LESSON 6

Electrical Cable
6.0.0.0 Introduction
An Electric Power Cables are factory assembly of two or more conductors having
an overall covering. Several types of cables are manufactured for specific applications.
A cable has one or more insulated conductors usually covered with a protective jacket.
Cable types used in commercial and industrial wiring applications include armored,
metal-clad, nonmetallic-sheathed, mineral-insulated, tray cable, service-entrance,
underground feeder and branch-circuit, low-voltage, and medium-voltage.
6.1.0.0 Types of Cable
6.1.0.1 Tray Cables
A tray cable (TC) is a cable that consists of two or more insulated conductors
enclosed in a flame-retardant, nonmetallic jacket and is used for installation in
cable trays or raceways.
6.1.0.2 Underground Feeder and Branch- Circuit Cables
An underground feeder and branch-circuit (UF) cable is a cable that has a
moisture- resistant jacket and is listed for direct burial in the earth. Type UF
cable is constructed with THWN conductor insulation and bound in a PVC
outer jacket, which makes it suitable for wet locations such as direct burial.
Type UF cable can also be installed in cable trays.
Type UF cable is typically used with outdoor loads such as pumps and lighting.
Type UF cable can also be used for the same applications as NM cable. Type UF
cable is resistant to moisture, fungus, and corrosive materials, and can replace
NMC cable in damp locations.
6.1.0.3 Service-Entrance Cables A service-entrance (SE, USE) cable is a multi-
conductor cable with or without an overall covering.

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 Photo 1 of Lesson 6,Electrical Cable
Article 338 of the National Electrical Code (NEC) covers the use, installation and
construction specifications of service-entrance (SE) cable. Electricians commonly use
these cables for service conductors and for feeders and branch circuits in residential
and small commercial installations. There were some very subtle changes in Article
338 in the 2008 NEC that are not readily obvious, so care must be taken to analyze
these changes.
The definition of service-entrance cable in 338.2 is “a single conductor or a
multiconductor assembly provided with or without an overall covering, primarily used
for services.”
According to 338.2, there are two types of service-entrance cables: “Type SE or
service entrance cable having a flame-retardant, moisture-resistant covering or Type
USE which is service entrance cable, identified for underground use, having a
moisture-resistant covering, but not required to have a flame-retardant covering.” All
service-entrance cable is rated at 600V and is listed in sizes 14 AWG and larger for
copper and 12 AWG and larger for aluminum or copper-clad aluminum.
The term “SE cable” indicates the cable jacket and the internal
conductors are designed for above-ground installations and are listed for
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 installations where the cable jacket and internal conductors are exposed to the
sun in wet locations. Type SE cable contains Type RHW, RHW-2, XHHW,
XHHW-2, THWN or THWN-2 insulated conductors, and the outer jacket of the
cable is flame-retardant. Type SE cable, containing two or more conductors, is
permitted to have one conductor that is uninsulated.
Types USE and USE-2 cables are designed and listed for underground
installations, including direct burial in the earth and are available in both single-
conductor and multiconductor cables. Multiconductor Type USE cable contains
conductors with insulation equivalent to RHW or XHHW with the conductors rated at
90°C in a damp or dry installation and 75°C for a wet application. Type USE-2
contains conductors with insulation equivalent to RHW-2 or XHHW-2 and is rated at
90°C in a wet, damp or dry installation. Type USE cable, containing two or more
conductors, is permitted to have one conductor that is uninsulated.
Section 338.12 has been added to the 2008 NEC and covers uses not permitted
for both Type SE and Type USE cables. It states that Type SE cable cannot be used
where subject to physical abuse, unless adequately protected, and can never be
installed in an underground installation, with or without a raceway. SE cable also
cannot be used for exterior branch circuit or feeder wiring, unless the installation
complies with the provisions of Part I of Article 225 and is properly supported. USE
shall not be used for interior wiring at all since it does not have a flame-retardant
covering. In fact, USE cannot be used above ground except where it emerges from
ground and terminates in an enclosure at an outdoor location. USE cable cannot be
used as an aerial cable, unless it is a multi-conductor cable, identified for use above
ground and is installed as a messenger-supported wiring.
However, the most sweeping change in Article 338 in the 2008 NEC is not
readily identifiable since text was deleted, not added. The text in 338.10(B)(4)(a) in the
2005 NEC reads as follows: “Interior Installations. In addition to the provisions of this
article, Type SE service-entrance cable used for interior wiring shall comply with the
installation requirements of Parts I and II of Article 334, excluding 334.80.”
Since Part I of Article 334 for NM cable had absolutely nothing to do with SE
cable, Part I was deleted in the first paragraph of 338.10(B)(4)(a) for the 2008 NEC. In
the 2005 NEC, SE cable was required to comply with Part II of Article 334 with the
exception of 334.80. In the 2005 NEC, this section required NM cable, but not SE
cable, to comply with the following: “the ampacity shall be in accordance with the 60°C
(140°F) conductor temperature rating. The 90°C (194°F) rating shall be permitted to be
used for ampacity derating purposes, provided the final rated ampacity does not
exceed that for a 60°C (140°F) rated conductor.” By deleting “excluding 334.80” in the
2008 NEC, SE cable, where used as branch circuits or feeders, now must comply with
the same ampacity rating as NM cable. This change was made for the 2008 NEC since
SE cable often contains similar conductor insulation as NM cable, and where installed
inside walls and in insulation, SE cable has heat dissipation similar to NM cable.

