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Maths CKRaju
Maths CKRaju
C K Raju
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Sep 5, 2023
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Ganita (गणित) differs from (axiomatic) math. It makes math easy (especially
Summary
cursed by the church, which hence initially banned mathematics in 532 CE. During
the Crusades, the church accepted back mathematics, but refashioned it to fit the
contrast, Indian ganita was always practical and religiously neutral. It used scientific
Historically, the West was excessively backward in mathematics for millennia, and
learnt from Indian ganita almost all current school mathematics (arithmetic, algebra,
The very words like zero, surd, sine, etc. tell this story. Specifically, the West (though
(metaphysical, unreal) real numbers. This adds no practical value, but has made
calculus so difficult that California, the US tech hub, recently cancelled calculus
makes it easy and enables students to solve harder problems, not covered in usual
calculus courses.
The sole exception to the about pattern (“West copied math but failed to grasp it”) is
geometry (which the West copied from Egypt via Plato). Though, axiomatic reasoning
(MINUS facts) was first invented and used by the Crusading church, it is attributed in
our school texts to a mythical Euclid. NCERT has no evidence for “Euclid” and the
“Euclid” book does not have a single axiomatic proof. This was publicly acknowledged
only in the 20th century, when attempts by David Hilbert and Bertrand Russell to
“save” the Euclid myth led to the axiomatisation of all mathematics. Axiomatic math
original normal mathematics or ganita. It also does not add epistemic (or aesthetic)
value. It however does add political value by (a) making math impossibly difficult
even at the level of 1+1 = 2, thereby reducing most people to a state of abject
ignorance of math hence making them dependent, and (b) giving control over
they are under the thumb of the West, and earn their livelihood from teaching
religious/axiomatic mathematics. (And they have fled from public debate in the last
10 years, unethically refusing to defend in public what they teach to a captive and
Contents
Introduction
1+1=2
JNU/Cape Town challenge
Conclusions
Introduction
Did you or your children find math difficult? If so what is the solution? Change the
teacher or change the child? This talk/article offers a novel solution. The fault lies
with the very subject of mathematics, which was messed-up by the West by mixing it
with religious politics during the religious fanaticism of the Crusades. While
Teaching ganita makes math easy and enables students to solve harder scientific
problems, not covered in stock calculus texts,[1] as has been demonstrated in teaching
Math: the implications for pedagogy and science.[4] (This was my book project as a
Tagore Fellow at the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla.) Here is its 12 word
summary: 1. Ganita differs from math, 2. it makes math easy, and 3. makes
science better. The book also explains how religious mathematics has infiltrated
frontline science:[5] but those issues are much harder to explain, and will be omitted
here.
1+1=2
Most people are astonished at the thought of religion in mathematics. “Where,” they
sarcastically ask, “is the religion in 1+1 = 2?” They are thinking of 1+1 = 2 as they
learnt it in kindergarten as one orange plus one orange equals two oranges.
But empirical proof, or प्रत्यक्ष प्रमाण, is accepted (only) in Indian ganita (and
by all Indian schools of philosophy) as the first means of proof. As stated in Nyaya
Sutra 2,[6]
Here is an elucidation of how these four means of proof were used in ganita, or see the
related video.
reasoning as is so often glibly caricatured. Thus, the above statement from the Nyaya
Sutra also clearly accepts deductive reasoning (अनुमान) as the second means of
proof. [7] The important point to note is that अनुमान (anumana) is reasoning PLUS
facts, as in science, which too accepts observations and experiments (empirical proof),
can be easily checked in any elementary text on mathematical logic which defines a
a statement based on empirical observations, such as “I now see two oranges” which
established using only logic…Beware of being deceived by what you see…! [Emphasis
original] This text is compulsory reading for all, so everyone ought to know it (but few
do because this portion is never asked in the examination). Anyway, though many
laypersons have difficulty in grasping it, the fact is that the KG method of proving
A key effect of reasoning MINUS facts (= axiomatic reasoning) is that it makes math
(even 1+1 =2) extraordinarily difficult. Thus, Bertrand Russell, in his Principia, took
378 pages to prove 1+1 = 2. Most people in the world (including most professors of
mathematics) would be unable to explain what is there in those 378 pages, or to
Worse, in formal mathematics there is no unique entity “1”: the natural number 1
differs from the “real” number 1 because different axioms are needed for the two:
Peano’s axioms used for natural numbers do NOT apply to “real” numbers. Therefore,
the proof of 1+1 = 2 in “real” numbers is far more difficult, since it requires knowledge
of axiomatic set theory, which again few (even among professional mathematicians)
know. To bring out this difficulty, I offered (as shown in this video) a prize of Rs 10
lakhs to anyone who could give a proof of 1+1 = 2 in “real” numbers from
first principles (i.e., without assuming any theorem from axiomatic set theory, as in
my Cape Town challenge). This prize was offered during a lecture in our leading
university JNU.[10] Nobody accepted the challenge. (And nobody resigned out of
shame because our “leading” math educators are very comfortable with their own
So, my first key point to is that prohibiting the empirical, as done in formal
1+1=2. In comparison, the ganita way of doing 1+1=2 empirically is very easy.
