accurately.
Importance: Fundamental for obtaining precise measurements on the
construction site.

✓ Spirit Level:
Description: A tool with a liquid-filled tube and an air bubble indicator used to
determine if a surface is level or plumb.
Importance: Ensures that elements are positioned horizontally or vertically
accurately.

✓ Dumpy Level:
Description: An optical instrument used for measuring horizontal levels and
setting out level points.
Importance: Provides accurate reference points for establishing horizontal
planes.
 ✓ Laser Level:
Description: Projects a laser beam as a level reference point. It can be used for
both horizontal and vertical alignments.
Importance: Offers a highly accurate and efficient means of setting out.

✓ Theodolite:
Description: A more advanced optical instrument that measures horizontal and
vertical angles for precise positioning.
Importance: Useful for more complex setting out tasks that require accurate
angular measurements.
 ✓ Plumb Bob:
Description: A weighted object attached to a string used to establish vertical
lines or "plumbs."
Importance: Ensures that walls and other vertical elements are accurately
aligned.

✓ Builder's Square:

Description: A right-angled tool used for measuring and marking 90-degree

angles.
Importance: Useful for creating square corners and ensuring perpendicular
alignments.

✓ Chalk Line:
EXPLAIN METHODS OF SETTING OUT

✓ Baseline Method:
Involves establishing a baseline (reference line) from which all other
measurements are taken. This method is useful for projects with long, linear
elements, like roads or pipelines.
✓ Offset Method:
Uses a series of perpendicular offsets from an established reference line or
point. This is effective for positioning features that are not directly accessible or
for creating parallel lines.
✓ Triangulation Method:
Utilizes the principles of trigonometry to determine positions. It involves
measuring angles and distances between known and unknown points to
calculate positions accurately.
✓ Coordinate Method:
Involves using a grid system, with coordinates indicating precise locations. This
method is commonly used in larger projects or when accuracy is of utmost
importance.
✓ Grid Method:
Establishes a grid of squares or rectangles across the construction site. Each
intersection of grid lines becomes a reference point for measurements.
✓ Batter Board Method:
Uses a system of batter boards, strings, and pegs to create a level and square
reference framework. This method is especially useful for setting out building
foundations.
✓ Profile Board Method:
Involves creating a series of profile boards that outline the shape or profile of a
structure. This is particularly useful for irregular shapes or contours.
✓ String Line Method:
Utilizes tightly stretched strings to create straight lines, either in a horizontal or
vertical orientation. This is often used for aligning walls, fences, and other
linear features.
✓ Transit and Leveling Method:
Uses a leveling instrument (such as a dumpy level or laser level) along with a
graduated staff to establish level lines. This is crucial for precise leveling and
vertical alignment.
PROCEDURE FOR SETTING OUT
Setting out refers to the process of establishing the correct position and
dimensions of a structure or construction project on a site. Here's a step-by-step
procedure for setting out:

✓ Review the Plans and Drawings:

Familiarize yourself with the architectural and engineering plans and drawings
for the project.
✓ Establish Control Points:
Identify and establish control points on the site. These are reference points with
known coordinates that will be used for accurate measurements.
✓ Marking the Baseline:
Determine a baseline from which other measurements will be taken. This is
usually a straight line along one edge of the site.
✓ Transfer Dimensions:
Use measurement tools (such as tapes, levels, and theodolites) to transfer
dimensions and positions from the plans onto the site.
✓ Set Batter Boards (if needed):
If required, set up batter boards at key points to help maintain accurate
measurements and elevations.
✓ Establish Corner Points:
Use measurements from the plans to mark out the corners of the structure
accurately. This often involves using stakes and strings.
✓ Check for Squareness:
Ensure that the corners are square by using the 3-4-5 method (creating a triangle
with sides of 3, 4, and 5 units).
✓ Setting Levels:
Establish the required levels and elevations for the project. This might involve
using a dumpy level or laser level.
✓ Marking Foundations:
Outline the foundation trenches or footings based on the dimensions provided in
the plans.
✓ Check for Alignment:
Ensure that all components are aligned correctly according to the plans. This
includes walls, columns, and other structural elements.
 ✓ Inspect and Adjust:
Regularly check and recheck measurements and levels to ensure accuracy.
Make any necessary adjustments.
✓ Final Verification:
Before any construction work begins, do a final verification of all measurements
and positions to ensure everything is correct.
Remember, precision is crucial in setting out as it forms the foundation for the
entire construction project. Always double-check your work and seek
professional advice if you're unsure about any aspect of the process.
 TOPIC 2: EXCAVATE BUILDING FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION
The word "foundation" has multiple meanings, but it generally refers to a base
or support. In construction, a foundation is the lowest part of a building or other
structure that is in direct contact with the ground and transfers loads from the
structure to the soil. Foundations can be shallow or deep, depending on the type
of soil and the weight of the structure.