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 SE cable installed as branch circuit or feeder wiring in the interior of a building
or structure is required to have an ampacity rating based on an insulation rating of a
60°C conductor and will reduce the allowable ampacity for the cable requiring a larger
conductor based on the 2008 NEC.
6.1.0.4 Low-Voltage Cables
A low-voltage cable is a cable that can be single-conductor or multiconductor
and is rated from 0 V to 600 V. Low-voltage cables are used in industrial and
commercial applications for power, lighting, control, signal, and communication
circuits. Low-voltage cables can be installed indoors, outdoors, in cable trays, in
raceways, direct buried, or as part of a messenger system (in outdoor locations). Low-
voltage cables are composed of bare stranded copper conductors, conductor
insulation, and a moisture-resistant PVC jacket. Low-voltage cable can be types TC,
MC, SE, or USE.
6.2.0.0 Cable Construction and Classification
Cables are constructed of several basic parts, but the construction finally
depends on the application and the properties desired. For example, the thickness of
cable insulation depends, among other factors, the system voltage rating. The current
rating of the cable is the current that it can carry continuously without the conductor
exceeding 80 degrees C when the ambient temperature is 45 degrees C. The voltage
drop in the cables must not drop below 6 % but in practice should be about 2 %.
Multi-core cables have the cores differently colored for identifying them.
As per application and need, electric cables must have the following properties:
6.2.0.1 Size: The area of the conductor decides the current it can carry. The
more the area of the conductor the less are the transmission losses.
6.2.0.2. Strength: The strength depends on the application.
6.2.0.3 Old temperature resistance: In climates where it is very cold,
conventional insulation materials may fail.
6.2.0.4 Fire resistance: They must be fire retardant.
6.2.0.5 Weight: There is always a conflict between mechanical strength and
weight. Weight depends upon the application as well. However the reduction in
weight may reduce the mechanical strength.
6.2.0.6 Radiation resistance: The thickness of the insulation is dependent on
the working voltage and the mechanical strength required.
6.2.0.7 Moisture resistance: Useful for high moisture applications like marine
and coastal reas.
6.2.0.8 Chemical resistance: In chemical process plants.
6.2.0.9 Oil resistance: In oil process fields.
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 6.2.0.10 Electrical properties: Conductivity and the losses, etc. Thus depending
on the application, the metal may be copper, aluminum, silver metal,
copperweld, aluminoweld, tinsel, etc.
6.2.0.11 Mechanical strength and resistance to mechanical abrasion: It
determines the construction of the protective sheathing.
6.3.0.0 Cable Characteristics
The electrical characteristics of cables are concerned with the electrical
constants most commonly required for power system calculations. These
electrical constants, such as positive sequence impedance (Z1), negative
sequence impedance (Z2), and zero sequence (Z0), are used in the application of
symmetrical components for calculations of short-circuit currents, unbalanced
voltages, and their phase relationships among sheaths and conductors, which
are important in the calculation of reactance, capacitance, insulation
resistance, and dielectric loss. The ratings provide the basic information
regarding its application and use. A basic knowledge of cable ratings is
essential for correct selection and application of cables. Exceeding cable ratings
or their misapplication can be hazardous to property and personnel, as well as
to successful operation of the plant or facility.
6.3.1.0 Kinds of Commonly Used Power Cable Characteristics
Power cable models are more different models also have different characteristics
and suitable occasions, so we still have to understand the characteristics of
different power cables, so as to find their own power cable models, here to give
you a brief introduction to 6 Common power cable features:
6.3.1.1 PVC insulated, PVC sheathed power cable
Use in indoors, tunnels, cable ditches, pipelines, flammable and severely
corroded areas, but cannot afford mechanical external force. To
withstand mechanical external force plus steel tape armor.
6.3.1.2 XLPE insulated, PVC sheathed power cable
Use in indoors, tunnels and pipes can withstand a certain laying by, but
the cable cannot afford the role of external force, singlecore cable is not
allowed to lay in the magnetic material pipe. To withstand mechanical
external force plus steel tape armor.
6.3.1.4 Flame-retardant PVC insulation, PVC sheathed power cable
Use in indoors, tunnels, cable ditches, pipelines, flammable and severely
corroded areas, but cannot afford mechanical external force. To
withstand mechanical external force plus steel tape armor. Features: In
the case of open flame burning, remove the fire source, ≤ 12s
automatically extinguished.