Next, let us ask: does this extreme complexity of axiomatic mathematics or Western
NO! Most people are unaware of Russell’s axiomatic proof of 1+1 = 2, so there is no
inputs prohibited in axiomatic math. People continue to shop for groceries using the
the world.
Russell doing axiomatic math in a grocer’s shop
technology. This is not true! A very simple argument is as follows. For example, to
send a rocket to the moon we need to calculate its trajectory. This is done using
calculus. According to the current university teaching of calculus, real numbers (as in
my Cape Town/JNU challenge) are essential for the calculus. But they are never used
in actual practice, cannot be. Indeed, today, actual calculation of rocket trajectories is
equations due to Aryabhata.[11] Real computers have finite memory. Therefore, the
cannot representing even a single real number which requires infinite memory.
Therefore, computers never use real numbers. Instead they use what are
NOT[12] obey even the associative law for addition which is required for all axiomatic
numbers. The same considerations (computers cannot use real numbers) apply also
using real numbers, machine learning is done using computers and real numbers
practical value.
This point should be remembered in the context of the Phakeng fallacy: ignorant
people say of existing math, ”it works so let us continue with the status quo”. They
naïvely assume that there is only one “universal” kind of math, whereas there are two
kinds: formal math and normal math (ganita). It is normal math which works and has
always worked, for applications of math to science and technology, not formal math
or Western ethno-math, which only provides a deceptive covering for normal math.
So, whenever people say of math “it works”, and try to infer from such a vague
statement that formal math must be taught, do ask them to explain exactly how
The other argument in support of formal math claims that formal math adds
epistemic value, even if it does not add any value to applications of math. We will
return later on to this argument: the claim of added epistemic value is actually a
religious claim.
First let us examine another very strong superstitious driving force instilled by
indoctrination through colonial/church “education”: the desire to ape the West. This
superstitiously fear that failure to imitate the West may result in a catastrophe. But
how real was that assertion of Western superiority two centuries ago when Macaulay
inferiority of Blacks was invented to preserve the wealth accruing from the slave
trade. After Plassey, colonial loot replaced slavery as the major source of wealth for
the West.
But to help rule India on the colonial policy of divide and rule, the Aryan race
conjecture was invented[14]: the fantasy that India had earlier been conquered and
populated by whites. Hence the assertion of white supremacy could no longer be used
false history of science was used to support all three closely related claims of
during the Crusades when all science was wildly attributed to Christians and their sole
friends the early Greeks. This false history was elaborated and reused by racist and
colonial historians with a mere change of labels, e.g. by calling the Greeks as Whites
or the West. The entire evolution of this false history of science is shown in this
diagram.
