INVESTIGATION OF ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF BLACK COTTON SOIL

STABILIZED WITH LIME MIXED WITH CASSAVA PEEL ASH (CPA).

BORTER MAXWEL JOSEPH

EICQ/03086P/2019

A Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of
the Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering.

Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Technical University of Kenya

March 2024

1
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this is my original work and has never been presented for the award of a
degree or any other award in this or any other university.

Signed …………………………………… Date ……………………………………….

BORTER MAXWEL JOSEPH

EICQ/03086P/2019

CERTIFICATION

I confirm that the candidate did the work reported in this research project under my supervision.

Signed ……………………………………. Date ………………………………………….

Eng. GORDON AURA

2
 DEDICATION
I thank God for health and the opportunity to be alive and well while developing this project
proposal. I dedicate this project proposal to my sister, Cynthia Chemtai Psakit.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to all those who have been instrumental in the
development and realization of this project proposal. Your support, expertise, and
encouragement have been indispensable throughout this endeavour.
I express my sincere appreciation to Eng. Gordon Aura, my project supervisor, for his invaluable
guidance, constructive feedback, and unwavering commitment. His mentorship has been a
beacon, steering me in the right direction as far as this proposal is concerned and general civil
engineering practice.
My gratitude extends to my colleagues for their collaborative efforts, constructive discussions
and willingness to share their knowledge and resources.
Thanks to family members and everyone who contributed to creating a favourable environment
for me to complete this project proposal in good time.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................................2
CERTIFICATION....................................................................................................................................2
DEDICATION...........................................................................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................................................................................4
TABLE OF CONTENT............................................................................................................................5
LIST OF TABLES.....................................................................................................................................5
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................................6
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS...........................................................................................7
LIST OF SYMBOLS.................................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................9
1.1 Background of the study.................................................................................................................9
1.2 Problem Statement..................................................................................................................10
1.3 Justification of study................................................................................................................11
1.4 Main Objective.........................................................................................................................11
1.5 Specific Objectives...................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................12
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS...........................................................23
3.1 Material....................................................................................................................................23
a. Black cotton soil.......................................................................................................................23
b. Lime..........................................................................................................................................23
c. Cassava peels Ash....................................................................................................................23
3.2 Methodology.............................................................................................................................23
3.2.1 Grading test......................................................................................................................23
3.2.2 Determination of Physical Properties.............................................................................23
3.2.3 Determination of mechanical properties........................................................................25
REFERENCE..........................................................................................................................................27
BUDGET..................................................................................................................................................28
WORK PLAN 2024.................................................................................................................................29

5
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2; Chemical compositions of CPA.....................................................................................................17
Table 3; physical properties of black cotton Soil........................................................................................19
Table 4; Chemical Properties of black cotton soil....................................................................................19

6
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1; picture of a Pneumatic machine performing mechanical stabilization...................................15
Figure 2; Machine performing chemical stabilization..........................................................................16
Figure 3; a picture of Quick lime.........................................................................................................18
Figure 4; a picture of black cotton soil................................................................................................20
Figure 5; chemical structure of BCS.....................................................................................................20
Figure 6; Atterberg test Apparatus.....................................................................................................20
Figure 7; Apparatus for the CBR test...................................................................................................23
Figure 8; Apparatus for Proctor test....................................................................................................23

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS
CP Cassava peel
CPA Cassava peel ash
BCS Black cotton soil
S.S Swelling stress
L.L Liquid Limit
P.L Plastic Limit
P.I Plastic Index
LS Linear Shrinkage
E.S Expansive soils
XRF X-ray Flouroscence
MDD Maximum Dry Density
OMC Optimum Moisture Content
CBR California Bearing Ratio
Est Estimate
kg/m2 Kilograms per squared meters
kg/m3 Kilograms per quibic meters
kN/m2 Kilo Newtons per squared meters
BS British standards
ASSHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
IS Indian Standard
BS EN British Standard European Norm