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 6.3.1.5 Flame retardant XLPE insulated, PVC sheathed power cable
Use in indoors, tunnels and pipelines can withstand a certain laying
traction, but the cable cannot afford external forces, singlecore cable is
not allowed to lay in the magnetic material pipe. To withstand
mechanical external force plus steel tape armor. Features: In the case of
open flame burning, remove the fire source, ≤ 12s automatically
extinguished.
6.3.1.6 Fire-resistant PVC insulation, PVC sheathed power cable
Can be laid indoors, tunnels, cable ditches, pipelines, flammable and
severely corroded areas, but cannot afford mechanical external force. To
withstand mechanical external force plus steel tape armor. Suitable for
special occasions, such as high-capacity power plants, nuclear power
plants, subway, high-rise buildings. Features: In a burning environment,
the protection of 90min (minutes) normal operation.
6.3.1.7 Fire-resistant XLPE insulation, PVC sheathed power cables
Can be laid indoors, tunnels and pipelines can withstand a certain laying
traction, but the cable cannot afford external forces, singlecore cable is
not allowed to lay in the magnetic material pipe. To withstand
mechanical external force plus steel tape armor. Suitable for special
occasions, such as high-capacity power plants, nuclear power plants,
subway, high-rise buildings.
6.4.0.0 Cable properties
The two properties of cables, as mentioned, are geometry of cables and electrical
constants. A general rule is that regardless of the complexity of mutual inductive
relations between component parts of individual phases, the method of symmetrical
components can be applied rigorously whenever there is symmetry among phases. All
three-conductor cables satisfy this condition by the nature of their construction; single
conductor cable may or may not. However, the error is very small when they are
treated similarly as threeconductor cables. The space relationship among sheaths and
conductors in a cable circuit is a major factor in determining reactance, capacitance,
charging current, insulation resistance, dielectric loss, and thermal resistance. The
physical characteristics of cables can be determined from the geometry of cables,
which is described next.
Much like overhead transmission lines, underground electrical cables and other
ancillary facilities can experience problems if they aren’t properly maintained. For
instance, High Pressure Fluid and Gas Filled Pipe (HPFF and HPGF) cable types or
SelfContained Fluid Filled (SCFF) electrical cable types are prone to developing fluid
leaks.
Buried power cable wires can also develop faults caused by bare neutrals,
molded joints in splices, or even accidental excavation. Underground lines may not be
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susceptible to damage caused by strong winds and falling tree branches, but trees
(and other vegetation with deep root systems) toppling in a storm can uproot buried
cables. Although it’s possible to fix faults when they occur, repairs can be both
challenging and time-consuming. In order to ensure the reliability and safety of power
distribution systems, continued maintenance of underground cables is vital.
6.5.0.0 Locating Underground Cable Faults
Locating underground cable faults can be a challenge, but modern faultlocating
technologies make this process more efficient. Two basic techniques include:
6.5.1.0 TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry)
This tests underground cables using low-energy signals that do not
cause insulation damage, making it possible to locate a faulty section. TDR
results are displayed as a graph, and properly functioning cables send back a
return signal in a known timeframe (based on a set impedance setting).
6.5.1.1 High Voltage Radar Methods
There are three types of high voltage radar methods:

 Arc Reflection – A filter, thumper and TDR device work together to provide the
approximate distance to an electric cable fault.

 Surge Pulse Reflection – A storage oscilloscope, thumper and current coupler

are used to ionize distant or difficult-tolocate faults.

 Voltage Pulse Reflection – This method uses a voltage coupler and analyzer
equipped with a proof tester or dielectric test, to locate faults at voltages higher
than 25kV.
6.5.2.0. Underground Cable Maintenance Procedures Routine maintenance can
help minimize the frequency of cable faults, and these procedures are classified
as follows:
6.5.2.1 Preventive Maintenance– This aims to thwart possible faults that
arise from outright negligence of the power distribution infrastructure.
Maintenance activities that fall under this category are usually carried
out annually, and include:

 Checking the integrity and condition of ground connections, cable

joints and splices, and correcting any issues.

