CIT 214 - Software Engineering - After which developers create a

prototype of the intended software

and show it to the users to get their
Unit 1: Software Engineering feedback at the early stage of the
- engineering branch associated with software product development.
development of software products - The users suggest changes, on
using well-defined scientific which several consecutive updates
principles, methods and procedures. and maintenance keep on changing
- the term is made of two words: too.
➢ Software - This process changes to the
- is more than just a original software, till the desired
program code. A software is accomplished.
program is an - The only feasible and economical
executable code, which solution is to update the existing
serves some software so that it matches the
computational purpose. latest requirements.
- considered to be a
collection of executable
programming code, Software Evolution Laws
associated libraries and Lehman divided the software into three
documentations. different categories:
- Software, when made ● Static-type (S-type)
for a specific - a software, which works
requirement is called a strictly according to
software product. defined specifications and
➢ Engineering solutions.
- developing products, - the solution and the method
using well-defined, to achieve it, both are
scientific principles and immediately understood
methods. before coding.
- is least subjected to changes
Software Evolution hence this is the simplest of
- process of developing a software all.
product using software engineering - Ex: Calculator program
principles and methods.. ● Practical-type (P-type)
- this includes the initial development - a software with a collection
of software and its maintenance and of procedures.
updates. - defined by exactly what
procedures can do.
- in this software, the
specifications can be
described but the solution is
not obviously instant.
- Ex: Gaming software
-
- ● Embedded-type (E-type)
- - works closely as their
quirement of the real-world
- Evolution starts from the environment.
requirement gathering process. - has a high degree of
evolution as there are
 various changes in laws,
taxes etc. in the real world
situations.
- Ex: Online trading software.
E-Type software evolution
Lehman has given eight laws for E-Type
software evolution (CICCRFSO):
1. Continuing change
- must continue to adapt to the
real world changes, else it
becomes progressively less
useful.
2. Increasing complexity
- E-type software systems
evolve, their complexity
tends to increase unless
work is done to maintain or
reduce it.
3. Conservation of familiarity
- the familiarity with the
software or the knowledge
about how it was developed,
why was it developed in that
particular manner etc.,
4. Continuing growth
- its size of implementing the
changes grows according to
the lifestyle changes of the
business.
5. Reducing quality
- declines in quality unless
rigorously maintained and
adapted to a changing
operational environment.
6. Feedback systems
- constitute multi-loop,
multi-level feedback systems
and must be treated as such
to be successfully modified
or improved.
7. Self-regulation
- self-regulating with the
distribution of product and
process measures close to
normal.
8. Organizational stability
- the average effective global
activity rate in an evolving
E-type system is invariant
over the lifetime of the
product.
Software Paradigms
- refer to the methods and steps,
which are taken while designing the
software.
These can be combined into various
categories, though each of them is
contained in one another:
Software Development Paradigm
- known as software engineering
paradigms; where all the
engineering concepts pertaining to
the development of software are
applied.
- It consists of:
➢ Requirement gathering
➢ Software design
➢ Programming
Software Design Paradigm
- This paradigm is a part of Software
Development and includes:
➢ Design
➢ Maintenance
➢ Programming
Programming Paradigm
- This paradigm is closely related to
the programming aspect of software
development. This includes:
➢ Coding
➢ Testing
➢ Integration
Need of Software Engineering (LSCDQ) ■ Correctness
● Large software ■ Functionality
- as the size of the software ■ Dependability
becomes large, engineering ■ Security
has to step to give it a ■ Safety
scientific process. ○ TRANSITIONAL - This
● Scalability aspect is important when the
- If the software process were software is moved from one
not based on scientific and platform to another (PIRA):
engineering concepts, it ■ Portability
would be easier to re-create ■ Interoperability
new software than to scale ■ Reusability