8
LIST OF SYMBOLS

% Percentage
°C Degrees Celsius
µ Microns
Al2O3 Alumina
CaO Calcium oxide
K2O Potassium oxide.
MgO Magnesium Oxide
SiO2 Silicon dioxide

9
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
In Kenya, the deposition of Black cotton soil is very good and prosperous for farmers as major
cash crops are grown in these soils giving a significant yield. The crops grown include cotton,
sugarcane, tobacco, wheat, millets, oilseeds, cereals, citrus fruits and vegetables. Black cotton
soil is found in many regions of Kenya, including parts of Kajiado, Nairobi, Rift Valley,
Kiambu, Machakos, and Nyanza. Of concern to Civil Engineers is Nairobi's satellite towns,
including Kitengela, Syokimau, Kamulu, Joska, Malaa, Kantafu, Juja, Ruiru, Kiambu, Ngong,
and Athi River in which major construction projects for residential apartments are undertaken.
Black cotton soil is problematic and hazardous in Civil Engineering due to its expansive
characteristics. Because of its high swelling and shrinkage characteristics, the black cotton soil
has challenged the Engineers as it is tough when dry but loses its strength completely in wet
conditions. Swelling and shrinkage of expansive soil cause deferential settlement resulting in
severe damage to the foundation, buildings, roads, retaining structures and canal linings.
In the past one of the key considerations before deciding to construct was the bearing capacity of
the subsoil and the available choices were to either replace the in situ soil if found problematic or
abandon the site altogether. Today an option to modify the soil characteristics is available to
Civil engineers.
Lime is mostly used to modify black cotton soil as it provides an economical way of stabilizing
black cotton soil compared to using cement in chemical stabilization techniques. Cassava
peel(CP) is an agricultural waste that can be easily obtained from local agricultural markets like
Kware in Rongai and Mthurua in Nairobi’s CBD. Cassava Peels are dumped in these markets as
it is expensive to turn them into animal feed and pose a problem in storing as they develop
aflatoxins in wet conditions. 1 million tonnes of cassava are produced annually in Kenya with
most of it being consumed locally, with lack of proper disposal measures or utilization of cassava
peels pollutes the environment with most of it containing cyanide.

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 1.2 Problem Statement
Black cotton soil, known for its expansive nature, presents challenges in construction due to
excessive swelling and shrinkage. This research aims to systematically investigate the effects of
lime and Cassava peel ash on critical engineering parameters such as strength, compressibility,
and durability of the stabilized soil. By examining these properties, the study seeks to contribute
valuable insights into the effectiveness of the lime and Cassava peel ash mixture as a potential
stabilizing agent for black cotton soil, offering a sustainable and economically viable solution to
improve its suitability for construction applications.

1.3 Justification of study

Black cotton soil is notorious for its high expansiveness, leading to significant swelling and
shrinkage, posing challenges in construction projects. Various stabilization methods have been
developed to mitigate this challenge yet concerns have been raised on the cost and environmental
implications of such methods like stabilization using cement.
Cassava peel ash and lime mixture as a stabilizing agent offers a cost-effective alternative to
conventional stabilization methods. Cassava peel is a waste in the food industry and thus is
relatively free and its utilization in soil stabilization is advantageous to the environment. If
proven effective, this could optimize the use of resources and provide a practical solution for
stabilizing black cotton soil in various construction projects.
The study contributes to the scientific understanding of soil stabilization techniques. By
investigating the specific effects of lime and Cassava peel ash on engineering properties, it adds
valuable insights to the existing body of knowledge, aiding future research endeavours and
potentially leading to the development of new and improved soil stabilization practices.

1.4 Main Objective

The main objective of this study is to determine the engineering properties of black cotton soil
when stabilized with a mixture of lime and Cassava peel ash(CPA).