The foundation of the house is made of concrete.

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF FOUNDATION
❖ Support the weight of the structure above.
This includes the weight of the building itself, as well as any furniture, fixtures,
and equipment that will be inside.
❖ Transfer the load from the structure to the soil.
The foundation must be able to spread the weight of the structure out over a
large enough area of soil so that the soil can support it without settling or
collapsing.
❖ Prevent the structure from settling or sinking.
The foundation must be strong enough to resist the downward pressure of the
structure above, as well as any other forces that may be acting on it, such as
wind or earthquakes.
❖ Protect the structure from erosion and other environmental hazards.
The foundation must be able to withstand the elements, such as rain, snow, and
ice. It may also need to be designed to protect the structure from flooding,
wildfires, or other hazards.
❖ Be durable and long-lasting.
The foundation should be built to last for the life of the structure above. It
should be made of materials that are resistant to corrosion and other
forms of deterioration.
N/B. foundations are typically designed by engineers. Engineers consider a
variety of factors when designing a foundation, including the type of soil, the
weight of the structure, and the local climate. They also need to make sure that
the foundation meets all applicable building codes and regulations.
Once the foundation has been designed, it is constructed by skilled
tradespeople. The type of foundation that is used will depend on the factors
mentioned above, as well as the cost and schedule of the project.
Foundations are an essential part of any structure. They play a vital role in
ensuring the safety and durability of the building above.
CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT FOUNDATION
❖ Soil conditions:
The type of soil that the foundation is built on has a major impact on its
performance. Soft or unstable soils may not be able to support the weight of the
structure, leading to foundation failure.
❖ Water:
Water can damage foundations in a number of ways. For example, it can cause
the soil to expand and contract, which can put stress on the foundation. Water
can also erode the soil, weakening the foundation's support.
❖ Vegetation:
Tree roots can grow into foundations and damage them. This is especially a
problem with large trees that have deep roots.
❖ Poor construction:
Foundations that are not built properly are more likely to fail. This can be due
to a number of factors, such as using substandard materials or not following
proper construction techniques.
❖ Age:
Foundations can deteriorate over time, especially if they are not properly
maintained. This can be caused by factors such as exposure to the elements,
wear and tear, and corrosion.
In addition to these general conditions, there are a number of specific factors
that can affect foundations, such as:
❖ Flooding:
Flooding can cause the soil to erode, weakening the foundation's support. It can
also damage the foundation itself, especially if the floodwaters are contaminated
with chemicals or other pollutants.
❖ Earthquakes:
Earthquakes can shake foundations loose, causing them to fail.
❖ Mining:
Mining can cause the ground to subside, which can damage foundations.
 ❖ Climate change:
Climate change is causing more extreme weather events, such as heavy rains
and flooding. These events can damage foundations in the ways described
above.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING TYPE OF
FOUNDATION.
❖ Soil conditions: The type of soil that the foundation will be built on is
the most important factor to consider. Soil conditions can vary greatly
from site to site, so it is important to have a geotechnical engineer
evaluate the soil at the construction site. The geotechnical engineer will
determine the soil bearing capacity and other soil properties that will
affect the design of the foundation.
❖ Type of structure: The type of structure that will be built on the
foundation will also affect the design of the foundation. For example, a
large, heavy structure will require a stronger foundation than a small,
lightweight structure.
❖ Budget: The budget for the project will also play a role in the selection of
the type of foundation. Some types of foundations are more expensive to
build than others.
❖ Construction schedule: The construction schedule may also affect the
selection of the type of foundation. Some types of foundations take longer
to build than others.
In addition to these factors, there are a number of other considerations that may
affect the selection of the type of foundation, such as:
❖ Water table level: If the water table is high at the construction site, the
foundation will need to be designed to resist the hydrostatic pressure of
the groundwater.
❖ Seismic activity: If the construction site is located in a seismically active
area, the foundation will need to be designed to withstand earthquakes.
❖ Frost depth: If the construction site is located in a cold climate, the
foundation will need to be designed to resist frost heave.
❖ Environmental regulations: There may be environmental regulations
that restrict the type of foundation that can be used at a particular
construction site.
Here are some examples of different types of foundations and the types of
structures for which they are typically used:
 ❖ Shallow foundations:
Shallow foundations are the most common type of foundation. They are
typically used for small to medium-sized structures, such as houses, garages,
and commercial buildings. Shallow foundations are relatively inexpensive to
build and can be constructed quickly.
❖ Deep foundations:
Deep foundations are used for large, heavy structures, such as bridges,
skyscrapers, and dams. They are also used for structures that are built on soft or
unstable soil. Deep foundations are more expensive to build than shallow
foundations, but they are more stable and can support more weight.
❖ Pier foundations:
Pier foundations are a type of deep foundation that is typically used for bridges
and other structures that are built over water. Pier foundations consist of
concrete or steel columns that are sunk into the ground or bedrock.