From: “Euclid” must fall, part 1
completely false. In fact, a solid case can be made out for persistent
The simple fact is that science needs mathematics, and the early Greeks and the
Romans, and the Europeans at least until the 16th century were very backward in
mathematics, and learnt almost all that mathematics from India. The list of
Europeans learning math from India is very long. First, the very names of
The direction of transmission is clear from the fact that Greeks and Romans stopped
at the puny myriad (=10,000), whereas the Indian Yajurveda, from long before any
noted Greeks, has numbers as large as a parardha (= trillion, Yajurveda 17.2), and
Buddhist sources (Lalita Vistara sutta[15], chp. 12) list numbers as large as a
the abacus. As is well known they eventually abandoned that primitive system in
favour of sophisticated “Arabic numerals” from India. This happened in three phases
spread over many centuries. First Gerbert (10th century, later Pope Sylvester)
imported “Arabic numerals” from Cordoba. The important point, never mentioned in
Latinized name). This is clear from the fact that he got an abacus (shown below)
operations, and destroys the efficiency of algorithms which made Indian arithmetic
superior. Indeed, the very terminology of “Arabic numerals” shows that Europeans
foolishly thought there was some magic in the shape of the numbers, not a difference
In the second phase, Fibonacci a 13th c. Florentine merchant trading with Arabs in
Arabs via Africa, and wrote a book on it called Liber Abaci. But Florentines failed to
understand the place-value system स्थान-मान प्रणाली (which is the first lesson in all
Indian ganita texts), on which Indian arithmetic algorithms are based. HENCE, also
Europeans had difficulties in understanding zero. This is clear from the very word
Basically, the difficulty with zero arose because primitive Greek and Roman numerals
are additive like pebbles: XVII means 10+5+1+ 1 = 17 (and the entire European
tradition is from Greek and Latin). This additivity is not true on the place value
system 17≠ 1+7 = 8. So Florentines complained that zero has no value in itself but
A contract for 25 could easily be changed into one for 250, which is not possible with
Roman numerals. Accordingly, Florence passed a law against zero in 1299, to which
we still adhere: in a cheque any quantity written in (“Arabic”) numbers must also be
written in words.
This process of Europeans persistently importing Indian math continued in the 16th
century, when Jesuits in Cochin mass translated and exported Indian knowledge back
European difficulty with fractions. Fractions were known to Indians and Egyptians
from at least -1500 CE, and probably long before that. But they were not understood
by Europeans even in the late 16th century. This is clear from the fact that the
Gregorian calendar reform of 1582 (authored by Clavius} used leap years
and not precise fractions (which common Europeans did not then understand),
Hence, the reformed calendar still gets the tropical year wrong (it is only right on a
thousand year average), so that equinox does not come on a fixed day of the Gregorian
calendar.
This is hardly the end of the story. Zero is associated with negative numbers. But in
the late 19th century Augustus de Morgan, a very influential professor of mathematics
from University College London, said that negative numbers are impossible.[18]
This “eminent” Western mathematician (of “De Morgan’s laws” fame) naturally also
He further asserted:
“Above all, he [the student] must reject the definition still sometimes given of the
quantity, that it is less than nothing. It is astonishing that the human intellect should
ever have tolerated such an absurdity as the idea of a quantity less than nothing;
above all, that the notion should have outlived the belief in judicial astrology and the
De Morgan cited Indian ganita texts on negative numbers, first used by Brahmagupta,
but is consumed by his misplaced sense of colonial and racist superiority, resulting in
his laughable blunder.
believing which (without checking it) we changed our entire education system and put
the minds of our impressionable and gullible children in the hands of the church.
For simplicity and clarity (for the layperson) the above story of how Europeans
restricted to elementary arithmetic. But the very same story is true of various other
clear from the very words such as surd and sine, as described in this video, and in
this summary article, covering all areas. (The only exception is geometry, which
Greeks like Plato and Pythagoras learned from Egyptians, and which mystery
understanding of geometry was adapted by the crusading church to suit its political
purposes, with the addition of various fantasy stories, which the colonized implicitly
The issue of European theft of calculus[20] is of special interest since all present day
science is based on the calculus: almost all physics is formulated using differential
and statistics[21] is also of special interest since it is the basis of the widely
As regards the calculus, it is obviously not possible to cover in one article or talk my
and numerous prior and subsequent writings and talks on the issue across two
decades.[23] As regards the Indian origin of calculus, here is the video of a key talk at
For most Indians the critically important issue here is to say with pride, “we did it
first!” However, let us note a key point. Our immediate issue is not two rewrite history
to bring out our achievements. Our immediate issue is the teaching of calculus.