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 1.5 Specific Objectives
i. To determine the Atterberg limits of black cotton soil containing a mixture of 0% CPA
and 0% lime 2% CPA and 1% lime; 4% CPA and 2% lime; and 6% CPA and 3% lime;
8%CPA and 4% lime.
ii. To determine the MDD and OMC of black cotton soil containing a mixture of 0% CPA
and 0% lime; 2% CPA and 1% lime; 4% CPA and 2% lime; and 6% CPA and 3% lime;
8%CPA and 4% lime.
iii. To determine the CBR of black cotton soil containing a mixture of 0% CPA and 0%
lime; 2% CPA and 1% lime; 4% CPA and 2% lime; and 6% CPA and 3% lime; 8%CPA
and 4% lime.

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 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Stabilization has been defined as any process by which a soil material is improved and made
more stable. It is also the treatment of natural soil to improve its engineering properties. Soil
stabilization aims at improving soil strength and increasing resistance to softening by water
through bonding the soil particles together, and waterproofing the particles or combination of the
two (Sherwood, 1993). There are two principal methods of soil stabilization namely mechanical
and chemical stabilization (Bello, 2011; 2013)
Site feasibility study for geotechnical projects is of far most beneficial before a project
can take off. Site survey usually takes place before the design process begins to
understand the characteristics of the subsoil upon which the decision on the location of the
project can be made. The following geotechnical design criteria have to be considered
during site selection.
 Design load and function of the structure.
 Type of foundation to be used.
 Bearing capacity of subsoil.
In the past, the third bullet played a major in decision-making on site selection. Once the
bearing capacity of the soil was poor, the following were options:
 Change the design to suit site conditions.
 Remove and replace the in situ soil.
 Abandon the site.
Abandoned sites due to undesirable soil-bearing capacities dramatically increased, and
the outcome of this was the scarcity of land and increased demand for natural resources.
Affected areas include those which were susceptible to liquefaction and those covered
with soft clay and organic soils. Other areas were those in landslides and contaminated
land. However, in most geotechnical projects, it is not possible to obtain a construction
site that will meet the design requirements without ground modification. The current
practice is to modify the engineering properties of the native problematic soils to meet the
design specifications. Nowadays, soils such as soft clays and organic soils can be
improved to the civil engineering requirements.

13
There are two principal methods of soil stabilization namely mechanical and chemical
stabilization (Bello, 2011; 2013)
a. Mechanical stabilization
The mechanical methods have been applied in engineering practice over the years for the
treatment of ES. The objective of mechanical stabilization techniques of ES is the reduction of
the expansion potential and swelling stress (SS) without modifying the soil chemistry. (Armand
Augustin Fondjo, Elizabeth Theron, Richard P Ray (2021).
Types of mechanical stabilization techniques include:
1. Compaction
2. Soil replacement
3. Blending of various soils
4. Pre-wetting
5. Wetting-Drying cycles
6. Soil reinforcement

Figure 1; picture of a Pneumatic machine performing mechanical stabilization

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 b. Chemical Stabilization
Chemical stabilization is the commonly utilized technique for ES treatment. The purpose of the
chemical stabilization of soils is to enhance their stability by increasing grain size particles of
soil material, decreasing plasticity index, swelling-shrinking potential, and cementation. Soil
stabilization is performed by adding a specific chemical compound amount to the ES. (Armand
Augustin Fondjo, Elizabeth Theron, Richard P Ray 2021).
We have two categories of Chemical stabilization methods namely;
1. Traditional Stabilizers (Chemical Additives)
a. Cement stabilization
b. Lime stabilization
c. Cement and lime stabilization
d. Fly ash stabilization
2. Non-traditional stabilizers
a. Cement kiln dust
b. Lime kiln dust
c. Ground granulated blast furnace slag
d. Silica fume
e. Bitumen emulsion
f. Calcium-based stabilizer materials
Chemical stabilization Is described in figure 2