❖ Pile foundations:
Pile foundations are another type of deep foundation that is typically used for
large, heavy structures, such as skyscrapers and dams. Pile foundations consist
of long, slender columns that are driven into the ground or bedrock.
 DIVISIONS OF FOUNDATION
❖ Natural foundation.
A natural foundation is a foundation that is made from natural materials, such as
stone, earth, or wood. Natural foundations are often used in natural building.
❖ Artificial foundation.
Expanded base of a wall or column which is constructed with concrete or
masonry materials like rocks, stone, or bricks.

METHODS OF EXCAVATION
❖ Mechanical excavation.
It uses heavy machinery, such as excavators, bulldozers, and loaders, to remove
soil and rock.
Mechanical excavation is faster and more efficient than manual excavation, but
it is also more expensive.
❖ Manual excavation
Manual excavation uses hand tools, such as shovels, picks, and wheelbarrows,
to remove soil and rock.
Manual excavation is slower and more labor-intensive than mechanical
excavation, but it is also less expensive.
There are a number of different mechanical excavation methods, including:
✓ Excavation using excavators:
Excavators are the most versatile type of excavation equipment. They can be
used to dig trenches, pits, and other types of excavations. Excavators have a
long arm with a bucket on the end. The bucket is used to scoop up soil and rock
and load it into dump trucks or other vehicles.
 ✓ Excavation using bulldozers:
Bulldozers are used to move large quantities of soil and rock. They have a large
blade on the front that is used to push soil and rock. Bulldozers are often used to
clear land or to level out construction sites.

✓ Excavation using loaders:

Loaders are used to load soil and rock into dump trucks or other vehicles.
Loaders have a large bucket on the front that is used to scoop up soil and rock.
Loaders are often used in conjunction with excavators or bulldozers to remove
soil and rock from an excavation site.
The type of mechanical excavation method that is used will depend on the size
and complexity of the project, as well as the type of soil or rock that is being
excavated.
Manual excavation methods include:
✓ Digging with a shovel: A shovel is the most common hand tool used for
excavation. Shovels are used to dig trenches, pits, and other types of
excavations. Shovels come in a variety of sizes and shapes, depending on
the type of excavation work that needs to be done.
 ✓ Digging with a pick: A pick is a hand tool that is used to break up hard
soil or rock. Picks have a sharp blade on one end and a pointed tip on the
other end. Picks are often used in conjunction with shovels to dig
trenches and pits.

✓ Removing soil with a wheelbarrow: A wheelbarrow is a hand tool that

is used to transport soil and rock from an excavation site to another
location. Wheelbarrows have a large tray on the front that is used to hold
soil and rock. Wheelbarrows also have two wheels, which makes it easy
to move them around.

TIMBERING
is a temporary support system that is used to prevent the collapse of the sides
of a trench or excavation.
Timbering is used in a variety of construction projects, such as:
✓ Building foundations
✓ Installing underground utilities
✓ Repairing roads and bridges
✓ Constructing retaining walls
✓ Excavating for swimming pools and other structures
Timbering is important for safety because it prevents the collapse of trenches
and excavations, which can injure or kill workers. It is also important for
preventing damage to property and infrastructure.