teaching of calculus. It does, as explained in this recent talk at IIT Kanpur. But how to
EXPLAIN this to common people who are shaky about 1+1=2? An explanation is
needed because, for such a major change in our teaching, many people must
this axiomatic way of doing mathematics adds no practical advantages for the
its political implications, and, from a position of complete ignorance, not believing
Thus, the ordinary person wrongly thinks that university professor of mathematics or
that they have long been indoctrinated into axiomatic mathematics, and their
livelihood depends upon it. So why should they support a change? Why should they
even debate it since they are in power? Proof of the total dishonesty of formal
mathematicians is clear from the fact that they have persistently fled from my
decade-old call for an open public debate to justify what they teach in the calculus
This is a deep church trap. A trap laid by the church through colonial education. A
strategic blunder: we did not study the colonial enemy or the church-state nexus
of controlling knowledge (including math and science) into which it injected its
religious dogmas. Therefore, also, the church grip on colonially educated minds
continues unabated even 75 years after the British were forced to leave India.
However, we absolutely must change our math teaching. The first reason is that math
is difficult today. In recognition of this fact, California State board recently canceled
obviously concerned about preparing students for the widely anticipated future
technology of machine learning and data science. However, data science needs
bugs in machine learning programs, which may put the whole world at risk a couple of
decades from now, when the world gets more dependent on such technology. The
correct solution therefore is not to cancel the calculus but to make calculus easy by
teaching it as ganita.[27] The US and West may never do it, because it will mean that
they have to eat humble pie and reject all the false stories they told for centuries to
glorify themselves. But we are not compelled to ape them: let them fall behind!
The story of how Europeans imported or stole Indian mathematics without fully
understanding it, of course, applies also to the calculus. To reiterate, the West stole
the calculus from India, and like all knowledge thieves, it failed to fully
grasp what it stole. But the difficulty is this: How to explain this to the colonized
mind ignorant of 1+1=2 (so it is forced to rely on authority of those it trusts), and
Let us try to do so in terms some might understand. Step 1: the undeniable fact is
that all of our schools and universities today teach calculus using axiomatic real
numbers, considered essential for an understanding of calculus. Step 2: the
undeniable fact is that axiomatic real numbers did not exist in Newton’s time,
therefore, on its present teaching, Newton could not have properly understood the
calculus. Step 3: it was in recognition of this fact (that calculus was not quite
understood by Europeans (even in the 19th c.) that Dedekind invented axiomatic real
numbers at the end of the 19th century 250 years after Newton’s death[28] Step 4: it
is an undeniable fact that axiomatic real numbers need set theory, and axiomatic set
theory emerged only in the 1930s. So, by its own admission, the West was doing
calculus without properly understanding it until the 1940s. When it did evolve what it
differential equations[29] to compute accurate sine values. He used a very simple and
elementary but useful arithmetic technique called the rule of three (त्रैरा ककशि
). This
was the easy part of calculus which Europeans understood. Hence, Newton could
derive practical value from his physics, long before the invention of real numbers.
What Europeans did NOT understand was how to do an infinite sum, i.e., sum an
infinite series. Recall that Europeans stole the calculus for size trigonometric values
needed for navigation, and the followers of Aryabhata in Kerala had derived precise
trigonometric values by using infinite series. So this summing infinite series was a
critical issue for Europeans. Descartes declared that doing an infinite sum was beyond
the human mind. Galileo (who had access to the Jesuit Collegio Romano) concurred,
can be written as just 3.14. this was the process used in India to get an approximate
(सवि षशे
ष) value of √2, or used by Aryabhata to get a near (आसन्न) value of
truths hence exact. Therefore, to be quite precise, the European difficulty with
Indian calculus was how to find the EXACT sum of an infinite series.
This brings us to the part which Europeans did not understand. To sum infinite series,
such as the infinite geometric series first summed by the 15th c. Nilakantha, Indians
Anyway, it was this problem of how to obtain the exact sum open infinite series
which the invention of axiomatic real numbers apparently solved. However, it did so
difficulty to ganita but offers no added practical value. An obvious argument is this:
most applications of calculus today are done on computer which cannot implement
Anyway, the question before us today is which is better? The easy ganita
For example, the class IX school text asserts that “Greeks did a form of mathematics
which was ‘superior’ to what all others (Indians, Egyptians, Babylonians. Maya) did”.
Sadly, to “prove” this claim of superiority, the school text uses several lies. 1. the
school text lies “only Greeks used reason”, no others (Indians etc.) did whereas as we
have already seen the use of reason was quite explicit in Indian ganita. 2. The school
text uses a church trick of playing with words: it uses just one word reason, for both
scientific reason (reason PLUS facts) and religious reason (reason MINUS facts), thus
obnoxious since this confusion is being planted in the minds of gullible children. 3.