Figure 2; Machine performing chemical stabilization

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Cassava peel ash
Cassava peel is a by-product of cassava processing, either for domestic consumption or industrial
uses. Tons of cassava peel is generated annually and more are expected to be produced as
communities in Kenya begin to embrace this crop. Indiscriminate disposal of cassava peels due
to gross underutilization as well as lack of appropriate technology to recycle them is a major
challenge, which results in the environmental problem (Bello, et al., 2015). For this research, the
Cassava Peels will be obtained from local traders in the Kware market in Rongai town.
Cassava peel ash will be produced by first sun-drying till the peel is well dried before burning
followed by calcination of the peels in an electric furnace at temperatures between (600ºC-
700ºC) for 4-6 hours since the silica content is obtained at higher temperatures. The clinker was
ground to a fine ash. The fine ash is then sieved following (BS EN 450-1: 2005) 75 microns
sieve to get fine ash. The CPA is a fine powder with a specific gravity of 2.05 (Bello, et al.,
2015). Table 1 shows the chemical composition of CPA according to the XRF analysis done by
(Salau, 2012)
Table 1; Chemical compositions of CPA

Mineral Percentage (%)

SiO2 58.02
AL2O3 12.7
FeO3 1.41
CaO 8.53
MgO 5.02
SO3 2.18
K2O 7.67
Na2O 0.03
LOI 4.18

Source: Salau (2012)

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Lime
Hydrated lime is used for soil improvement to create long-term permanent strength in fine-
grained soils that are high in clay and silt content. They utilize pozzolanas which are naturally
available in clay soils to create cementitious bonds that lastly boosts a soil. Pozzolanas for
instance alumina and silica react with calcium-aluminate-hydrate (C-S-H) as well as calcium-
aluminate-hydrates (C-A-H). Both C-S-H and C-A-H are the equivalent products that are
responsible for the strength of materials like concrete. Hydrated lime or calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2) is a further treated quicklime via carefully hydrated with an adequate quantity of
agitation and water to create a very fine, highly-purity product. This is preferable for
construction sites that involve wet soils such as pavement, highways, shoulders, parking lots etc.,
since it has already been hydrated and does minimize much of its drying capacity (Akinje 2015;
Akinwumi 2014). A picture of quicklime is shown in Figure 3.

Hydrated lime is used for soil

improvement
to create long-term permanent
strength
in fine-grained soils that are high in
clay
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17
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18
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19
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as pavement, highways, shoulders,
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hydrated
and it does minimize much of its
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20
Figure 3; a picture of Quick lime
Black cotton soil.
Black cotton soils are made of varying Properties of minerals like Montmorinolite and kaolinite,
chemicals like Iron Oxide and Calcium Carbonate and organic matter like humus.
Montmorinolite is a predominant mineral of black cotton soils. The swelling and Shrinkage
behaviour of black cotton soils originate mainly from this mineral. Clay minerals are hydra
silicates of aluminium and magnesium. They are made of sheets of silica and aluminium stacked
above the other forming a sheet-like structure with an expanding lattice as shown in Figure 5.
The structure of some aluminium is by magnesium ions and the minerals become chemically
active. They attract water molecules(dipoles)and various types of hydrated cations to the surface
causing the soil to increase the volume. The abundance of calcium in black cotton soils has
another feature, it may be present in the form of saturating ions or as molecules of CaCO3.
Treatment with the Sodium about base exchange and the soil becomes softer and more plastic.
Organic matter in the form of humus makes these soils more plastic and compressible. The dark
colour of the black cotton soils is believed to be either due to humus or titanium oxide as shown
in Figure 4. Table 2 shows the physical properties of black cotton soil and Table 3 shows the
chemical content of black cotton soil.
Table 2; physical properties of black cotton Soil.