an existing one. ■ Adaptability
● Cost ○ MAINTENANCE - This
- As hardware industry has aspect briefs about how well
shown its skills and huge the software has the
manufacturing has lower capabilities to maintain it self
down the price of computer in the ever-changing
and electronic hardware. But, environment (MMFS):
cost of the software remains ■ Modularity
high if proper process is not ■ Maintainability
adapted. ■ Flexibility
● Dynamic Nature ■ Scalability
- Always growing and adapting
nature of the software hugely In short, Software engineering is a
depends upon the branch of computer science, which uses
environment in which the well-defined engineering concepts
user works. required to produce efficient, durable,
● Quality Management scalable, in-budget, and on-time
- Better process of software software products.
development provides better
and quality software product.
Unit 2: Software Development Life Cycle
Characteristics of good software (OTM) (SDLC)
● A software product can be judged by - Software Development Life Cycle,
what it offers and how well it can be SDLC for short, is a well-defined,
used. This software must satisfy on structured sequence of stages in
the following grounds: software engineering to develop the
○ Operational intended software product.
○ Transitional SDLC Activities
○ Maintenance - SDLC provides a aries of steps to be
● Well-engineered and crafted followed to design and develop a
software is expected to have the software product efficiently
following characteristics: - It includes the following steps
○ OPERATIONAL - This tells (CRFSSCTIIOD):
us how well the software
works in operations. It can be
measured on (BUCSFEDS):
■ Budget
■ Usability
■ Efficiency
SDLC STEPS (CRFSSCTIIOD)
1. Communication
- The first step where the user initiates
the request for a desired software
product.
- The user contacts the service
provider and tries to negotiate the
terms,submits the request to the
service providing organization in
writing
2. Requirement Gathering
- This step onwards the software
development team works to carry on
the project.
- The team holds discussions with
various stakeholders from the
problem domain
- The requirements are collected
using a number of practices as
given:
➢ studying the existing or
obsolete
➢ system and software
➢ conducting interviews of
users and developers,
➢ referring to the database or
➢ collecting answers from the
questionnaires
3. System Analysis
- The developers decide a roadmap of
their plan and try to bring up the best
software model suitable for the
project.
- Includes understanding of software
product limitations, learning system
related problems or changes to be
done in existing systems
4. Software Design
- Next step is to bring down the whole
knowledge of requirements and
analysis on the desk and design the
software product.
- The inputs from users and
information gathered in the
requirement gathering phase are the
inputs of this step.
- The output of this step comes in the
form of two designs; logical
design, and physical design.
5. Coding
- Known as the programming phase.
- The implementation of software
design starts in terms of writing
program code in the suitable
programming language and
developing error-free executable
programs efficiently.
6. Testing
- An estimate says that 50% of the
whole software development
process should be tested.
- Errors may ruin the software from
critical level to its own removal.
7. Integration
- Software may need to be integrated
with the libraries, databases, and
other program(s).
- This stage of SDLC is involved in the
integration of software withouter
world entities
8. Implementation
- This means installing the software
on user machines.
- At times, software needs
post-installation configurations at the
user end.
9. Operation and Maintenance
- This phase confirms the software
operation in terms of more efficiency
and less errors.
- If required, the users are trained on,
or aided with the documentation on
how to operate the software and
how to keep the software operational
Software Development Paradigm
- The software development paradigm
helps a developer to select a
strategy to develop the software.
- A software development paradigm
has its own set of tools, methods,
and procedures, which are
expressed clearly and defines
software development life cycle.
A few of software development
paradigms or process models are
defined as follows:
● Waterfall Model
- The simplest model of
software development
paradigm.
 - All the phases of SDLC will
function one after another in
a linear manner.
- That is, when the first phase
is finished then only the