There are no axiomatic proofs in the book attributed to “Euclid”, but the text never
tells children about it. It is common for the church to use this technique of a stream of
lies, to confound and confuse its opponents, and the apex Indian educational body
This stream of lies occurs in chapter 5 of the NCERT class IX text on “Euclid’s
geometry”. The claim about “Euclid” is itself a lie. Upon being asked to
provide primary sources for the belief in Euclid, the NCERT could not provide any
such sources. Instead, it referred to three Western tertiary mathematics texts which
mention Euclid. When reminded that the historical evidence must be from primary
sources, which were hence demanded, the NCERT increased the number of cited
tertiary texts to six! In other words, the apex body for Indian education implicitly
asserts that all the nonsense generated during the fanaticism of the Crusades and the
Setting aside the NCERT advocacy and propagation of church lies, let us now return
to the basic question: “what is this purported “superior” epistemic value of axiomatic
math which so few can grasp, and which offers nil practical value?”
ethnomathematics which compels the West (and the colonized who ape them) into
such absurdities.
Recall that geometry is the one exception which the West did not copy from India, but
took from Egypt. And later twisted it to add the political agenda of the church during
While Egyptians had a very practical geometry very similar to Indian string geometry
(of sulba sutra), they also had religious or mystery (or mystic) geometry. This first
came to the early Greeks, Pythagoreans, and the Platonists. In Plato’s Meno,
mathesis (=learning): to expound the Platonic doctrine that all learning is recollection
of eternal ideas in the soul which the soul learnt in its previous lives. Indeed Proclus
blessed life”.
As is well known, the church after it married the state, in the fourth century,
lynched Hypatia,[33] shut down all schools of philosophy in the Roman Empire, and
The remaining philosophers were forced to flee the Roman Empire, and many sought
traditions survived as Sufism, and crept into a nascent Islam. Many famous early
Muslims were Sufis. Hence, also, Egyptian mystery geometry survived in Arabic texts
and influenced the Islamic theology of reason (aql-i-kalam). Note that even al Ghazali,
During the Crusades, a crusading spy Adelard of Bath, travelled disguised as a Muslim
famous dialogue with his nephew[35]Adelard commented that Muslims used reason,
Arabic book was again translated in 1125 as part of the Toledo mass translations. As
usual, the Toledo translators blundered, and translated the subtitle aql-i-
des[36] meaning “rational geometry”, as the name of the Greek Uclides, nowadays
known as Euclid. As is well known, this was an easy church trick of attributing
knowledge in Arabic books to early Greeks. This made the knowledge theologically
correct, since the early Greeks were regarded as the sole friends of Christians. Thus,
instead of burning those Arabic books (the usual church practice for “heretical”
books) they could be mass translated unto Latin, and Christians could learn from
them: these were used as a text-books[37] in the first Western universities such as
Oxford, Cambridge, and Paris,[38] all set up by the church to digest knowledge
grabbed from Muslims. This was done with a view to win the Crusades, because
Christian Europe then was very backward compared to Muslim Europe, and
There is no known early Greek text of the book Elements which attributes its
authorship to Euclid; the name comes only from Latin translations from Arabic. All
early Greek texts attribute the book to Theon or a mysterious author, very probably
his daughter Hypatia,[40] who came in the short interval between Theon and Proclus,
who wrote a commentary[41] on the Elements, clearly asserting that it was a book on
mathesis.
During the Crusades the Christians were militarily weak, hence the church needed to
fight the Crusades by other means. Earlier, the only basis of church propaganda had
been to cite the scriptures. However, the Muslims rejected the Bible as corrupted, and
force, which had succeeded with European “pagans”, then failed with Muslims. With
the failure of both force and gospel, the church was forced to invent a new way to
convert Muslims who accepted only reason. Therefore, the church sought a way to
support its dogmas using reason. Since facts are almost always contrary to church
dogmas, it hit upon the idea of using reason MINUS facts (religious reason).