TERMS USED IN TIMBERING

✓ Polling: they are vertical planks supporting the soil from falling
✓ Walling: they are horizontal timber strips supporting the polling
✓ Struts: these are timber which span across the trench b2n the walling
✓ Wedge (s): piece of timber used to maintain pressure of the polling
against the soil.

There are a number of different types of timbering systems,

✓ Trench box. A trench box is a prefabricated system of timber beams and
planks that is assembled around the trench to support the sides. Trench
boxes are available in a variety of sizes and can be stacked to support
deep excavations.
Other types of timbering systems include:
✓ Sheet piling: Sheet piling is made of interlocking metal or concrete
sheets that are driven into the ground to support the sides of a trench.
Sheet piling is typically used for deep excavations or in areas where the
soil is unstable.

✓ Bracing: Bracing is a system of timber beams and struts that is used to

support the sides of a trench. Bracing is typically used for shallow
excavations or in areas where the soil is stable.

✓ Soldier beams: Soldier beams are large timber beams that are driven into
the ground to support the sides of a trench. Soldier beams are typically
used for deep excavations or in areas where the soil is unstable.

The type of timbering system that is used will depend on the size and complexity
of the project, as well as the type of soil or rock that is being excavated
REASONS FOR TIMBERING
There are a number of reasons for timbering, including:
✓ Safety: Timbering prevents the collapse of trenches and excavations,
which can injure or kill workers. It is also important for preventing
damage to property and infrastructure.

✓ Stability: Timbering provides support for the sides of a trench or

excavation, which prevents them from caving in. This is especially
important in areas where the soil is loose or unstable.

✓ Water control: Timbering can help to control water infiltration into a

trench or excavation. This is important for preventing flooding and other
hazards.
✓ Access: Timbering can provide a safe and stable platform for workers to
access the bottom of a trench or excavation. This is important for
completing tasks such as installing utilities, repairing infrastructure, and
constructing foundations.
Timbering is an essential safety measure for many construction projects. It is
used to protect workers, property, and infrastructure from the hazards of trench
and excavation collapse.
Here are some specific examples of situations where timbering is required:
✓ When excavating in loose or unstable soil
✓ When excavating in wet or flooded areas
✓ When excavating near existing structures or infrastructure
✓ When excavating to a depth greater than 5 feet
✓ When excavating for underground utilities, such as sewer lines and water
pipes
factors to consider when selecting timbering
✓ Size and depth of the excavation: The size and depth of the excavation
will determine the type and size of timbering system that is required. For
example, a deeper excavation will require a stronger and more complex
timbering system than a shallow excavation.
 ✓ Type of soil: The type of soil that is being excavated will also affect the
type of timbering system that is required. For example, loose or unstable
soil will require a stronger timbering system than stable soil.

✓ Presence of water: If water is present in the excavation, the timbering

system will need to be designed to resist the hydrostatic pressure of the
water.

✓ Proximity to existing structures: If the excavation is close to existing

structures, the timbering system will need to be designed to protect those
structures from damage.

✓ Budget: The budget for the project will also play a role in the selection of
the timbering system. Some types of timbering systems are more
expensive than others.
In addition to these factors, it is also important to consider the following when
selecting timbering:
✓ Strength of the timber: The timber used for timbering must be strong
enough to support the weight of the soil and any other loads that may be
applied to it.

✓ Durability of the timber: The timber used for timbering must be durable
enough to withstand the elements and the rigors of construction.

✓ Ease of installation: The timbering system should be easy to install and

remove.

✓ Safety: The timbering system should be safe for workers to use and
maintain.
METHODS OF PROTECTING SIDE OF A TRENCH
There are a number of methods of protecting the sides of a trench, including:

✓ Sloping:
Sloping involves cutting back the sides of the trench at an angle so that
they are less likely to collapse. The slope angle will depend on the type of
soil and the depth of the trench.
✓ Shoring:
Shoring involves installing a system of supports to prevent the sides of the
trench from collapsing. Shoring systems can be made of wood, metal.
 ✓ Shielding:
Shielding involves using a trench box or other system to protect workers from
the sides of a trench. Trench boxes are prefabricated systems that are placed
around the trench to support the sides.

✓ Benching:
Benching involves excavating the sides of a trench to create a series of steps.
Benching is typically used in shallow trenches and in areas where the soil is
stable.
✓ Heaping of soil
✓ Use of side rails
✓ Drums with soil
The best method of protecting the sides of a trench will depend on the size and
depth of the trench, the type of soil, and the presence of water.