second phase will start and
so on.
● Iterative Model
- This model leads the
software development
process in iterations.
- It projects the process of
development in a cyclic
manner repeating every step
after every cycle ofSDLC
process.
● Spiral Model
- A combination of both,
iterative models and one of
the SDLC models.
- It can be seen as if you
choose one SDLC model and
combined it with cyclic
process (iterative model).
REPORTS:
(WISVABPRD)
1. Waterfall Model
● V - model
- The major drawback of the
waterfall model is we move
to the next stage only when
the previous one is finished
and there is no chance to go
back if something is found
wrong in later stages.
- V- Model provides means of
testing of software at each
stage in reverse manner.
● Big Bang Model
- This model is the simplest
model in its form.
- It requires little planning, lots
of programming and lots of
funds.
- This model is conceptualized
around the big bang of the
universe.
- As scientists say that after
the big bang lots of galaxies,
planets, and stars evolved
just as an event.
- Likewise, if we put together
lots of programming and
funds, you may achieve the
best software product.
SDLC MODELS
● A sequential and linear approach to
software development.
● The progress flows steadily (like a
waterfall) through several distinct
phases.
● Each stage must be completed
before moving to the next.
Phases of the Waterfall Model (RDITDM)
1. Requirements
2. Design
3. Implementation
4. Testing
5. Deployment
6. Maintenance
When To Use Waterfall Model
● fixed requirements are employed
● definition of a product is constant
● People understand technology
● no unclear prerequisites
● many resources with the necessary
knowledge
● brief project
Types of System This Model Can Be
Applied
● Large-scale Software Development
Projects
● Safety-Critical Systems
● Government and Defense Projects
● Projects with well-defined
requirements
● Projects with stable requirements
2. Iterative Model
● refers to an approach where the
development process is divided into
multiple cycles or iterations.
● Each iteration involves a subset of
the overall development tasks
(PRAITED):
○ Planning
○ Requirements gathering
○ Analysis and design
○ Implementation
○ Testing
○ Evaluation
○ Deployment
When To Use Iterative Model
● Uncertain or evolving requirements
● Projects with long development
cycles
● Customer-driven projects
● Highly innovative projects
Types of System This Model Can Be
Applied
● Software Development
● Product Development
● Web Development
● Mobile App Development
● Game Development
● Engineering Systems
● Biomedical Systems
● Data Science and Machine Learning
3. Spiral Model
● Also known as Boehm’s spiral
model, the spiral development
model, the risk-driven model, the
cyclic model, and the incremental,
iterative model.
● It is a combination of Waterfall Model
and Iterative Model.
● best suited for complex embedded
product development.
● Phase - Each loop of the spiral.
History of Spiral Model
● Defined by Barry Boehm in his 1988
article.
● was the first model to explain why
the iteration matters.
Phases of the Spiral Model (PREE)
1. Planning - focuses on defining the
spiral’s objectives, identifying the
requirements and defining the
scope.
2. Risk Analysis - identifies all of the
potential risks and then establishes
strategies to mitigate those risks.
3. Evaluation - evaluate the success
of the output of the spiral using the
defined metrics.
4. Engineering & Development - the
engineers take what was
documented in the requirements and
translate it into a functional product.
When To Use Spiral Model
● costs and risk evaluation is
important.
● For medium to high-risk projects.
● Users are unsure of their needs.
● Requirements are complex.
 ● Significant changes are expected. requirements from the
customer's perspective.
Types of System This Model Can Be ● System Design - detailing
Applied the hardware and
● Microsoft used it to develop early communication setup for the
versions of Windows product.
● Gantt chart software ● Architectural Design -
● NASA’s space shuttle program in the designed with multiple
1970s technical approaches,
considering technical and
Four Fold Procedure financial feasibility.
1. Evaluating the first prototype in ● Module Design - detailed
terms of its strengths, weaknesses, internal designs for system
and risks. modules, known as Low
2. Defining the requirements of the Level Design (LLD), are
second prototype specified.
3. Planning and designing the second ● Coding - system modules
prototype are developed using chosen
4. Constructing and testing the second programming languages and
Prototype guidelines.