To hide the fact that this novel and politically convenient notion of religious reason
(MINUS facts) was a church invention (and different from scientific reason [PLUS
facts]), the church attributed this method of axiomatic reasoning to the recently
arrived “Euclid” book. This killed two birds with one stone: for it also eliminated the
connection of (mystery) geometry to the “pagan” notion of soul, cursed by the church.
never bothered about facts. Westerners buried under church hegemony are brought
up on church myths. Anyway, they dared not articulate the slightest dissent or
scepticism in the days of the Crusades and the Inquisition, It was only after 775 years
that this fact (no axiomatic proofs in “Euclid’s” Elements) was finally publicly
But, by then, centuries of blind belief in the superiority of axiomatic proof had taken
“Euclid” prepared by Cambridge,[43] to fit this syllabus, freely uses empirical proofs!
In contrast, Indian geometry (ganita of the sulba sutra or rajju ganita) explicitly
accepts empirical proof, therefore the order of propositions is unimportant, and hence
“Euclid” book.
Hilbert[45] (1899) rewrote the book to provide the axiomatic proofs missing in it.
Hilbert’s rewrite of “Euclid” is the clearest explicit acknowledgment that there are no
axiomatic proofs in the actual book, a (seemingly secular) delusion asserted by the
church from crusading times (1125). Note also, how this delusion was believed
superstitiously believed for all those centuries by all top Western intellectuals for
whom “Euclid” was a compulsory part of study. Hilbert, too, could only partly shake
such myths and superstition: for this great Western mathematician (who, rather than
one can assume whatever one likes about the intentions of a non-existent person.
This assumption was false for it is a book on mystery geometry. What are the
consequences of this false assumption? Hilbert’s rewrite of the book, based on the
false myth that the “Euclid” book is about axiomatic proofs, does great violence to
it, and does not fit the actual book. Thus, to try and explain the seeming
The manuscripts of Elements (such as they are) all use the term “equality” in their
superposition: put one triangle on top of the other and see (from both sides) that they
are equal. But this is a metric term, for one measures a line segment by physically
The colonised nod their heads as if this was an act of great wisdom, rather than
extreme foolishness. They never pause to think how they would do geometry without
the ruler and the protractor in the compass box. Before Hilbert, this term “equality”
was prevalent in all earlier “Euclid” textbooks such as those of Taylor[48] or earlier
Recall that the equality of all beings was the central issue (contrary to belief in
Christian supremacy which the state-church wanted to peddle, hence it cursed the
pagan notion of soul. The colonially (mis) educated might imagine that I am
one thing that they never read Plato on the relation of geometry to the soul. It is quite
another that the colonized blundered in not studying the colonial enemy,
and the church-state nexus of the colonial state. Had they studied church history, they
would have immediately realized that geometry was at the forefront of the first
religious war that the church fought against pagans and their leaders the
(Neo)Platonic philosophers, whom Justinian banned from the Roman Empire in 532
CE when he shut down all schools of philosophy in the Roman Empire. Because
geometry (and the related pagan/Platonic notion of soul) were at the centre of this
conflict, Justinian’s fifth anathema[50] condemns the belief that souls are like
spheres. The related mystery-geometry point about spheres is that all spheres are
equal.
Hilbert’s rewrite eliminates the term equality (because it is metric, and involves
superposition) and replaces it with the synthetic term congruence, today used in all
math texts as if it were the original term. Russel[51]and others joined in this effort,
and later on the Bourbaki group joined this bandwagon, so that in the 20th century all
So far as our school texts are concerned, the change from “equality” to “congruence”
came about in the 1970s. Thus, Birkhoff,[52] in contrast to Hilbert, gave an axiomatic
metaphysical real numbers. After the Sputnik crisis, the US revised its mathematics
syllabus. The school geometry study group recommended the teaching of Birkhoff’s
metric geometry (which still uses the word congruence from Hilbert). We aped it
because the central teaching of colonial education was “ape the West” and we never
understood that this teaching makes us follow the church as the West did for so long.
adding the slightest practical value to what was known for thousands of years earlier.