Sr Properties Value
NO
1 Liquid Limit(L.L)% 40-120%
2 Plastic Limit(P.L.)% 20-60%
3 Optimum Moisture 20-35%
content(OMC)%
4 Free swell index% 40-180%
5 Specific gravity (G) 2.60-2.75
6 Swelling pressure 50-800 kN/m2

21
 7 C.B.R (soaked) 1,2-4.0
8 Fines (<75µ) 70-100%
9 2 µ Fraction 20-60%
10 Proctor Density 1350-1600 kg/m3

Table 3; Chemical Properties of black cotton soil

pH value > 7(alkane)

Organic content 0.4-2.4%
CaCO3 1-15%
SiO2 50-55%
Al2O3 3-5%

Montmorrilonite minerals 30-50%

9
Figure 4; a picture of black cotton soil

22
Figure 5; chemical structure of BCS

Figure 6; Atterberg test Apparatus

Atterberg limit test

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of fine-grained soil.
Atterberg limits tests establish the moisture contents at which fine-grained clay and silt soils
transition between solid, semi-solid, plastic, and liquid states. Figure 6 shows the apparatus for
the Atterberg limit test.
Liquid limit (LL)
Liquid limit is the moisture content at which the soil changes its state from liquid to plastic state.
Plastic limit (PL)
This is defined as the minimum water content at percent on dry bases at which soil enters from a
semi-solid state to a plastic state.
Shrinkage Limit (SL)

23
Shrinkage limit is defined as, the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content
will not cause a decrease in the volume of a soil mass.
Plasticity index (PI)
The range of consistency within which a soil exhibits plastic properties is the plastic range and is
indicated by the plastic index.
PI = LL – PL

CBR TEST
The California Bearing Ratio or CBR test is performed in construction materials laboratories to
evaluate the strength of soil subgrades and base course materials. Those who design and engineer
highways, airport runways and taxiways, parking lots, and other pavements rely on CBR test
values when selecting pavement and base thicknesses.

The California Bearing Ratio(CBR) test is a measure of the resistance of a material to

penetration of a standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions. It was
developed by the California Division of Highways as a method of classifying and evaluating soil
subgrade and base course materials for flexible pavements. CBR test may be conducted in
remoulded or undisturbed samples. The test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger of 50mm
diameter to penetrate a pavement component material at 1.25mm/minute. The loads for 2.5mm
and 5mm are recorded. This load is expressed as a percentage of the standard load value at a
respective deformation level to obtain CBR value. The CBR test apparatus is shown in Figure 7.

Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture of soils by Proctor Method

The Standard procedure determines the optimum moisture content of a material that will allow a
given applied compaction force to obtain the maximum dry density of the material. This result is
used to create a specification for compaction on the worksite. Because conditions in the field do
not match the ideal conditions in a laboratory, the target compaction is scaled to a percentage of
the dry density determined in the lab. This can range from 90 percent to over 100 percent.

Modified compaction tests have also been introduced in connection with structures requiring
heavier bearing strength to support extremely heavy loads or to limit settlement. The Modified
compaction test applies about four times more energy than the Standard compaction test and

24
normally results in a lower “optimum” moisture content. The apparatus for the Proctor test is
shown in Figure 8.

Figure 7; Apparatus for the CBR test

25
Figure 8; Apparatus for Proctor test

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS

3.1 Material
a. Black cotton soil.
Black cotton soil is obtained from the Kitengela area of Kajiado County.
b. Lime
Quicklime was used for this study
c. Cassava peels Ash
The cassava peel ash used was collected as refuse from local traders in Kware market in Rongai
town. The peels are dried in open air, burnt to ash and calcinated up to 700 oC in a furnace. The
clinker is grounded to a fine powder and passed through the 425µm sieve.

3.2 Methodology

26
 3.2.1 Grading test
This test will be done following BS 1377 testing procedures to determine the particle size
distribution of Black Cotton soil.
Procedure
i. Approximately, 50 grams of dry soil passing through the sieve NO. 200 is treated with a
dispersing agent like ethanol for 18 hours.
ii. The sample is then washed and passed through several sieves with progressively smaller
screen sizes.
iii. This is done to determine the percentage of sand-sized particles in the specimen. A
hydrometer analysis is then performed to measure the amount of silt and clay particles.

