Comparative Literature

Scope and Purpose:

Why studying comparative literature is valuable and how it
can broaden our understanding of cultures, perspectives, and
literary forms?
1- Cross-Cultural Analysis: Comparative literature involves
the study of literary works across different cultures and
languages. By analyzing texts from various cultural
backgrounds, we gain insight into the similarities and
differences in the ways different societies express ideas,
emotions, and values through literature. This cross-cultural
analysis fosters a deeper appreciation for the diversity of
human experience and the ways in which culture shapes
literary expression.
2- Perspective Taking: Engaging with literature from
different cultural contexts allows us to adopt multiple
perspectives and empathize with characters and authors
from diverse backgrounds. This ability to understand and
appreciate different viewpoints is crucial for developing
cultural competence and empathy, as it encourages
individuals to recognize the complexity of human
experiences beyond their own cultural lens.
3- Exploration of Themes and Issues: Comparative literature
often focuses on universal themes and issues that transcend
cultural boundaries, such as love, identity, power,
colonialism, and justice. Through the comparative study of
how these themes are represented in different cultural
contexts, we gain insight into the ways in which societies
grapple with common human concerns and the diverse
approaches they take to address them.
4- Literary Forms and Techniques: Comparative literature
exposes us to a wide range of literary forms, styles, and
techniques employed across different cultures and historical
periods. By examining how authors from different
backgrounds experiment with narrative structures,
language, and literary devices, we develop a deeper
understanding of the craft of writing and the ways in which
form shapes meaning.
5- Cultural Context and Historical Significance: Comparative
literature situates literary works within their cultural and
historical contexts, providing us with valuable insights into
the social, political, and historical forces that shape both the
production and reception of literature. By studying how
literature reflects and responds to specific historical events
and cultural movements, we gain a richer understanding of
the complexities of human societies and the ways in which
literature both reflects and shapes cultural identity.
Finally, we are going to relate literary themes to current events
and contemporary issues. This can help us see the relevance of
literature in today's world and stimulate discussions about the
enduring impact of literary works.
Overall, studying comparative literature encourages us to
engage critically and empathetically with literary texts from
diverse cultural backgrounds, fostering a broader
understanding of the complexities of human experience and the
ways in which literature reflects and shapes cultural identity
and values.
Things Fall Apart
Background
"Things Fall Apart" is the debut novel of Nigerian author Chinua Achebe,
first published in 1958. It depicts pre-colonial life in Igboland (modern-day
southeastern Nigeria) and the subsequent appearance of European
missionaries and colonial forces in the late 19th century. It is seen as the
archetypal modern African novel in English, and one of the first to receive
global critical acclaim. It is a staple book in schools throughout Africa and is
widely read and studied in English-speaking countries around the world. The
novel was first published in the United Kingdom in 1958 by William
Heinemann and became the first work published in Heinemann's African
Writers Series.
Chinua Achebe wrote "Things Fall Apart" with the primary intention of
countering the prevailing colonial narratives about Africa and its people. He
was motivated by a desire to present a more authentic and nuanced
portrayal of Igbo culture and society, free from the stereotypes and
distortions commonly found in Western literature at the time. Achebe was
deeply troubled by the misrepresentation of Africa in literature written by
Western authors, which often depicted Africans as primitive, backward, and
devoid of agency.
Through "Things Fall Apart", Achebe aimed to reclaim the narrative of
African identity and history. He wanted to showcase the richness,
complexity, and dignity of Igbo culture, highlighting its customs, traditions,
and social structures. By centering the story on the experiences and
perspectives of the Igbo people, Achebe sought to challenge the
dehumanizing stereotypes perpetuated by colonialist literature and to assert
the validity of African voices in shaping their own narrative.