Prototype 2. Validation Phase

● early sample, model or release of a
product built to test a concept.
4. V - Model
● sequential SDLC model where each
development phase has
corresponding testing phase.
● The "V" shape visualizes the
process. The left side represents the
verification phase, and the right
side represents the validation
phase.
● Progress is linear, with one phase
dependent on completing the prior
phase.
History of V - Model
● originating in late 1980s Germany, is
a software development framework,
advancing over the waterfall model
by incorporating early testing
phases.
● It gained notable adoption, like
automotive manufacturing.
2 Phases of V - Model
1. Verification Phase
● Requirements Analysis -
understanding product
● Unit Testing - Unit Test
Plans (UTPs) are created
during module design to
eliminate errors at the code
level.
a ● Integration Testing - verifies
the coexistence and
communication of internal
modules within the system.
● System Testing - ensures
the entire system's
functionality and
communication with external
systems.
● User Acceptance Testing -
conducted in a user
environment resembling
production, ensuring the
delivered system meets user
requirements.
Examples of V - Model
● Telecommunication Software
● Medical Device Software
● Automotive Embedded Systems
When To Use V - Model
● Requirements are clearly defined.
● technical resources are available.
 ● Small to medium-sized projects.
● focus on early detection and
correction of defects.
● The project is short.
5. Agile Method
● Agile is a software development
methodology that focuses on
iterative, incremental development
with continuous feedback and
collaboration.
Key Principles of Agile Method
● Adaptive: Responds to changing
requirements and customer
feedback.
● Iterative: Develop software in small,
manageable increments.
● Incremental: Delivers working
software regularly.
● Collaborative: Involves the entire
team
● Feedback-Driven: Uses feedback
from testing, customer input, and
team retrospectives to improve the
process.
Agile is used in a wide range of software
development projects, including:
● Web Applications
● Mobile Applications
● Enterprise Software
● Embedded Systems
● Real-time Ssytems
6. Bigbang Model
● simplest model in the Software
Development Life Cycle.
● approach to software development
where the entire project is developed
in one go, without following a
structured set of phases or
iterations.
Use-cases of Bigbang Model
● smaller or simple projects
● small development teams
● requirements are not specified at the
start of the project
● experimental projects
● projects for learning purposes
Phases of Bigbang Model
1. Requirements Gathering - involves
collecting and documenting the
needs and expectations of
stakeholders.
2. Design - refers to the high-level
planning and conceptualization of
the software system.
3. Development - involves building all
components of the software system
simultaneously.
4. Testing - entails checking the entire
system as a whole for bugs, errors,
and inconsistencies.
5. Deployment - refers to releasing the
entire system to users or customers
at once.
7. Prototyping
● a software development approach
that focuses on creating a working
model of the software to
demonstrate its functionality to
stakeholders.
● most popularly used Software
Development Life Cycle Models
(SDLC models).
Phases of Prototype Model
1. Requirement Gathering -
developers engage in in-depth
discussions with stakeholders to
identify the primary objectives.
2. Quick Design - developers create a
quick and simplified design of the
software's user interface
3. Prototype Development - the
designed prototype is coded and
developed.
4. Prototype Development - Once the
prototype is developed, it undergoes
testing to identify any issues, or
bugs.
5. Refinement - Feedback obtained
from prototype testing forms the
basis for the refinement phase.
Real World Applications
● Game development
8. Rapid Application Development (RAD) DevOps Lifecycle
● flexible software development
strategy that focuses on
experimentation and quick feedback
rather than explicit design.
● driven by user interface needs and is
perfect for quick development and
deployment.

Rapid Web Application Development

● application development
methodology that emphasizes speed
and efficiency in creating web
applications.
DevOps 7c’s
Steps in Rapid Application Development 1. Continuous Development
1. Define the requirements - RAD 2. Continuous Integration
asks for a broad requirement. 3. Continuous Testing
2. Prototype - Are quickly made to 4. Continuous Deployment
work to showcase just the key 5. Continuous Feedback
features 6. Continuous Monitoring
3. Construction - flesh out a working 7. Continuous Operations
system from a working model
4. Deployment - deploying the built DevOps Application
system into a live production ● Netflix
environment ● Amazon
● Etsy
Where to use the RAD model? ● Nordstrom
● project requires a dynamic approach
● Progress needs to be made visible
● Apps need to be developed quickly
● Clients need to be involved in the
development
● User feedback is readily available
● Technical risk is not high

What are some apps that can be

developed through RAD?
● IT helpdesk
● Employee onboarding
● Performance appraisals
● Expense reimbursements
● Creative requests

9. DevOps
● combines development and
operations to increase the efficiency,
speed, and security of software
development and delivery compared
to traditional processes.