3.2.2 Determination of Physical Properties

The study investigates the physical properties of Black Cotton soil which include the following;
moisture content, Atterberg limits, specific gravity and dry density.

3.2.2.1 Moisture content

This test is done following ASDTMD 211. A small representative of the natural BC soil and
Lime, CPA and BCS mixture are obtained and oven-dried at 1050C for at least 12 hours. The
sample are reweighted and the difference in weight is assumed to be the weight of water driven
off during drying. The difference in weight is divided by the weight of the dry soil to give the
water content of the soil in dry weight basis.
diffarence∈ weight dry weight
Water content¿
dry weight

27
 3.2.2.2 Specific gravity
The specific gravity of soil is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given soil to the weight of
an equal volume of distilled water. This test will be done following IS 2720 (Part 3)-1980 testing
procedures to measure the heaviness of soil particles by using the density bottle method.
3.2.2.3 Atterberg Limits
The test includes the determination of; liquid limits, plastic limits and plasticity index for the raw
soil and soil-bagasse ash mixtures. The tests are done following BS 1377: (Part 2)- 1990
3.2.2.3.1 Liquid Limit ( LL )
LL is the moisture content at which the soil changes its state from liquid to plastic state. The
sample is air dried and 200 grams of the material passing through sieve NO. 40 (425 µm
aperture) is obtained and thoroughly mixed with water to form a homogenous paste on a glass
plate. A portion of the soil water mixture is then placed in a cup of Casagrande apparatus,
levelled off parallel to the base and divided by drawing the grooving tool along the diameter
through the centre of the hinge.
3.2.2.3.2 Plastic Limit (PL)
PL is defined as the minimum water content as a percent of dry basis at which soil enters from a
semi-solid state to a plastic state. It is used together with the liquid limit to obtain the plasticity
10 index. The ball of the raw soil and the Lime, CPA and BCS mixture is moulded between the
fingers and rolled between the palms of the hand until it dried sufficiently, even though the soil is
already relatively drier than the ones used for liquid limit. The sample is then divided into
approximately two equal parts. Each of the parts is rolled into a thread between the first finger
and the thumb. The thread is then rolled between the tip of the fingers of one hand and the glass.
This continued until the diameter of the thread is reduced to about 3mm. The movement
continued until the thread shears both longitudinally and transversely. The crumbled natural soil
and soil–bagasse ash mixture is then put in the moisture container and the moisture content is
determined. The same procedure is also carried out for the soil with an increment of Lime, CPA
content.
3.2.2.3.3 Plasticity Index (PI)
PI is the range of consistency within which a soil exhibits plastic properties
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 – 𝑃𝐿

Where;

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PI – Plasticity index
LL – Liquid Limit
PL – Plastic Limit

3.2.3 Determination of mechanical properties

The tests included are; the determination of Maximum Dry Density (MDD), Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC), and California Bearing Ratio(CBR) for the raw soil and soil stabilized with
bagasse ash. The tests are done following AASHTO T79-94 testing procedures.
3.2.3.1 Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
The maximum dry density is conducted for both the natural and Lime, CPA and BCS mixture of
about 2.5kg, by varying the moisture content. The sample is then compacted into the 944 cubic
centimeters (of mass m1); in three layers of approximately equal mass with each layer receiving
25 blows. The blows are uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer. The collar is then
removed and the compacted sample leveled off at the top of the mould with a straight edge. The
mould containing the leveled sample is then weighed to the nearest 1g. One small representative
sample is then taken from the compacted soil for the determination of moisture content. The
same procedure is repeated until minimum of five sets of samples are taken for moisture content
determination. The values of the dry densities are plotted against their respective moisture
contents and MDD is deduced as the maximum point on the resulting curves.

