Calculus and

Analytical
Geometry
Semester-1
Amna Tahir
08-12-2020
2
Today’s Outline
• Revision of continuity (Ex: 1.3)
• Revision of one-sided derivatives (Ex: 2.1)

Absolute value function

𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓 𝑥 =ቊ
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0

3
Continuity of Absolute functions
Question-1:
Discuss the continuity of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3 at 𝑥 = 3.
Solution:
• Functional value:
Given, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−3
At 𝑥 = 3, 𝑓 3 = 3 − 3 = 0 = 0
𝑓 3 =0
• Existence of limit:
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 − 3
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

4
Continuity of Absolute functions
As our given function is absolute value function so according to the
definition of absolute function, we write 𝑓(𝑥) as;

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−3

𝑥−3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−3 =ቊ
− 𝑥 − 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 − 3 < 0

𝑥−3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 3
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−3 =ቊ
− 𝑥 − 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 3

5
Continuity of Absolute functions
Left hand limit Right hand limit
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− − 𝑥 − 3 lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑥 − 3
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑥 − lim+ 3

lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− −𝑥 + 3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 − 3 = 0
𝑥→3
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = − lim− 𝑥 + lim− 3
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = −3 + 3 = 0
𝑥→3

6
Continuity of Absolute functions
As both LHL and RHL are equal i.e.
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
⟹ lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists and also equal to zero.
𝑥→3
⟹ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→3

• From above conditions, we have

𝑓 3 = 0 = lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→3
Hence all the three conditions are satisfied so 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at
𝑥 = 3.
7
Continuity of functions
Question-2:
Discuss the continuity of 𝑥 − 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 1.
Solution:
• Functional value:
Given, 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥− 𝑥
At 𝑥 = 1, 𝑓 1 = 1 − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0
𝑓 1 =0
• Existence of limit:
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim ( 𝑥 − 𝑥 )
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

8
Continuity of functions
As our given function contains absolute value function so according to
the definition of absolute function, we write 𝑓(𝑥) as;

𝑥−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓 𝑥 =x− 𝑥 = ቊ = ቊ
𝑥 − −𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0 2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
But we have to discuss the continuity of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 1, so we re-arrange
the above function for 𝑥 = 1.
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 1
𝑓 𝑥 = x − 𝑥 = ൞ 0 𝑖𝑓 0 < 𝑥 < 1
2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0

9
Continuity of functions
Left-hand limit lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 0 = 0
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

Right-hand limit lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 0 = 0

𝑥→1 𝑥→1

As both LHL and RHL are equal i.e.

lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
⟹ lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists and also equal to zero.
𝑥→1
⟹ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→1

10
Continuity of functions
• From above two conditions, we have
𝑓 1 = 0 = lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→1
Hence all the three conditions are satisfied so 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at
𝑥 = 1.

Note:
In Q-2, given function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 is a difference of polynomial and
absolute functions so it must be continuous at every point.

11
One-Sided Derivatives

12
 One-sided derivatives
Left-hand derivative Right-hand derivative

𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓(𝑥)

′
• 𝐿𝑓 (x) = lim− • 𝑅𝑓 ′ (x) = lim+
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

OR OR

𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓(𝑎)
• 𝐿𝑓 ′ (a) = lim− • 𝑅𝑓 ′ (a) = lim+
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

13
One-sided derivatives
Question-3: −(𝑥 2 −4)− 4−4
𝐿𝑓 ′ (2) = lim−
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
Find 𝐿𝑓 ′ (2) and 𝑅𝑓 ′ (2) for the
function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4 .
−(𝑥 2 −22 )− 0
Solution: 𝐿𝑓 ′ (2) = lim−
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓(𝑎)
∵ 𝐿𝑓 ′ (a) = lim−
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 −(𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
′
𝐿𝑓 (2) = lim−
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓(2)
𝐿𝑓 ′ (2) = lim−
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝐿𝑓 ′ (2) = lim− − 𝑥 + 2
𝑥→2
𝑥 2 −4 − (2)2 −4
𝐿𝑓 ′ (2) = lim−
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝐿𝑓 ′ (2) = − 2 + 2 = −4
14
One-sided derivatives
Question-3: (𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4 )
• When 𝒙 → 𝟐− , it means 𝑥 < 2.
⟹ 𝑥2 < 4
(Taking square on both sides)
• When 𝒙 → 𝟐+ , it means 𝑥 > 2.
⟹ 𝑥2 > 4
(Taking square on both sides)