Additionally, Achebe wrote "Things Fall Apart" as a critique of colonialism
and its devastating impact on African societies. The novel explores the
destructive consequences of European imperialism on traditional African
ways of life, including the erosion of cultural values, the imposition of
foreign institutions and ideologies, and the disruption of social cohesion. By
vividly depicting the clash between indigenous cultures and colonial forces,
Achebe aimed to expose the injustices of colonial domination and to
advocate for the decolonization of African minds.
Overall, "Things Fall Apart" was written as a powerful assertion of African
agency, identity, and resilience. It remains a seminal work in African
literature and a testament to Chinua Achebe's commitment to challenging
stereotypes, advocating for social justice, and celebrating the cultural
heritage of Africa.

Plot

The novel follows the life of Okonkwo, an influential leader of the fictional
Igbo ("Ibo" in the novel) clan of Umuofia, who is, among other things, a
feared warrior, and a local wrestling champion. The work is split into three
parts, with the first describing his family, personal history, his violent
exterior and tortured soul, and the customs and society of the Igbo. The
second and third sections introduce the influence of European colonialism
and Christian missionaries on Okonkwo, his family, and the wider Igbo
community.
Part 1
The novel's protagonist, Okonkwo, is famous in the villages of Umuofia for
being a wrestling champion. Okonkwo is strong, hard-working, and strives
to show no weakness or fear. He is characterized as being starkly different
from his father, Unoka, who had been a debtor unable to support his wife or
children, and who preferred playing his flute over conflict. Okonkwo
therefore works to build his wealth entirely on his own from a young age, as
his father had not left him any inheritance. Okonkwo is also obsessed with
his masculinity, and he works hard to hide any emotion other than anger. As
a result, he often beats his wives and children, and he is unkind to his
neighbors. However, his drive to escape the legacy of his father leads him to
be wealthy, courageous, and powerful among the people of his village. He is
a leader of his village, Umuofia, having attained a position in his society for
which he has striven all his life.
Okonkwo is selected by the elders to be the guardian of Ikemefuna, a boy
taken as a peace settlement between Umuofia and another clan after
Ikemefuna's father killed an Umuofian woman. The boy lives with
Okonkwo's family and Okonkwo grows fond of him, although Okonkwo
does not show his fondness so as not to appear weak. The boy looks up to
Okonkwo and considers him a second father. The Oracle of Umuofia
eventually pronounces that the boy must be killed. Ezeudu, the oldest man in
the village, warns Okonkwo that he should have nothing to do with the
murder because it would be like killing his own child – but to avoid seeming
weak and feminine to the other men of the village, Okonkwo disregards the
warning from the old man, striking the killing blow himself. For many days
after killing Ikemefuna, Okonkwo feels guilty and saddened.
Shortly after Ikemefuna's death, things begin to go wrong for Okonkwo. He
falls into a depression and has nightmares. During a gun salute at Ezeudu's
funeral, Okonkwo's gun accidentally explodes and kills Ezeudu's son. He
and his family were exiled to his motherland, the nearby village Mbanta, for
seven years to appease the gods he has offended.
Part 2
While Okonkwo is away in Mbanta, he learns that white men are living in
Umuofia with the intent of introducing their religion, Christianity. As the
number of converts increases, the foothold of the white people grows and a
new government is introduced. The village is forced to respond with either
appeasement or resistance to the imposition of the white people's nascent
society. Okonkwo’s son Nwoye starts getting curious about the missionaries
and the new religion. After he is beaten by his father for the last time, he
decides to leave his family behind and live independently. He wants to be
with the missionaries because his beliefs have changed while being
introduced to Christianity by the missionary, Mr. Brown. In the last year of
his exile, Okonkwo instructs his best friend Obierika to sell all of his yams
and hire two men to build him two huts so he can have a house to go back to
with his family. He also holds a great feast for his mother's kinsmen, where
an elderly attendee bemoans the current state of their tribe and its future:
"My son has told me about you, and I am happy you have come to see us.