3.2.3.2 Optimum Moisture Content

The corresponding value of moisture contents at maximum dry densities, which is deduced from
the graph of dry density against moisture content, gives the optimum moisture content of
expansive clay soil.

3.2.3.3 California Bearing Ratio

The CBR test is conducted in accordance with AASHTO T193-93 for the raw soils and
soilbagasse ash mixture. The CBR is expressed by the force exerted by the plunger and the depth
of its penetration into the specimen; it is aimed at determining the relationship between force and
penetration.

29
5.0kg of the natural soil and Lime, CPA and BCS mixture are mixed at their respective optimum
moisture contents in 2124 cubic centimeters mould. The samples are compacted in three layers
with 56 blows from the 2.5kg rammer. The CBR test indirectly measures the shearing resistance
of a soil under controlled moisture and density conditions. The CBR is obtained as the ratio of
load required to affect a certain depth of penetration of a standard penetration piston into a
compacted specimen of the soil at some water content and density to the standard load required
to obtain the same depth of penetration on a standard sample of crushed stone. In equation form,
this is: CBR= (𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒) CBR tests
were conducted on the compacted specimens at the optimum moisture content using standard
compaction test. The compacted soil samples of the CBR mold are soaked for 7 days in a water
bath to get the soaked CBR value.

REFERENCE
1. Armand Augustin Fondjo , Elizabeth Theron , Richard P Ray (2021). Stabilization of
Expansive Soils Using Mechanical and Chemical Methods: A Comprehensive Review.
Civil Engineering and Architecture, 9(5), 1295 - 1308. DOI: 10.13189/cea.2021.090503.
2. ASTM D1883 Standard Test Method for California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of Laboratory.
3. B.C.punamiya and A.K.Jain, “Soilmechanics and engineering property”.
4. C.E.G.Justo and S.K.Khanna, “highway engineering”
5. J.L Eades, R.E. Grim., Reactions of hydrated lime with pure clay minerals in soil
stabilization. Highw. Res. Board Bull. 262, 51–53 (1960).
6. Olugbenga O Amu, Oluwole F.B., dan Iyiola A.K., 2011, The Suitability and Lime
Stabilization Requirement of Some Lateritic Soil Samples as Pavement.

30
 7. Report on the behaviour of Black Cotton Soil (Engineering ROX), Engineering seminar
paper Blog, 2010.
8. S Bhuvaneshwari, R Sowbi, "Stabilization of expansive soils-evaluation of the behaviour
with lime," Int J Civ Eng Technol (IJCIET). Vol. 8, pp. 1003-1013, 2017.
9. Soil Mechanics and Foundations [Dec 15, 2005] Punmia, Dr. B. C.; Jain, Ashok Kumar
and Jain, A. K.
10. Study of Engineering behaviour of Black Cotton Soil and its stabilization by use of Lime,
Nov. 2015, Brajesh Mishra.
11. Yonfu Xu, Babak Jamhiri, Shazim Ali Memon,"On the recent trends in expansive soil
stabilization using calcium-based stabilizer materials: A comprehensive review,"
Advances in Materials Science and Eng, 2020. DOI: 10.1155/2020/1510969.

BUDGET

Serial No. Item Type Units of Quantity. Unit Cost. Total cost.
Sale. (Kshs) (Kshs)

1. Quick lime 25 Kgs 2 Bags 900 1800

31
2. Cassava peels 20 Kgs 2 Bags 100 200

3. Transport Trips 2 1000 2000

4. Internet Gbs - 1000 1000

5. Miscellaneous - - 1000 1000

Total 6000

WORK PLAN 2024.

Month / February March April May

Activities

Proposal Writing

Literature Review

32
Proposal Submission

Presentation

Material Acquisition

Experimentation

Results Analysis

Submission of final
proposal

33
34