⟹ 𝑥2 −4<0 ⟹ 𝑥2 − 4 > 0

⟹ 𝑥 2 − 4 = −(𝑥 2 −4) ⟹ 𝑥2 − 4 = 𝑥2 − 4

15
One-sided derivatives
• Alternate approach
2
2 𝑥 −4 𝑖𝑓𝑥 2 − 4 ≥ 0
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 −4 = ൝
−(𝑥 2 − 4) 𝑖𝑓𝑥 2 − 4 < 0

2
2 𝑥 −4 𝑖𝑓𝑥 2 ≥ 4
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 −4 = ൝
−(𝑥 2 − 4) 𝑖𝑓𝑥 2 < 4

𝑥 2 −4 𝑖𝑓𝑥 ≥ 2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 4 = ൝
−(𝑥 2 − 4) 𝑖𝑓𝑥 < 2

16
Differentiability & Continuity
Question-4:
1
𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = ቐ 𝑥
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
Discuss the continuity and differentiability of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 0.
Solution:
Continuity already discussed in previous lecture.
• Differentiability of 𝒇
1 1
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓(0) 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 − (0)𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 0
′
𝑓 (0) = lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥−0 𝑥→0 𝑥

17
Differentiability & Continuity
1 1
𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 − 0 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 1
𝑓 ′ (0) = lim = lim = lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 1 𝑒 1/𝑥 − 𝑒 −1/𝑥
As 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 = ⟹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ =
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑒 1/𝑥 + 𝑒 −1/𝑥

1 𝑒 1/𝑥 − 𝑒 −1/𝑥
So, 𝑓 ′ (0) = lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ = lim 1/𝑥 −1/𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑒 +𝑒

Because of exponential function, we have to discuss two cases i.e.

𝑥 → 0− and 𝑥 → 0+ .
18
Differentiability & Continuity
1
𝑒 1/𝑥 − 𝑒 −1/𝑥 As 𝑥 → 0− , → −∞
′
𝐿𝑓 (0) = lim− 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑒 1/𝑥 + 𝑒 −1/𝑥
and 𝑒 1/𝑥 → 0
1
𝑒 1/𝑥 − 1/𝑥 But 𝑒 −1/𝑥 → ∞
𝐿𝑓 ′ (0) = lim− 𝑒
1 We have to remove
𝑥→0 𝑒 1/𝑥 + 1/𝑥
𝑒 those terms which
became undefined.
𝑒2/𝑥 − 1
𝑒1/𝑥 𝑒 2/𝑥 − 1 0−1
𝐿𝑓 ′ (0) = lim 2/𝑥 + 1 = lim− 2/𝑥 =
𝑥→0− 𝑒 𝑥→0 𝑒 + 1 0+1
𝑒1/𝑥

𝐿𝑓 ′ (0) = − 1

19
Differentiability & Continuity
𝑒 1/𝑥 − 𝑒 −1/𝑥 1
𝑅𝑓 ′ (0)= lim+ 1/𝑥 −1/𝑥 As 𝑥 → 0+ ,
𝑥
→ +∞
𝑥→0 𝑒 +𝑒
and 𝑒 1/𝑥 → ∞
2
−𝑥
′ 𝑒 1/𝑥 (1 − 𝑒 )
𝑅𝑓 (0)= lim+ 2
But 𝑒 −1/𝑥 → 0
𝑥→0 −𝑥 We have to remove
𝑒 1/𝑥 (1 + 𝑒 )
those terms which
2
became undefined.
−
1 − 𝑒 𝑥 1−0
𝑅𝑓 ′ (0)= lim+ 2 =
𝑥→0 −𝑥 1+0
1+ 𝑒

𝑅𝑓 ′ (0) =1
Hence 𝐿𝑓 ′ (0) ≠ 𝑅𝑓 ′ (0) ⟹ 𝑓 ′ 0 does not exist.
20
Techniques of Differentiation

21
General Theorems on Derivatives
• The derivative of a constant function (i.e. 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑐 defined by,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐) is zero.
𝑑
⟹ 𝑐 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
e.g. (𝜋) = 0, −5 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• The derivative of an identity function (i.e. 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑥 defined by,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥) is one.
𝑑
⟹ 𝑥 =1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
e.g. (𝑦) = 1, 𝑡 =1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡

22
General Theorems on Derivatives
• The power rule
𝑑
If 𝑛 is a any real number, then 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
e.g. 𝑥 −9 = −9𝑥 −9−1 = −9 𝑥 −10
𝑑𝑥

• A constant factor can be moved through a derivative sign.

𝑑 𝑑
⟹ 𝑐𝑓 𝑥 = c [𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

23