SOIL
TYPES OF SOILS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Soil is a complex material that is made up of a variety of organic and inorganic

matter. The type of soil found in a particular location is determined by a number
of factors, including the climate, topography, and parent material.

In building construction, the type of soil is an important consideration because it

can affect the stability of the foundation and the overall performance of the
structure. The following are some of the most common types of soils found in
building construction:

✓ Sand: Sand is a coarse-grained soil that is composed of particles that are

0.06 to 2.00 millimeters in diameter. Sand is a good drainage material and
is often used in the construction of foundations and roadways. However,
sand can also be unstable and can shift or collapse if it is not properly
compacted.
✓ Silt: Silt is a fine-grained soil that is composed of particles that are 0.002
to 0.06 millimeters in diameter. Silt is less porous than sand and has a
higher water holding capacity. This can make silt a poor choice for
building foundations, as it can cause the soil to expand and contract as it
dries and wets.

✓ Clay: Clay is a very fine-grained soil that is composed of particles that

are smaller than 0.002 millimeters in diameter. Clay has a high water
holding capacity and is very cohesive. This can make clay a good choice
for building foundations, as it can provide strong support for the
structure. However, clay can also be expansive and can shrink and crack
as it dries.
 ✓ Loam: Loam is a well-balanced soil that is composed of a mixture of
sand, silt, and clay. Loam has good drainage properties and is a good
choice for building foundations and supporting plant life.

The type of soil that is found on a particular building site will determine the
type of foundation that is required. For example, if the soil is sandy, the
foundation will need to be deeper and wider in order to provide adequate
support for the structure. If the soil is clay, the foundation will need to be
designed to account for the expansive properties of the soil.
SOIL ANALYSIS
Soil analysis is the process of determining the physical and chemical properties
of soil. It is a critical step in building construction, as it can help to identify any
potential problems with the soil that could affect the stability of the foundation
and the overall performance of the structure.

Soil analysis is typically performed by a geotechnical engineer, who will collect

soil samples from the building site and send them to a laboratory for testing.
The laboratory will test the soil samples for a variety of properties, including:

✓ Grain size distribution: This test measures the relative percentages of

sand, silt, and clay in the soil.
✓ Atterberg limits: These tests measure the plasticity and consistency of
the soil.
✓ Moisture content: This test measures the amount of water in the soil.
✓ Organic matter content: This test measures the amount of organic
matter in the soil.

✓ pH: This test measures the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.

✓ Nutrient content: This test measures the levels of nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium in the soil.

Once the soil samples have been tested, the geotechnical engineer will analyze
the results and develop a report that summarizes the findings. The report will
include recommendations for the type of foundation that is required for the
building site, as well as any other special considerations that need to be taken
into account during construction.

Soil analysis is an important step in building construction, as it can help to

ensure that the foundation is properly designed and that the structure is built on
a stable foundation.
Here are some of the benefits of soil analysis:

➢ It can help to identify any potential problems with the soil that could
affect the stability of the foundation and the overall performance of the
structure.
➢ It can help to determine the best type of foundation for the building site.
➢ It can help to identify any special considerations that need to be taken
into account during construction, such as the need for drainage or erosion
control measures.
➢ It can help to ensure that the structure is built on a safe and stable
foundation.
➢ It can help to avoid costly repairs or reconstruction in the future.

PERFORM SOIL ANALYSIS

To perform a soil analysis, you will need to collect soil samples from the
building site. The number of samples you need to collect will depend on the size
of the site and the type of soil. For a typical residential building site, you will
need to collect at least three samples.

To collect a soil sample, use a clean shovel to dig a hole that is at least 150mm
deep. Collect a sample of soil from the bottom of the hole and place it in a clean
plastic bag. Label the bag with the date and location where the sample was
collected.

Once you have collected the soil samples, send them to a laboratory for testing.
The laboratory will test the soil samples for a variety of properties, including the
grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, moisture content, organic matter
content, pH, and nutrient content.