I knew your father. He was a great man. He had many friends here and came
to see them quite often. Those were good days when a man had friends in
distant clans. Your generation does not know that. You stay at home, afraid
of your next-door neighbor. Even a man's motherland is strange to him
nowadays.”
Okonkwo also receives news about the problems in his fatherland due to the
missionaries. The Christians disregarded explanations of the area's religious
traditions by Igbo people and told them they must give up speaking with
ancestors, spirits, and non-Christian gods, such as Chukwu.
Part 3
Returning from exile, Okonkwo finds his village changed by the presence of
the white men. After a convert commits an evil act by unmasking an elder as
he embodies an ancestral spirit of the clan, the village retaliates by
destroying a local Christian church. In response, the District Commissioner
representing the colonial government takes Okonkwo and several other
native leaders prisoner pending payment of a fine of two hundred bags of
cowries. Despite the District Commissioner's instructions to treat the leaders
of Umuofia with respect, the native "court messengers" humiliate them,
doing things such as shaving their heads and whipping them. As a result, the
people of Umuofia finally gather for what could be a great uprising.
Okonkwo, a warrior by nature and adamant about following Umuofian
custom and tradition, despises any form of cowardice and advocates war
against the white men.
When messengers of the white government try to stop the meeting,
Okonkwo beheads one of them. Because the crowd allows the other
messengers to escape and does not fight alongside Okonkwo, he realizes
with despair that the people of Umuofia are not going to fight to protect
themselves – his society's response to such a conflict, which for so long had
been predictable and dictated by tradition, is changing. When the District
Commissioner, Gregory Irwin, comes to Okonkwo's house to take him to
court, he finds that Okonkwo killed himself because he saw that he was
fighting the battle alone and his tribe had given up. Among his own people,
Okonkwo's actions have tarnished his reputation and status, as it is strictly
against the teachings of the Igbo to commit suicide. Obierika struggles not to
break down as he laments Okonkwo’s death. As Irwin and his men prepare
to bury Okonkwo, Irwin muses that Okonkwo's death will make an
interesting chapter - or “a reasonable paragraph, at any rate” - for his written
book, "The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes of the Lower Niger".

Characters
Okonkwo, the protagonist, has three wives and ten (total) children and
becomes a leader of his clan. His father, Unoka, was weak and lazy, and
Okonkwo resents him for his weaknesses: he enacts traditional masculinity.
Okonkwo strives to make his way in a culture that traditionally values
manliness.
Ekwefi is Okonkwo's second wife. Although she falls in love with
Okonkwo after seeing him in a wrestling match, she marries another man
because Okonkwo was too poor to pay her bride price at the time. Two years
later, she runs away to Okonkwo's compound one night and later marries
him. She receives severe beatings from Okonkwo just like his other wives;
but unlike them, she is known to talk back to Okonkwo.
Unoka is Okonkwo's father, who defied typical Igbo masculinity by
neglecting to grow yams, take care of his wives and children, and pay his
debts before he dies.
Nwoye is Okonkwo's son, about whom Okonkwo worries, fearing that he
will become like Unoka. Similar to Unoka, Nwoye does not subscribe to the
traditional Igbo view of masculinity being equated to violence; rather, he
prefers the stories of his mother. Nwoye connects to Ikemefuna, who
presents an alternative to Okonkwo's rigid masculinity. He is one of the early
converts to Christianity and takes on the Christian name Isaac, an act which
Okonkwo views as a final betrayal.
Ikemefuna is a boy from the Mbaino tribe. His father murders the wife of
an Umuofia man, and in the resulting settlement of the matter, Ikemefuma is
put into the care of Okonkwo. By the decision of Umuofia authorities,
Ikemefuna is ultimately killed, an act which Okonkwo does not prevent, and
even participates in, lest he seems feminine and weak. Ikemefuna became
very close to Nwoye, and Okonkwo's decision to participate in Ikemefuna's
death takes a toll on Okonkwo's relationship with Nwoye.