Before concluding, let me explain why the claim that axiomatisation of mathematics
Here are some arguments that are offered for the claim that “axiomatic proof is
superior”. Thus, the belief (widespread among the colonially educated) is that proofs
based solely on logic are “stronger” than proofs which use empirical facts. This was
based on the theological superstition that God is bound by logic[54] (hence cannot
create an illogical world) but is not bound by facts (hence can create a world with the
possible-world semantics, where “world” now means a logical world in the sense of
Wittgenstein, rather than a world created by God. On this semantics, a logical truth is
necessary truth, since true in all possible worlds, whereas facts are contingent truths,
The glaring flaw in this way of looking at things is obvious: let us say for the sake of
argument, that logic does binds God. The question is which logic binds
God? Medieval theology, like Western philosophy and Western ethnomathematics,
never thought of this question, and just naïvely assumed that logic is universal.
However, as I have long been pointing out,[55] logic is NOT culturally universal
quantum logic[56]). Obviously, a change of logic will change all the mathematical
theorems derivable from the same set of axioms. For example, all proofs by
The same argument (“logic stronger than facts”) is often repeated in a different form:
empirical proofs are fallible, logical proofs are not. This is a half-truth. It is true that
rope for a snake or a snake for a rope. This is also acknowledged in science that
experiments may have errors. That does not mean science abandons the experimental
method.
The theological/Western fallacy is imagining that deductive proofs are infallible.
[58] The fact is that deductive proof are fallible. Mathematics students fail
because they frequently give wrong proofs. Even eminent mathematicians have
published wrong proofs e.g. about the Riemann hypothesis. Even Riemann gave a
deduction (such as a game of chess, or Russell’s 378 page proof of 1+1 = 2) human
beings almost always make a mistake. While a mistake of perception (e.g. mistaking a
snake for a rope) can be quickly corrected , mistakes in deductive proofs linger. For
example, how exactly does one know that Russell’s 378 page proof is infallible? Not
even a single typo? In fact, if one understands the proof the only way to be sure that
fallible. If one does not understand the proof (most people), then one has to rely on
MORE fallible than empirical proofs, regardless of any Western superstitions to the
contrary.
Further, as the Lokayata pointed out, even a valid deductive proof, does not mean that
the conclusion (the mathematical theorem) is true. Mathematical theorems are at best
true relative to the axioms or assumptions which may be false as in the case of
supposing that the wolf’s artificial footprints[60] what made by real wolf. In current
mathematics involve infinity in some form and hence are not refutable or empirically
testable. For example, consider the axiom that a unique invisible straight line
connects two invisible geometric points. Or the axiom that a straight line has infinitely
many points etc. as such these axioms are metaphysics which have to be accepted on
authority. All current axioms of mathematics are laid down by the West.
POLITICALLY superior (for the church, not for us).[61] Why? Because this technique,
unconstrained by facts, can be used to draw any wild pre-desired conclusion, and say
This Western control over axioms enables the West to control the content of
using its method of reasoning MINUS facts. This is useful because it enables one to
manipulate science and say for example, as e.g. Tipler[62] did, that science has
proved the truth of Christianity and has disproved other beliefs. This happens even at
the level of the Templeton prize and the Nobel prize, given to Penrose for proving the
Conclusions
But it offers a POLITICAL advantage to the West, and puts the West control of the
content of mathematics. This is beneficial to the West, but not to the colonized.
It is high time we demolished this vast web of deceit, and seized back control of
[1]See, e.g., the problem related to the elliptic functions needed for the first science
sheet: http://ckraju.net/sgt/Tutorial-sgt.pdf.
43b. https://doi.org/10.29086/2519-5476/2018/v25n2a2.
Kanpur. http://ckraju.net/papers/teaching-calculus-as-ganita.pdf.
2021), http://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article10406.html.
Office, 1913).
[7]अनुमान in Sanskrit means deductive inference, and NOT अंदाज़ा as it has come to
Reinhold, 1964), 29. The definition given above is simplified and paraphrased, not
directly quoted.
[9]Modus ponens is the Latin name for the rule that from the two statements 1. A
implies B, and 2 A, one can infer 3. B. For the view that the “Aristotelian” syllogism is
derived from the Nyaya syllogism, obtained from Arabs, see C. K. Raju, ‘Logic’,
2008).http://ckraju.net/papers/Nonwestern-logic.pdf.
[10]Raju, C. K., ‘Statistics for Social Science and Humanities: Should We Teach It
2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9Og1k-Z5O4.
