Unit 3 – COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

B. INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

1. BINET’S CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE

Binet defined intelligence as “the components of intelligence are reasoning, judgment, memory, and the
power of abstraction.” He measured intelligence as “general mental ability of individuals in intelligent
behaviors.” He described intelligence testing as classifying, not measuring.

2. SPEARMAN – GENERAL INTELLIGENCE

General intelligence, also known as the general factor or g factor, refers to the existence of a broad
mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures. Other terms such as
intelligence, IQ, general cognitive ability, and general mental ability are also used interchangeably to
mean the same thing as general intelligence.

This general mental ability is what underlies specific mental skills related to areas such as spatial,
numerical, mechanical, and verbal abilities. The idea is that general intelligence influences performance
on all cognitive tasks. So, general intelligence can be defined as a construct that is made up of different
cognitive abilities. These abilities allow people to acquire knowledge and solve problems.

Spearman's Theory of General Intelligence

Psychologist Charles Spearman helped develop a statistical technique known as factor analysis, which
allows researchers to use a number of different test items to measure common abilities. For example,
researchers might find that people who score well on questions that measure vocabulary also perform
better on questions related to reading comprehension.

In 1904, Spearman suggested that this g factor was responsible for overall performance on mental ability
tests. He noted that while people certainly could and often did excel in certain areas, people who did well
in one area tended also to do well in other areas.

Spearman's theory of general intelligence is known as the two-factor theory and states that general
intelligence or "g" is correlated with specific abilities or "s" to some degree. All tasks on intelligence tests,
whether related to verbal or mathematical abilities, were influenced by this underlying g factor.

General intelligence can be compared to athleticism. A person might be a very skilled runner, but this
does not necessarily mean that they will also be an excellent figure skater.

However, because this person is athletic and fit, they will probably perform much better on other physical
tasks than an individual who is less coordinated and more sedentary.

Types of General Intelligence

In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell theorized that there were two types of intelligence that affect human
cognitive ability: fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc). 1 Fluid intelligence refers to
intelligence that we are born with and that we acquire through interacting with our environment.
Crystalized intelligence is intelligence that we acquire through our culture.

Others suggest that there are more types of general intelligence, often referred to as the "g's of
intelligence." Additional g's of intelligence include:1
 • General memory and learning (Gy)
• Broad visual perception (Gv)
• Broad auditory perception (Gu)
• Broad retrieval ability (Gr)
• Broad cognitive speediness (Gs)
• Reaction time (Gt)

Components of General Intelligence

There are several key components that are believed to make up general intelligence. These include:

• Fluid reasoning: This involves the ability to think flexibly and solve problems.
• Knowledge: This is a person's general understanding of a wide range of topics and can be
equated with crystallized intelligence.
• Quantitative reasoning: This is an individual's capacity to solve problems that involve numbers.
• Visual-spatial processing: This relates to a person's abilities to interpret and manipulate visual
information, such as putting together puzzles and copying complex shapes.
• Working memory: This involves the use of short-term memory such as being able to repeat a list
of items.

How General Intelligence Is Measured

Many modern intelligence tests measure some of the cognitive factors that are thought to make up
general intelligence. Such tests propose that intelligence can be measured and expressed by a single
number, such as an IQ score.

The Stanford-Binet, which is one of the most popular intelligence tests, aims to measure the g factor. In
addition to providing an overall score, the current version of the test also offers a number of score
composites as well as subtest scores in ten different areas.

What Do IQ Test Scores Mean?

While scoring systems vary, the average score on many is 100 and the following labels are often used for
different scoring ranges:

• 40 - 54: Moderately impaired or delayed

• 55 - 69: Mildly impaired or delayed
• 70 - 79: Borderline impaired or delayed
• 80 - 89: Low average intelligence
• 90 - 109: Average
• 110 - 119: High average
• 120 - 129: Superior
• 130 - 144: Gifted or very advanced
• 145 - 160: Exceptionally gifted or highly advanced

3. PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES – Thurstone

Louis Leon Thurstone proposed theory in 1930's that intelligence is composed of several
different factors. The seven primary mental abilities in Thurstone's model were verbal comprehension,
word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and
reasoning.
 4. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES – Gardner

The concept of multiple intelligences is a theory proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner.
When you hear the word intelligence, the concept of IQ testing may immediately come to mind.
Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential; something we are born with, something that can
be measured, and a capacity that is difficult to change.

In recent years, however, other views of intelligence have emerged, including Gardner's suggestion that
multiple different types of intelligence may exist. The eight intelligences according to Gardner are:

1. Visual-spatial
2. Linguistic-verbal
3. Logical-mathematical
4. Body-kinesthetic
5. Musical
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalistic

Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner first
outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, where he
suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences."

Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth
known as "existentialist intelligence."1

In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes that
people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including musical,
interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligences.

While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, they most
likely possess a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong in verbal, musical, and
naturalistic intelligence.

Gardner has cautioned that multiple intelligences should not be conflated with learning styles.3 (It is also
important to stress that evidence has found that matching instruction to a learner's perceived style has no
benefits in terms of learning outcomes or educational attainment.)4

There is a lack of evidence to demonstrate that learning according to your "intelligence" produces better
educational outcomes. However, you may find that learning more about multiple intelligences can give
you a better understanding of your strengths and preferences.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are
often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.5

Strengths

Visual and spatial judgment

Characteristics

People with visual-spatial intelligence:

• Read and write for enjoyment

• Are good at putting puzzles together
• Interpret pictures, graphs, and charts well
• Enjoy drawing, painting, and the visual arts
• Recognize patterns easily

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Architect
• Artist
• Engineer

Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence

People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and
speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and
reading.1

Strengths

Words, language, and writing

Characteristics

People with linguistic-verbal intelligence:

• Remember written and spoken information

• Enjoy reading and writing
• Debate or give persuasive speeches
• Are able to explain things well
• Use humor when telling stories

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Writer/journalist
• Lawyer
• Teacher

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns,
and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers,
relationships, and patterns.6
Strengths

Analyzing problems and mathematical operations

Characteristics

People with logical-mathematical intelligence:

• Have excellent problem-solving skills

• Enjoy thinking about abstract ideas
• Like conducting scientific experiments
• Can solve complex computations

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Scientist
• Mathematician
• Computer programmer
• Engineer
• Accountant

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing
actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye
coordination and dexterity.6

Strengths

Physical movement, motor control

Characteristics

People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:

• Are skilled at dancing and sports

• Enjoy creating things with his or her hands
• Have excellent physical coordination
• Remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Craftsperson
• Dancer
• Builder
• Surgeon
• Sculptor
 • Actor

Musical Intelligence

People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They
have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance. 7

Strengths

Rhythm and music

Characteristics

People with musical intelligence:

• Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments

• Recognize musical patterns and tones easily
• Remember songs and melodies
• Have a rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in musical intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Musician
• Composer
• Singer
• Music teacher
• Conductor

Interpersonal Intelligence

Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other
people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of
those around them.7

Strengths

Understanding and relating to other people

Characteristics

People with interpersonal intelligence:

• Communicate well verbally

• Are skilled at nonverbal communication
• See situations from different perspectives
• Create positive relationships with others
• Resolve conflicts in group settings
Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Psychologist
• Philosopher
• Counselor
• Salesperson
• Politician

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional
states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming,
exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths. 7

Strengths

Introspection and self-reflection

Characteristics

People with intrapersonal intelligence:

• Analyze their strengths and weaknesses well

• Enjoy analyzing theories and ideas
• Have excellent self-awareness
• Understand the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Philosopher
• Writer
• Theorist
• Scientist

Naturalistic Intelligence

Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance than
his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of intelligence
are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning
about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their
environments.1

Strengths

Finding patterns and relationships to nature

Characteristics

People with naturalistic intelligence:

• Are interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology

• Categorize and catalog information easily
• Enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors
• Dislikes learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature

Potential Career Choices

If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you are:

• Biologist
• Conservationist
• Gardener
• Farmer

Existential Intelligence

Existential intelligence is the ninth type of intelligence suggested as an addition to Gardner's original
theory. He described existential intelligence as an ability to delve into deeper questions about life and
existence. People with this type of intelligence contemplate the "big" questions about topics such as the
meaning of life and how actions can serve larger goals.

Strengths

An ability to see the big picture

Characteristics

People with existential intelligence:

• Have a long-term outlook

• Consider how current actions influence future outcomes
• Interest in questions about the meaning of life and death
• Strong interest and concern for others
• The ability to see situations from an outside perspective

5. TRIACHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE – Sternberg

Robert J. Sternberg proposed his theory in 1985 as an alternative to the idea of the general intelligence
factor. The general intelligence factor, also known as g, is what intelligence tests typically measure. It refers
only to “academic intelligence.”

Sternberg argued that practical intelligence—a person’s ability to react and adapt to the world around
them—as well as creativity are equally important when measuring an individual's overall intelligence. He
also argued that intelligence isn’t fixed, but rather comprises a set of abilities that can be
developed. Sternberg's assertions led to the creation of his theory.

Subtheories
Sternberg broke his theory down into the following three subtheories:

Contextual subtheory: The contextual subtheory says that intelligence is intertwined with the individual’s
environment. Thus, intelligence is based on the way one functions in their everyday circumstances,
including one’s ability to a) adapt to one’s environment, b) select the best environment for oneself, or c)
shape the environment to better fit one’s needs and desires.