Ezinma is Okonkwo's favorite daughter and the only child of his wife
Ekwefi. Ezinma often contradicts and challenges her father, which wins his
adoration, affection, and respect. She is very similar to her father, and this is
made apparent when she matures into a beautiful young woman who refuses
to marry during her family's exile, instead choosing to help her father regain
his place of respect within society.
Obierika is Okonkwo's best friend from Umuofia. Unlike Okonkwo,
Obierika thinks before he acts and is, therefore, less violent and arrogant
than Okonkwo. He is considered the voice of reason in the book, and
questions certain parts of their culture, such as the necessity to exile
Okonkwo after he unintentionally kills a boy. Obierika's own son, Maduka,
is greatly admired by Okonkwo for his wrestling prowess.
Chielo also called the "Oracle of the Hills and the Caves", is the priestess
of Agbala (a deity). She has a double life, both a woman of Umofia and a
priestess, this brings her independence because she has a symbolic role.
Chielo symbolises Fate throughout the novel.
Ogbuefi Ezeudu is one of the elders of Umuofia.
Mr. Brown is an English missionary who comes to Umuofia. He shows
kindness and compassion towards the villagers and tries to understand the
Igbo beliefs.
Mr. Smith is another English missionary sent to Umuofia to replace Mr.
Brown after he falls ill. In stark contrast to his predecessor, he remains strict
and zealous towards the Africans.

Themes
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary
work.
"Things Fall Apart" by Chinua Achebe explores several significant themes,
which contribute to its enduring relevance and impact:
1. Colonialism and its Effects: One of the central themes of the novel is
the impact of colonialism on traditional African societies. The arrival
of European colonizers disrupts the Igbo way of life, leading to social,
cultural, and political upheaval.
2. Cultural Clash: Achebe portrays the clash between traditional Igbo
culture and the values imposed by colonialism. This clash leads to
tension, conflict, and ultimately the downfall of the protagonist,
Okonkwo, who struggles to adapt to the changing world.
3. Tradition vs. Change: The novel explores the tension between
preserving traditional values and embracing change. Okonkwo
represents the traditional values of his society, while his son, Nwoye,
 symbolizes the younger generation's openness to new ideas and ways
of life.
4. Masculinity and Femininity: Achebe examines the roles of men and
women in Igbo society and how these roles are challenged and
redefined in the face of colonialism. Okonkwo's obsession with
masculinity and his fear of appearing weak contribute to his tragic
downfall.
5. Fate and Destiny: The novel explores the theme of fate and the idea
that individuals are powerless to control their own destinies.
Okonkwo's life is shaped by his tragic flaws and the forces of
colonialism, highlighting the notion of fate as a powerful,
uncontrollable force.
6. The Complexity of Igbo Society: Achebe provides a nuanced
portrayal of Igbo society, highlighting its complexity, diversity, and
richness. He depicts the customs, traditions, and social structures of
the Igbo people, showing both their strengths and weaknesses.
7. Language and Communication: Language plays a significant role in
the novel, reflecting the power dynamics between the colonizers and
the colonized. Achebe incorporates Igbo proverbs and idioms into the
narrative, highlighting the importance of language in preserving
cultural identity.
8. Individual vs. Community: The tension between individual desires
and the needs of the community is a recurring theme in the novel.
Okonkwo's desire for personal success often comes into conflict with
the values of his community, leading to his isolation and downfall.

Deeper view
The Struggle Between Change and Tradition
As a story about a culture on the verge of change, Things Fall Apart deals
with how the prospect and reality of change affect various characters. The
tension about whether change should be privileged over tradition often
involves questions of personal status. Okonkwo, for example, resists the new
political and religious orders because he feels that they are not manly and
that he himself will not be manly if he consents to join or even tolerate them.
To some extent, Okonkwo’s resistance of cultural change is also due to his
fear of losing societal status. His sense of self-worth is dependent upon the
traditional standards by which society judges him.