Epistemology of the Calculus in the Yuktibhāṣā’, Philosophy East and West 51, no. 3
[13]C. K. Raju, ‘“Euclid” Must Fall: The “Pythagorean” “Theorem” and The Rant Of
[15]Rajendralal Mitra, ed., The Lalita Vistara (ललित विस्तर: सुत्त) (Calcutta: Asiatic
[17]C. K. Raju, ‘Marx and Mathematics. 4: The Epistemic Test’, Frontier Weekly, 8
%20and%20mathematics-4.html.
and the Transmission of Calculus from India to Europe in the 16th c, CE.
ed. Paul Thagard Dov M. Gabbay and John Woods, vol. 7, Handbook of Philosophy of
2016), http://ckraju.net/papers/Springer/Probability-springer.pdf.
and the Transmission of Calculus from India to Europe in the 16th c, CE.
[23]https://tinyurl.com/decol-list-new.
[25]See, e.g. Invite to Nandita Narain to publicly debate her teaching of real analysis
Or Invite to Parvin Sinclair, author of the NCERT school math text, and former
[26]C. K. Raju, ‘California, Indian Calculus and the Technology Race. 1: The Indian
2021, https://www.boloji.com/articles/52924/california-indian-calculus.
[27]C. K. Raju, ‘California, Indian Calculus and the Technology Race. 2: Don’t Cancel
2021, https://www.boloji.com/articles/52950/california-indian-calculus-and.
[29]On the church dogma of discovery, all discoveries must be named after
Christians, so Aryabhata’s method is called Euler’s method after Euler who studied
Indian texts to write an article on the Indian calendar in 1700. C. K. Raju, ‘The
31, http://www.frontierweekly.com/archive/vol-number/vol/vol-47-2014-15/47-
29/47-29-The%20Meaning%20of%20Christian%20Discovery.html.
Springer-encyclopedia-calculus-1-final.pdf.
[33]C. K. Raju, Euclid and Jesus: How and Why the Church Changed Mathematics
and Christianity across Two Religious Wars (Penang: Multiversity and Citizens
International, 2012).
[34]C. K. Raju, The Eleven Pictures of Time: The Physics, Philosophy and Politics of
[35]Hermann Gollancz, Dodi Ve-Nechdi (Uncle & Nephew) : From the Work of
Press, 1920).
[36]This insight is due to the late Martin Bernal (personal communication). I earlier
subscribed to the belief that it was ucli-des or “the key to geometry”, as discussed in
the Farsi translation of Is Science Western in Origin? (Iran University press, 2012),
[37]C. K. Raju, ‘How to break the hegemony perpetuated by the university:
K., ‘How to Break the Hegemony Perpetuated by the University: Decolonised Courses
[38]trans Dana C. Munro, Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of
European History, №3, The Medieval Student, vol. II: №3 (Philadelphia: University
Press, 1893).
[40]Raju, Euclid and Jesus: How and Why the Church Changed Mathematics and
3, http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1052.htm#article3.
[45]David Hilbert, The Foundations of Geometry (The Open Court Publishing Co., La
[46]Raju, The Eleven Pictures of Time: The Physics, Philosophy and Politics of Time
Wesley, 1990).
[49]I. Todhunter, The Elements of Euclid for the Use of Schools and
9, https://ia800202.us.archive.org/35/items/elementsofeuclid00todhuoft/
elementsofeuclid00todhuoft.pdf.
[50]Raju, The Eleven Pictures of Time: The Physics, Philosophy and Politics of Time
Beliefs, 39.
[51]B. Russell, ‘The Teaching of Euclid’, The Mathematical Gazette 2, no. 33 (1902):
at http://ckraju.net/geometry/http://ckraju.net/geometry/Geometry-workshop-
home-assignment.html.
[54]C. K. Raju, ‘The Religious Roots of Mathematics’, Theory, Culture & Society 23
the Calculus in the Yuktibhāṣā’; Raju, The Eleven Pictures of Time: The Physics,
The Nature of Mathematical Proof and the Transmission of Calculus from India to
1994).
[57]Nyayavali,
304, https://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/nyaayaavalii.html.
2022, https://medium.com/@c_k_raju/why-axiomatic-math-is-racist-f1d81d716f13.
[62]F. J. Tipler, The Physics of Immortality: Modern Cosmology, God, and the
https://medium.com/@c_k_raju/practical-ganita-vs-religious-mathematics-d908efc0f69f