Once the soil samples have been tested, the laboratory will send you a report
that summarizes the findings. The report will include recommendations for the
type of foundation that is required for the building site, as well as any other
special considerations that need to be taken into account during construction.
METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS TEST
There are a variety of methods that can be used to test soil. The specific
methods used will depend on the types of properties that are being tested. Some
of the most common methods of soil analysis test include:

❖ Grain size distribution test: This test is used to measure the relative
percentages of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. The test is typically performed
using a hydrometer or a sieve analysis.
❖ Atterberg limits test: These tests are used to measure the plasticity and
consistency of the soil. The two most common Atterberg limit tests are the
liquid limit test and the plastic limit test.
❖ Moisture content test: This test is used to measure the amount of water in
the soil. The test is typically performed by oven drying a sample of soil and
weighing it before and after drying.
❖ Organic matter content test: This test is used to measure the amount of
organic matter in the soil. The test is typically performed by burning a
sample of soil and measuring the weight loss.
❖ pH test: This test is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. The
test is typically performed using a pH meter or a colorimetric test kit.
❖ Nutrient content test: This test is used to measure the levels of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium in the soil. The test is typically performed using a
variety of chemical methods.

DEWATERING
Dewatering is the process of removing groundwater or surface water from
a site. It is a necessary step in many construction projects, such as building
foundations, roads, and tunnels. Dewatering can also be used to lower the water
table in order to prevent flooding or to improve the stability of the soil.

DEWATERING METHODS INCLUDE:

✓ Sump pumping: Sump pumping is a simple and effective dewatering

method that involves pumping water from a sump hole. Sump holes are
typically dug to a depth below the water table and are lined with gravel or
filter fabric to prevent the hole from collapsing.
 ✓ Wellpoints: Wellpoints are shallow wells that are installed around the
perimeter of the excavation area. The wellpoints are connected to a
vacuum pump that creates a negative pressure around the excavation,
which draws water out of the soil.
✓ Deep wells: Deep wells are similar to wellpoints, but they are drilled to a
greater depth. Deep wells are often used for dewatering large excavation
areas.
✓ Eductor wells: Eductor wells are a type of well that uses a jet of water to
create a vacuum that draws water out of the soil. Eductor wells are often
used in situations where other dewatering methods are not practical.
✓ Cut-off walls: Cut-off walls are impermeable barriers that are installed
around the perimeter of the excavation area to prevent water from
flowing into the excavation. Cut-off walls can be made from a variety of
materials, such as concrete, sheet piles, or bentonite.

The best dewatering method for a particular project will depend on the size
and scope of the project, the soil conditions, and the budget.

It is important to note that all dewatering methods can have an impact on the
environment. It is important to choose a dewatering method that will minimize
the impact on the environment and to obtain all necessary permits before
starting work.

Here are some additional tips for dewatering:

✓ Always plan the dewatering work carefully before starting work. This
includes identifying any underground utilities and developing a plan to
protect them from damage.
✓ Use the appropriate dewatering method for the specific needs of the
project.
✓ Monitor the dewatering system closely to ensure that it is working
properly.
✓ Take steps to minimize the impact of the dewatering work on the
environment.
✓ Backfill the excavation with compacted soil to prevent settlement.
IMPORTANCE OF DEWATERING

✓ To create a safe and stable work environment: Water can make soil
unstable and dangerous to work in. Dewatering can help to create a safe
and stable work environment for construction workers.
✓ To prevent flooding: Dewatering can help to prevent flooding by
lowering the water table. This is especially important in areas that are
prone to flooding.
✓ To improve the quality of construction: Water can interfere with the
construction process and lead to defects in the finished product.
Dewatering can help to improve the quality of construction by creating a
dry and stable work environment.
✓ To protect the environment: Dewatering can help to protect the
environment by preventing the contamination of groundwater and surface
water.

In addition to these general benefits, dewatering can also be used to address

specific problems that may arise on a construction site. For example,
dewatering may be used to:

✓ Prepare a site for excavation: Dewatering can be used to lower the

water table so that excavation can be safely performed.
✓ Prevent the collapse of trenches and foundations: Dewatering can help
to prevent the collapse of trenches and foundations by stabilizing the soil.
✓ Repair underground utilities: Dewatering can be used to provide access
to underground utilities for repair or maintenance.
✓ Install underground structures: Dewatering can be used to create a dry
and stable environment for the installation of underground structures,
such as pipelines and cables.

Overall, dewatering is an important process that can be used to improve the

safety, quality, and efficiency of construction projects. It can also be used to
protect the environment and to address specific problems that may arise on a
construction site.
 PREPARED BY: ENG PHILIP. TOPIC 2: EXCAVATE
BUILDING FOUNDATION. LEVEL 5,6