This system of evaluating the self inspires many of the clan’s outcasts to
embrace Christianity. Long scorned, these outcasts find in the Christian
value system a refuge from the Igbo cultural values that place them below
everyone else. In their new community, these converts enjoy a more elevated
status. The villagers in general are caught between resisting and embracing
change and they face the dilemma of trying to determine how best to adapt
to the reality of change. Many of the villagers are excited about the new
opportunities and techniques that the missionaries bring. This European
influence, however, threatens to extinguish the need for the mastery of
traditional methods of farming, harvesting, building, and cooking.
These traditional methods, once crucial for survival, are now, to varying
degrees, dispensable. Throughout the novel, Achebe shows how dependent
such traditions are upon storytelling and language and thus how quickly the
abandonment of the Igbo language for English could lead to the eradication
of these traditions.
Varying Interpretations of Masculinity
Okonkwo’s relationship with his late father shapes much of his violent and
ambitious demeanor. He wants to rise above his father’s legacy of
spendthrift, indolent behavior, which he views as weak and therefore
effeminate. This association is inherent in the clan’s language—the narrator
mentions that the word for a man who has not taken any of the expensive,
prestige-indicating titles is agbala, which also means “woman.” But, for the
most part, Okonkwo’s idea of manliness is not the clan’s. He associates
masculinity with aggression and feels that anger is the only emotion that he
should display. For this reason, he frequently beats his wives, even
threatening to kill them from time to time.
We are told that he does not think about things, and we see him act rashly
and impetuously. Yet others who are in no way effeminate do not behave in
this way. Obierika, unlike Okonkwo, “was a man who thought about things.”
Whereas Obierika refuses to accompany the men on the trip to kill
Ikemefuna, Okonkwo not only volunteers to join the party that will execute
his surrogate son but also violently stabs him with his machete simply
because he is afraid of appearing weak.
Okonkwo’s seven-year exile from his village only reinforces his notion that
men are stronger than women. While in exile, he lives among the kinsmen of
his motherland but resents the period in its entirety. The exile is his
opportunity to get in touch with his feminine side and to acknowledge his
maternal ancestors, but he keeps reminding himself that his maternal
kinsmen are not as warlike and fierce as he remembers the villagers of
Umuofia to be. He faults them for their preference of negotiation,
compliance, and avoidance over anger and bloodshed. In Okonkwo’s
understanding, his uncle Uchendu exemplifies this pacifist (and therefore
somewhat effeminate) mode.
Language as a Sign of Cultural Difference
Language is an important theme in Things Fall Apart on several levels. In
demonstrating the imaginative, often formal language of the Igbo, Achebe
emphasizes that Africa is not the silent or incomprehensible continent that
books such as Heart of Darkness made it out to be. Rather, by peppering the
novel with Igbo words, Achebe shows that the Igbo language is too complex
for direct translation into English. Similarly, Igbo culture cannot be
understood within the framework of European colonialist values. Achebe
also points out that Africa has many different languages: the villagers of
Umuofia, for example, make fun of Mr. Brown’s translator because his
language is slightly different from their own.
On a macroscopic level, it is extremely significant that Achebe chose to
write Things Fall Apart in English—he clearly intended it to be read by the
West at least as much, if not more, than by his fellow Nigerians. His goal
was to critique and emend the portrait of Africa that was painted by so many
writers of the colonial period. Doing so required the use of English, the
language of those colonial writers. Through his inclusion of proverbs,
folktales, and songs translated from the Igbo language, Achebe managed to
capture and convey the rhythms, structures, and beauty of the Igbo language.
Generational Divide
Things Fall Apart spotlights two significant generational divides. The first
divide separates Okonkwo from his father, Unoka. Unlike his son, Unoka is
not a warrior, nor has he distinguished himself as a man in any other way.
Instead, Unoka prefers to drink and play music with friends. For a
hypermasculine man like Okonkwo, Unoka’s lack of drive is shameful, and
Okonkwo dismisses his father as a coward.
