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Essay Quiz Chapters 12

Social Psychology

1.Define aggression from a social psychology point of view.

Aggression
Any physical or verbal behavior that is intended to harm another person or persons (or any living
thing)
Harm can be physical or psychological
2.Explain the importance of intention.
Requires an intention to harm
Can be a deliberate action or a deliberate failure.

3.Describe the three different types of harm that aggression can have.
Physical: Immediate or lasting feelings of pain, suffering, injury, or death
Nonlethal physical: Psychological trauma; overgeneralized anxiety, hypervigilance,
sleeplessness, irritability, self-blame; PTSD; serious harm or death
Collateral damage: Wide-ranging effects on witnesses and those close to victim
Compare the two types of aggression - affective and instrumental. Provide me with an example
of each.

Violence-Acts of aggression with more severe consequences.

4. Provide me with an example of each.

Physical: Immediate or lasting feelings of pain, suffering, injury, or death
Nonlethal physical: Psychological trauma; overgeneralized anxiety, hypervigilance,
sleeplessness, irritability, self-blame; PTSD; serious harm or death
Collateral damage: Wide-ranging effects on witnesses and those close to victim
5.Compare the two types of aggression - affective and instrumental. Provide me with an example
of each. Social psychologists distinguish between two types of aggression
Affective aggression: Harm-seeking done to another person that is elicited in response to some
negative emotion
Instrumental aggression: Harm-seeking done to another person that serves some other goal.

6.Explain biology and human aggression.

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Provide me with an example of eros and Thanatos as they relate to aggression. Is aggressiveness
biologically programmed into human nature?
Eros: Freud’s term for what he proposed is the human inborn instinct to seek pleasure and to
create
Thanatos: Freud’s term for what he proposed is the human inborn instinct to aggress and to
destroy.

7.Explain how aggression in animals relates to aggression in humans (ethological approach).

Humans and other species have an evolved innate psychological mechanism for aggression
(Lorenz, 1966).
Human–animal parallels
Aggression against another organism attempting to acquire or gain control over survival-related
resources, property
Aggress when self or offspring are attacked; competition over social status or threats to
reputation

8.Explain the physiological mechanisms involved in aggression. Discuss the regions of the brain
that respond to threat.
Research confirms physiological mechanisms involved in the detection of social threat, the
experience of anger, and engaging in aggressive behavior.
Brain regions
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC): Detection of social threat; unjustified wrongdoings
Hypothalamus and amygdala: Anger and fear.

9.Explain the role testosterone plays in aggression. Testosterone correlates with aggression in
situations involving provocation and interpersonal conflict (Olweus et al., 1980.
How does this hormone factor into male and female behaviors?
Males secrete more testosterone and they commit more serious acts of physical aggression than
females do.
In experimental studies, boys with higher testosterone levels were more physically and verbally
aggressive, especially in response to provocations; in response to mounting intensity of
provocation by another participant, men with high levels of testosterone were more physically
aggressive than were those with lower levels of testosterone. Testosterone leads to people seek
out and maintain a sense of status relative to others (Josephs et al., 2006).
Testosterone level predicts aggression in both sexes

10.Discuss how aggression can be uniquely human.

Technological capacity for violence outstrips natural controls on aggression (Lorenz, 1966).
Lethal harm can be delivered quickly and from great distance so that evolved controls over
violence may have little or no opportunity to intercede or limit violence.
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The human mind specializes in self-control.

Human brains are equipped with regions that regulate or inhibit aggressive responses (prefrontal
cortex).

11.Explain the natural-born pacifists’ theory.

Humans and other species may have evolved not to be overly aggressive.
Aggressive, competitive actions may result in injury or death.
Overly aggressive behavior can lead to peer rejection (or even imprisonment).
Humans may have evolved a capacity to forgive valued relationship partners and to demonstrate
capabilities that counteract aggressive inclinations.
Examples: perspective-taking, morals, empathy, impulse control.
When have you observed someone who would fall into this typology?

when someone has wronged the other.

12.Explain impulse regulation. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the brain area involved in
controlling impulses and emotions. When our impulse is to lash out aggressively, the prefrontal
cortex can help us restrain that impulse. The figure shows the dorsolateral region (a) and the
medial region (b) of the PFC.

13.Which parts of the brain are involved? The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and medial
prefrontal cortex.

What is their function?

How does impulse regulation contribute to situational triggers for aggression?

help regulate impulses, share connections with the limbic system, and contain serotonin
neurotransmitters.