Experiential subtheory: The experiential subtheory proposes that there is a continuum of experience from
novel to automation to which intelligence can be applied. It’s at the extremes of this continuum that
intelligence is best demonstrated. At the novel end of the spectrum, an individual is confronted with an
unfamiliar task or situation and must come up with a way to deal with it. At the automation end of the
spectrum, one has become familiar with a given task or situation and can now handle it with minimal
thought.

Componential subtheory: The componential theory outlines the various mechanisms that result in
intelligence. According to Sternberg, this subtheory is comprised of three kinds of mental processes or
components:

• Metacomponents enable us to monitor, control, and evaluate our mental processing, so that we
can make decisions, solve problems, and create plans.
• Performance components are what enable us to take action on the plans and decisions arrived
at by the metacomponents.
• Knowledge-acquisition components enable us to learn new information that will help us carry
out our plans.

Kinds of Intelligence

Each subtheory reflects a particular kind of intelligence or ability:

• Practical intelligence: Sternberg called one’s ability to successfully interact with the everyday
world practical intelligence. Practical intelligence is related to the contextual subtheory. Practically
intelligent people are especially adept at behaving in successful ways in their external environment.
• Creative intelligence: The experiential subtheory is related to creative intelligence, which is
one’s ability to use existing knowledge to create new ways to handle new problems or cope in new
situations.
• Analytical intelligence: The componential subtheory is related to analytical intelligence, which is
essentially academic intelligence. Analytical intelligence is used to solve problems and is the kind
of intelligence that is measured by a standard IQ test

Sternberg observed that all three kinds of intelligence are necessary for successful intelligence, which refers
to the ability to be successful in life based on one’s abilities, personal desires, and environment.

6. COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY – ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN

Atkinson-Shiffrin Modal Model of Memory

Miyu sat outside a coffee shop in the early morning, drinking coffee and reading a book as the scents of
freshly baked bread from the nearby bakery suddenly wandered by. The smells prompted memories of the
bread grandma used to bake when Miyu was a child. She remembered how helping grandma knead the
dough often left a big mess in the kitchen.
A memory, such as Miyu's, is the storage and recollection of past events, including senses like images,
sounds, and smells, within the human mind. Some memories fade quickly, while others may last a lifetime.
To explain how the processes of memory work, psychologists have developed different models to explain
the facets of memory. One such model is the Atkinson-Shiffrin Modal model of memory developed in
1968 by Richard C. Atkinson and Richard M. Shiffrin in the United States. These two psychologists
worked as psychology professors and researchers.
An overview of their model is as follows: Memories are composed of three primary stages and three different
processes. The stages are the sensory register, the short-term memory, and the long-term memory, while
the processes are encoding, storage, and retrieval.

A schematic illustrating the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory and its

processes.

Sensory Register

The modal model of memory describes the first stage of remembering something as the sensory register.
The sensory register begins with the five senses, detecting things that a person hears, sees, smells, tastes,
or touches. Sensory input can be overwhelming since it includes everything sensed at any moment. Its
capacity for holding information is large, but its potential to retain information is for a short amount of time,
usually no more than a second.
For instance, iconic memory is a sensory register that describes the remnants of visual imagery that stick
around for less than a second after a person sees something. Iconic memory is why flipbooks can produce
the illusion that pictures are moving when they are not. Echoic memory is a sensory register that describes
the remnants of sounds that stick around for a couple of seconds after a person hears a noise. Once the
information in the sensory register is forgotten, it decays and is gone for good. Although sensory registers
exist for memories formed from the remaining three senses, psychologists and scholars have not studied
these well.
Short-Term Store

The second stage in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory is remembering something from the short-term
store. This stage begins with temporary information being transferred from the sensory register to the short-
term store because it received attention. The capacity of the short-term store is not very large and is limited
to remembering about seven different things at once. A cognitive psychologist named George Miller
concluded that seven items, with an average minimum of five minimum and a maximum of nine, could be
retained in short-term memory in his 1956 paper, The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two.
The duration of memories in the short-term store is a little longer than the sensory register, about 30
seconds to a minute. It is the form of memory that people can actively use. Rehearsal of the information in
the short-term store reinforces its duration; if it is rehearsed enough, it might get transferred to the long-
term store.

Long-Term Store

The third and final stage in the modal model of memory is the long-term store, which begins with
information transferred over from the short-term store. Repeated information gets encoded into permanent
long-term storage. If the information does not first move into the short-term store, it cannot be transferred
to the long-term store or actively used at a future time. Unlike the sensory register and the short-term store,
the long-term store's duration and capacity are potentially limitless. However, information in the long-term
store can be forgotten in cases of illness or injury, like traumatic brain injury or Alzheimer's disease.