 Inspecting the cleanliness and physical condition of switchgears,

transformers, and other above-ground fixtures.

 Clearing dust, debris and other contaminant deposits from termination

joint outer surfaces.

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  Conducting contact resistance tests on terminations, insulation
resistance tests between ground connections and conductors, to assess
damage or wear.

 Testing for defective electrical contacts and joints with infrared thermal
scanning. Joints that register temperature rise need to be cleaned and
re-torqued before re-testing.

 Corrective Maintenance– This is conducted in response to faults (e.g.

possible damage caused by digging, internal failures such as defective
cables, overloading, poor handling and installation, etc.), to determine
the appropriate remedial action. Steps include:

 Checking electric cable routes for possible damage after excavation or

road work.

 Insulation resistance testing to detect faults between conductors and

ground connections.

 Pinpointing faulty areas using a sheath tester and cable fault locator.

 Repairing, re-testing and recommissioning faulty electrical cables.

 Reducing the risk of recurrence with root cause analysis and remedial
solutions.
6.5.2.3 Condition-Based Maintenance– This checks underground power
transmission cables and above-ground grid fixtures (like joints and
terminations) that have already experienced partial damage. It helps to
predict when and what kind of repairs might be needed in the future, or
if faulty sections need immediate replacement.
6.6.0.0 Setting Up Underground Cable Systems
The process of undergrounding may involve disruptive activities like
digging up sidewalks and paved roads, clearing trees and vegetation with deep
roots, rerouting water, gas and telecom lines, etc.
The success of a project largely depends on proper planning and
management, especially to minimize the disturbance to public utility services.
Other key factors include adequate funding, quality control, timely resolution of
problems, and effective communication with all stakeholders, public agencies
and the affected community.
6.7.0.0 Cable Failures and Their Analysis
Almost all utilities and large industrial facilities have extensive systems
of power cables. Many of these cable systems are ageing and failures are
becoming common. Finding the root cause of cable failures can lead to better
maintenance practices and produce more reliable operation in the future.
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 This in turn will lead to lower operating costs. As an example, the final
result of a cable failure may be that the insulation failed and the cable flashed
over. The root cause may in fact be a building contractor removing thermally
conducting back-fill around the ducts thereby causing local overheating.
Determining the root cause of the failure can help prevent future failures.
What are the main causes of electrical cable failure?
There are many reasons why a cable may fail in service, with the failure at its
most serious resulting in fire or other serious fault.
6.7.1.0 Main causes of cable failure
6.7.1.1 Ageing:
The service life of a cable can be significantly reduced if it has been
expected to operate outside of the optimal operating conditions it was designed
for. The ageing process usually results in brittleness, cracking and eventual
failure of the insulating and sheathing materials, exposing the conductor and
risking a potential short circuit, a likely cause of electrical fire.
How to protect electrical cables against mechanical and environmental damage?
How should I select cable glands? What are fire performance tests?
6.7.1.2 Application:
If cable selected is not appropriate for the application it is more
likely to fail in service. For example, a cable which is not robust
enough for the environment, either mechanically tough enough to
wear and abrasion or chemically resistant to the ambient
conditions, is more likely to fail than one whose construction is
suitable for the installation environment.
6.7.1.3 Mechanical failure:
If the cable is damaged either during installation or in subsequent
use, the integrity of the cable will be affected and reduce its
service life and suitability. 6.7.2.0 Degradation of the cable
sheath: There are several reasons why the sheathing material may
degrade, including excessive heat or cold, chemicals, weather
conditions, and abrasion of the sheath. All of these factors can
ultimately cause electrical failure as the insulated cores are no
longer protected by the sheathing as originally designed.
6.7.2.1 Moisture in the insulation:
Moisture ingress can cause significant problems including short
circuit and corrosion of the copper conductors.
6.7.2.2 Heating of cable:

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 Excessive heating of the cable will cause degradation of the
insulation and sheathing material and premature failure. The heat
may come from an external source or may be generated by the
resistance to current flow in the conductor - a particular problem
if the cable is overloaded and/or underrated for the application.
6.7.2.3 Electrical Overloading:
Electrical overloading normally occurs when the cable is
underrated for the application or when too much load is being
placed on the cable. In domestic applications this is often a result
of plugging too many appliances into the one socket and
overloading the wiring to that individual socket, extension adaptor
or gang socket.
6.7.2.4 Rodent attack:
Rodents frequently attack the outer layers of cables. This damage
can be extensive, significantly reducing the sheathing or
insulation properties of the cable, another likely source of
electrical fires.
6.7.2.5 UV exposure:
UV exposure can have a significant influence on electrical cable
insulation and sheathing. Cables likely to be exposed to UV light
should either be designed with UV resistant materials with a
suitable carbon black content, or protected from exposure with a
protective covering such as installing inside cable conduit so not
in direct sunlight. UV exposure frequently causes cracking of the
insulation and therefore potential short circuit failures.
6.8.0.0 Latest Trends in Cable Condition Monitoring and Aging Assessment
6.8.1.0 Cable Aging & Condition Monitoring
cable testing and cable aging management program designed to: 1) meet the routine
cable troubleshooting needs of the nuclear industry, and 2) address the regulatory and
industry concerns with cable aging related to plant life extension or license renewal.
The program involves a number of electrical and mechanical measurements to identify
and resolve connectivity issues in conductors, connectors, and end devices and to
assess the condition of cable insulation material.
6.8.2.0 Cable Fault Locating Method Cable fault location is required anywhere where
the fault cannot be seen, this is a multi-step process that must be performed as safely
and as quickly as possible because customers will be without power.
6.8.2.1 Cable Isolation & Safety Procedures: A cable fault is nearly always a
permanent fault. This means that the cable in question will be in a condition
where the protection devices at one or both ends of the cable will have tripped,
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 leaving the cable isolated but NOT earthed (grounded). The first task is for the
Authorized Person for the site to make the cable safe by isolating and then
earthing (grounding) one or both ends preferably. Only after the appropriate
procedures have been carried out can any testing personnel be allowed to
approach the cable and prepare for testing.
6.8.2.2 Cable Identification: Where multiple cables exist, cable identification
before a cable is cut is intrinsic to safe maintenance work. Any mistakes here
can be fatal, and may cause much longer outages for the connected customers
6.8.2.3 Cable tracing: When an underground cable is first laid it rarely runs in
a straight line, but rather meanders in depth and direction. Cable tracing is
done to determine that the route of the cable is following the expected path.
6.8.2.4 Fault identification: The first major procedure is to determine the phase
on which the fault has occurred, and if it is of low or high resistance. This test
determines the correct technique and equipment to diagnose the fault.
Typically, if the fault is found to be below 100 Ohms, a low voltage pulse (e.g.,
40 V) from a TDR (time domain reflectometer) can be used. If the fault is a
higher resistance (> 100 Ohm), a low voltage pulse will likely not see it. For
these types of faults, an Impulse generator (shock discharge) will be necessary.
6.8.2.5 Fault pre-location: A reliable and precise pre-location method is
necessary to locate a cable fault quickly and efficiently. Good pre-location can
determine the fault position to within a few percent of the cable length and will
reduce pinpointing time to a few minutes.
6.8.2.5.1 If it is a low resistance fault, pre-location was likely to be the only
means necessary for location.
6.8.2.5.2 For high resistance faults, ARM (arc reflection) or ICE (impulse
current) techniques on an SWG (surge wave generator) should be used.
Alternatively, the decay method with an HV DC tester (bridge), can be used for
pre-location.
6.8.2.6 Pinpointing: The aforementioned test methods will get the operator with
5% distance of the fault, acoustic pinpointing techniques must be employed to
narrow the margin of error to 0.1%. In most cases, shock discharge generators
are used for pinpointing in conjunction with acoustic methods. The discharge
creates a loud noise, which is pinpointed precisely using an acoustic
pinpointing device. This device evaluates the time difference between the
acoustic signal (speed of sound) and the electromagnetic (nearly the speed of
light) impulse of the shock discharge. When the shortest time difference is
indicated, the exact fault location is revealed.
6.8.2.7 Re-energization of the cable: Once all testing and repairs are completed,
the Safety/Testing Documentation is canceled. The cable is then handed back
to the appropriate operators to reinstate the cable and re-energize the loads on

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 the newly repaired cable. It is important to find the lowest voltage that will
cause the fault to appear during the above-applied testing procedure. The idea
of ‘Thumping the cable with the maximum available voltage (Joules) should not
be condoned. For example, if a cable fault has left damage in the faulted phase
that when applying a gradually increasing ARM voltage that it appears at 6kV
then once this is established then only 10% more voltage, say 7kV need be
applied for the fault location position show up clearly. What is fundamentally
important is that the energy that is used is proportional to a square of the
voltage(V2). If the cable is repeatedly ‘Thumped with very high over working
voltages’, other lessor points of damage could be initiated into insulation failure,
thus giving more jointing/repairs to become necessary on the cable.

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