14.Explain the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

Contemporary findings show that, across diverse cultures, aggressive behaviors (e.g., homicide,
road rage, child abuse) increase with the prevalence of various sources of frustration and
stressors, including shrinking workforce, unemployment, increase in population density, low
economic status, and economic hardship (Geen, 1998).

Include an explanation of the Dollard (1939) and Harris (1974) studies. Original hypothesis

Aggression is always preceded by frustration, and that frustration inevitably leads to aggression (Dollard
et al., 1939) Updated hypothesis

Frustration produces an emotional readiness to aggress (Harris, 1974)The hypothesis has received cross-
cultural support.
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14. Include a discussion AND example of displaced trigger displaced aggression.

When rating a somewhat bumbling assistant (in the trigger condition), participants made the
harshest evaluations if they had been insulted earlier by someone else. This situation illustrates
triggered displaced aggression because participants derogated the assistant only if he or she did
something to trigger the aggressive response. [Data source: Pedersen et al., 2000]
Displaced aggression is directed toward a target other than the source of one’s frustration.
Triggered displaced aggression occurs when someone does not respond to an initial frustration
but later responds more aggressively than would be warranted to a second event.

15.Describe two types of situational triggers of aggression.

Attack
Perception of imminent, intentional physical or verbal attack is the most reliable provocation of
an aggressive response.
Insult and social rejection
Insults and social rejection can arouse anger and the impulse to aggress to protect self-esteem.
People high in rejection sensitivity tend to expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection
with aggressive responses.

Provide me with an example of both.

16.Explain the cognitive neo associationism model (Berkowitz) in detail. Include a discussion of the
weapons effect. The cognitive neo associationism model (Berkowitz) expands the frustration-aggression
model.

Physical pain and discomfort can increase the likelihood of aggression.

Additional arousal sources may intensify anger and subsequent aggression (excitation transfer theory;
Zillmann, 1971).Specific situations feature prime aggressive cognitions, which makes aggression more
likely

Provide me with an example from the news of the weapons effect. Berkowitz’s model proposes that
situational cues which prime hostile feelings can lead to aggression.

Weapons effect: The tendency for the presence of firearms to increase the likelihood of aggression,
especially when people are frustrated.

Can influence what happens when driving.

17.Explain the Berkowitz and LePage 1967 study results.

Berkowitz and LePage’s (1967) classic weapons effect study
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Participants became the most aggressive when they were in a condition in which they were both
angered and in the presence of a gun and a rifle, administering an especially large number of
shocks to another person.
19. Why do you think this effect occurs in our society? Why does this effect occur?
Seeing weapon may:Prime aggressive thoughts in memory
Increase hostile appraisals.Induce physiological reaction that prepares reaction to lash out.Be influenced
by escalating cycle of violence and gun ownership.

20.Discuss the evidence that violent media increases the incidence of aggression. Aggression is not
caused by any one factor in isolation but results from particular combinations of several factors.

Researchers debate whether the impact of violent video games, movies, and TV shows contributes to
aggression not only in North American but also in China, Germany, Japan, and other nations.

It’s important to note that the majority of the laboratory experiments show these effects of violent
media primarily when participants are frustrated or provoked and for viewers who are generally above
average in aggressive tendencies.

21.According to research, why is the information of the negative influence of aggression in media
ignored? Research shows that exposure to violent media increases prevalence of societal violence, yet
violent media is pervasive in the United States.

Why?

Research findings are ignored because violent media are very popular and profitable.

It may be adaptive for humans to view and become physiologically aroused by violence..Identifying with
heroic victory over evil and injustice may enhance self-esteem.

22.Explain factors in family life that influence the tendency to aggress.

The same factors that contribute to aggression in general play roles in family violence.

Sling rivalry, conflict between parents, lack of affection, and inconsistent discipline by parents
all can increase frustration and stress in both toddlers and older children.

Give examples of how culture influences proneness to aggression. Domestic aggression generates
negative affect, disrupts psychological security, and creates stress and frustration.

Short-term: Risk for aggressive child behavior at home and school

Long-term: Risk for becoming aggressive adults, victims, or victimizers of abuse

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23. Differentiate the likelihood and style of aggression in men and women. Culture influences the extent
of aggression within a society.

Among national cultures

United States: Murder rate dwarfs that of other industrialized nations; aggression used to solve
interpersonal conflict; availability of firearms; focus on individualism

No single set of variables that accounts for a given nation’s violence record.

Within nations

Culture of honor, especially in United States South and West

Status protection in herding cultures

Subcultures of violence, inner-city gang-related violence

24.Explain the role of socialization experiences and genes in the likelihood to aggress. Many social
psychological processes
lie beneath the cycle of violence.