Just as Okonkwo is divided from his father, he is also divided from his eldest
son, Nwoye. Nwoye has much in common with his grandfather Unoka,
especially with regard to his lack of interest in war and his love of the arts.
Nwoye resists his father’s expectation that he become an accomplished
warrior. He also feels drawn to his mother’s stories, which Okonkwo sees as
an effeminate waste of time. Eventually, Nwoye escapes his father’s
expectations and his wrath by running away and converting to Christianity.
Although Okonkwo feels ashamed of both his father and his son, the novel
suggests that Okonkwo is perhaps more of an anomaly than either Unoka or
Nwoye.
Pride
Okonkwo’s greatest weakness is his pride, which is constantly under threat
both from within his community and from without. Okonkwo takes pride in
his achievements. This pride is justifiable, since he has accomplished a lot.
Not only has he proven himself among Umuofia’s fiercest warriors, but he
has also climbed Umuofia’s social ladder faster than any of his peers. Yet
Okonkwo’s pride also makes him quick to disdain others who don’t live up
to his high standards. For instance, Nwoye’s apparent lack of masculine
qualities leads Okonkwo to worry about his own legacy and be aggressive
towards Nwoye.
Okonkwo’s exile in Mbanta also deals a serious blow to his pride. When he
returns to Umuofia, he wants to restore his pride by defending his home
against European influence. Okonkwo explains his position with an analogy:
“If a man comes into my hut and defecates on the floor, what do I do? Do I
shut my eyes? No! I take a stick and break his head.” Okonkwo eventually
resorts to violence to defend his pride, and this violence leads to his tragic
downfall.
Repression
Throughout Things Fall Apart Okonkwo struggles with repressing his
emotions. He represses his emotions because, more than anything else, he
fears appearing weak and effeminate. Over and over in the novel Okonkwo’s
inner struggle to quash all emotional responses leads him to express himself
with excessive cruelty. The narrator comments on this internal tug-of-war
frequently. In Chapter 4, for instance, the narrator explicitly addresses the
theme of repression: “Okonkwo never showed any emotion openly, unless it
be the emotion of anger. To show affection was a sign of weakness; the only
thing worth demonstrating was strength.” Okonkwo’s belief that anger is the
only appropriate emotion for a man to show causes significant problems for
him, his family, and ultimately his community.
For example, when Okonkwo kills Ikemefuna against the advice of Ogbuefi
Ezeudu, he does so because “He was afraid of being thought weak.” But
Okonkwo’s brutal killing of his adopted son breaks the heart of his blood
son, Nwoye. This act deepens an already-existing wound between Okonkwo
and Nwoye, one that never gets healed. Throughout the novel, emotional
repression leads to damaging—and eventually, for Okonkwo, tragic—
outbursts of anger and violence.
Ethnographic Distance
The term “ethnographic distance” refers to a method in anthropology where
the anthropologists distance themselves from the culture they are studying in
order to make sense of that culture. At several points in the novel, the
narrator, who otherwise seems fully immersed in Igbo culture, takes a step
back in order to explain certain aspects of the Igbo world to the reader. For
example, when Okonkwo’s first wife calls out to Ekwefi in chapter five,
Ekwefi calls back from inside her hut, “Is that me?” This response may seem
strange to non-Igbo readers, so the narrator explains the cultural logic of
Ekwefi’s response: “That was the way people answered calls from outside.
They never answered yes for fear it might be an evil spirit calling.” The Igbo
world is full of spirits that may have evil intentions and answering “Yes” to a
call from outside could inadvertently invite one such spirit inside.
Throughout the book the narrator uses ethnographic distance to clarify
elements of Igbo culture to a non-Igbo reader. The narrator borders two
worlds: one African and one European.
These themes interweave throughout the narrative, creating a rich tapestry
of ideas and insights into African society, colonialism, and the human
condition.