Youth often end up in gangs according to where they live and for self-protection.Regulation of violent
and illegal activities is difficult (or limited); a culture of honor and code of street dictate
behavior.Stereotypes and bias perception are formed.Self-fulfilling prophecies are likely to occur.Is there
a solution? What do you think?

25.Discuss why the ways in which intelligence is a factor in aggressive behavior

Further implicating self-esteem deficits in aggression, research by Krizan and Johar (2015)
shows that it is the feeling of vulnerability of narcissists, not their grandiosity, which underlies
their hostility and aggressiveness in response to perceived slights.

Poor intellectual functioning is linked to high aggressiveness, potentially because people with
poor intellectual functioning

Are less likely to process social situations and intentions

Are more likely to feel frustration

Find it more difficult to understand the inappropriateness of aggression. Discuss the four personality
traits that foster aggression.

26.Deficits in self-esteem
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Higher emotional response to provocations, negative feedback, and social rejection.Narcissism

and unstable self-esteem.

Highly reactive to threat to self-view that is grandiose but fragile; fluctuation in response to
social events .

Impulsivity. Reaction without considering consequences. Angry response to insults, attacks,

frustrations. More likely to act out aggressively. Under controlled and overcontrolled aggressive
impulses. Sadism.

27.Identify possible consequences of legal and illegal drug use. Drug-induced altered states and desire
for drugs can contribute to aggression and violence.

Drugs can heighten emotional reactions to provocations and reduce higher-order cognition and impulse
control.

Drugs

Recreational drug criminalization and ineffective war on drugs linked to gang activity, crime, violence

Effects of drugs linked to violence via increased physiological arousal, heightened emotional reactions to
provocations and reduced higher-order cognition and impulse control.

Alcohol
Is involved in about half of all violent crimes and sexual assaults worldwide

Reduces self-regulatory control that inhibits aggressive inhibitions and impulse control

Expectation that alcohol increases aggression can cause aggressive behavior

May cause alcohol myopia

28.Describe the reasons why alcohol increases aggressive behavior.

Although drugs can be appealing for a variety of reasons, both the resulting altered states and the
desire for these drugs can contribute to aggression in a variety of ways.

30.What is domestic violence?

Domestic violence: violence between current or former romantic partners

Differentiate between the three types of domestic violence offenders.

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Substantial theory and research have focused on two common forms of violence directed at
women: domestic violence and sexual coercion.

In heterosexual relationships, the frequency of physical aggression by men and women is the
same, but men engage in more injurious and lethal physical aggression.

31.Describe the characteristics (do not list) of men who engage in sexual coercion.

Different factors contribute to male domestic violence against women

Research on the personalities of male domestic violence offenders reveals three types, each
characterizing about one third of total offenders

 Psychopathic abuser
 Overcontrolled abuser
 Borderline abuser.
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32.Discuss the rape myths that contribute to sexual coercion.

Why do you think we have a culture that upholds these myths? Culture upholds myths so that it
can hinder/ prevent the wrong doers from progressing the misdid.

Create a fictional person whose life experiences demonstrate the trajectory that helps to predict
the likelihood of spousal abuse.

Describe the three types of sexual coercion rapists engage in.

Sexual coercion occurs when an individual forces sexual behavior, such as kissing, fondling, or
sexual penetration, on another person.

Rape is forcing individuals to engage in sexual intercourse against their will; it is the most
severe and traumatic form of sexual coercion.

Date rape occurs in the context of dating or an ongoing romantic relationship; it is more
common than rape by a stranger.

33.Discuss the four characteristics male rapists tend to have.

Experimental and correlational research suggests that media that reinforce rape myths and
portray women as victims of violence or sex objects may indeed contribute to aggression against
women in the real world.

Furthermore, this is especially likely for men with hostile masculinity syndrome (Vega &
Malamuth, 2007).

Men who sexually coerce and rape tend to

Be motivated by being turned on by the idea of dominating women and by insecurity about and
hostility toward women (Malamuth & Huppin, 2007)
Lack empathy for others, are narcissistic, and believe rape myths
Associate sex with power; authority and control; compensation for low power in life
Sometimes display hostile masculinity syndrome (Malamuth, 1981)

For the following questions read the following article and then answer the questions:
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sexual-victimization-by-women-is-more-common-
than-previously-known/
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What were the CDC's findings regarding rapists? Be specific with the dat
In 2014, we published a study on the sexual victimization of men, finding that men were much
more likely to be victims of sexual abuse than was thought. To understand who was committing
the abuse, we next analyzed four surveys conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) and
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to glean an overall picture of how
frequently women were committing sexual victimization.

The results were surprising. For example, the CDC’s nationally representative data revealed that
over one year, men and women were equally likely to experience nonconsensual sex, and most
male victims reported female perpetrators. Over their lifetime, 79 percent of men who were
“made to penetrate” someone else (a form of rape, in the view of most researchers) reported
female perpetrators. Likewise, most men who experienced sexual coercion and unwanted sexual
contact had female perpetrators.

2. What were the National Crime Victimization Survey results regarding male and female
victimization?

Four years of the pooled National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) data and found that 35
percent of male victims who experienced rape or sexual assault reported at least one female
perpetrator. Among those who were raped or sexually assaulted by a woman, 58 percent of male
victims and 41 percent of female victims reported that the incident involved a violent attack,
meaning the female perpetrator hit, knocked down or otherwise attacked the victim, many of
whom reported injuries.

And, because we had previously shown that nearly one million incidents of sexual victimization
happen in our nation’s prisons and jails each year, we knew that no analysis of sexual
victimization in the U.S. would be complete without a look at sexual abuse happening behind
bars. We found that, contrary to assumptions, the biggest threat to women serving time does not
come from male corrections staff. Instead, female victims are more than three times as likely to
experience sexual abuse by other women inmates than by male staff.
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3. Discuss the prison rape results discussed throughout the article (you will have to read further
down as well for the answer). What do you think about these results? What do they indicate
about our society? Other gender stereotypes prevent effective responses, such as the trope that
men are sexually insatiable. Aware of the popular misconception that, for men, all sex is
welcome, male victims often feel too embarrassed to report sexual victimization. If they do
report it, they are frequently met with a response that assumes no real harm was done.

Women abused by other women are also an overlooked group; these victims discover that most
services are designed for women victimized by men. Behind bars, we found that sexual
minorities were 2-3 times more likely to be sexually victimized by staff members than straight
inmates. This is particularly alarming as our related research found that sexual minorities,
especially lesbian and bisexual women, are much more likely to be incarcerated to begin with.

In addition to the risk faced by sexual minorities, the U.S. disproportionately incarcerates people
who are black, Latino/a, low-income, or mentally ill, putting these populations at risk of abuse.
Detained juveniles experience particularly high rates of sexual victimization, and young people
outside of the system are also at risk. A recent study of youth found, strikingly, that females
comprise 48 percent of those who self-reported committing rape or attempted rape at age 18-19

4. Why do the authors think society needs to move away from the one-dimensional portrayal of
women? What are your thoughts? To thoroughly dismantle sexual victimization, we must
grapple with its many complexities, which requires attention to all victims and perpetrators,
regardless of their sex. This inclusive framing need not and should not come at the expense of
gender-sensitive approaches, which take into account the ways in which gender norms influence
women and men in different or disproportionate ways.

Male-perpetrated sexual victimization finally came to public attention after centuries of denial
and indifference, thanks to women’s rights advocates and the anti-rape movement. Attention to
sexual victimization perpetrated by women should be understood as a necessary next step in
continuing and expanding upon this important legacy.
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5. Describe the sexual stereotypes described in the article. When have you observed these
stereotypes? You can discuss either a personal connection or one demonstrated in the media.
Other gender stereotypes prevent effective responses, such as the trope that men are sexually
insatiable. Aware of the popular misconception that, for men, all sex is welcome, male victims
often feel too embarrassed to report sexual victimization. If they do report it, they are frequently
met with a response that assumes no real harm was done.

Women abused by other women are also an overlooked group; these victims discover that most
services are designed for women victimized by men. Behind bars, we found that sexual
minorities were 2-3 times more likely to be sexually victimized by staff members than straight
inmate

6. What are the social and emotional results of female perpetrators? What can we do as a society
to address the repeating of sexual exploitation from victim to victimizer? Researchers also find
that female perpetrators have often been previously sexually victimized themselves. Women who
commit sexual victimization are more likely to have an extensive history of sexual abuse, with
more perpetrators and at earlier ages than those who commit other crimes. Some women commit
sexual victimization alongside abusive male co-perpetrators. These patterns of gender-based
violence must be understood in order to reach the troubled women who harm others.
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To thoroughly dismantle sexual victimization, we must grapple with its many complexities,
which requires attention to all victims and perpetrators, regardless of their sex. This inclusive
framing need not and should not come at the expense of gender-sensitive approaches, which take
into account the ways in which gender norms influence women and men in different or
disproportionate ways.