Mount University

Kenya

P.O. Box 342-01000 Thika

Email: info@mku.ac.ke

Web: www.mku.ac.ke

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH

COURSE CODE: MPH5226

COURSE TITLE: FOOD QUALITY ASSURANCE

MODULE AUTHOR: WILLY KAHANYA KIBOI

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 MPN 523: NUTRITION AND COMMUNITY HEALTH
Lecture 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 3
Current food poisoning trends ........................................................................................................ 3
Lecture 2 ......................................................................................................................................... 9
Food composition and quality: Methods and effects of processing ................................................ 9
Lecture 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 15
Methods of preservation ............................................................................................................... 15
Lecture 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 23
Spoilage: microorganisms, insects, physical and chemical reactions ........................................... 23
Lecture 5 ....................................................................................................................................... 30
Sanitary measures: Food and environmental sampling, good agricultural practices (GAP), Good
hygiene practices (GHP), Good manufacturing practice (GMP), plant design, layout,
maintenance, food handling, reputable sources, food inspection, premises and equipment
cleansing, personal hygiene .......................................................................................................... 30
Lecture 6 ....................................................................................................................................... 40
Codex of alimentarius ................................................................................................................... 40
Lecture 7 ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Food poisoning.............................................................................................................................. 45
Protecting food from contamination ...................................................................................... 49
Preventing any bacteria within food from multiplying ......................................................... 50
Destroying those bacteria within food ................................................................................... 50
Lecture 8 ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Investigations of outbreaks and management ............................................................................... 51
Lecture 9 ....................................................................................................................................... 57
Health education ........................................................................................................................... 57
Lecture 10 ..................................................................................................................................... 64
HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) ...................................................................... 64
Lecture 11 ..................................................................................................................................... 76

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Relevant food laws legislations .................................................................................................... 76
Lecture 12 ..................................................................................................................................... 81
Analytical procedures ................................................................................................................... 81

Lecture 1
Current food poisoning trends
Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Describe the leading food contaminant in most africa countries
ii. Outline the poisoning trends in USA

African Region being one of the world‘s most food-insecure regions, it is burdened by
malnutrition, and is also facing a newer but growing obesity and diet-related chronic disease
burden. Nutrition problems persist in many countries.
Unsafe food is linked to the deaths of an estimated 2 million people annually and the African
Region is without exception. Infants, young children, pregnant women, the elderly and those
with an underlying illness are particularly vulnerable. In 2014, there were more than 100, 000
cases of cholera in 22 countries resulting in over 1700 deaths.
Unsafe food has put major strains on health systems and has hurt national economies,
development and international trade in the African Region.
Food contaminated by harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances can lead to a
wide range of health problems. This is responsible for more than 200 diseases, including typhoid
fever, diarrhoea and cancers, among others.
In most countries of the Region consumers have little opportunity to assess the safety of the food
they eat. Frequent outbreaks of cholera, food borne zoonotic diseases such as typhoid and
shigellosis, konzo (an acute paralysis caused by consumption of high cyanide cassava) and acute
aflatoxicosis continue to occur in many countries.

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The objective of the Food Safety and Nutrition Programme is to ensure food safety and optimal
nutrition to contribute to the attainment of the highest possible level of health by all people in the
WHO African Region.
WHO supports Member States through the provision of strategies, norms, standards and
technical guidance to countries to develop and implement national policies and plans in nutrition
and food safety including infant and young child feeding (IYCF).

Mycotoxins

Naturally occurring fungal toxins – mycotoxins – pose profound challenges to food safety.
Aflatoxins are mycotoxins of public health importance within the African Region.

Mycotoxins contaminate various agricultural commodities either before harvest or under post-
harvest conditions. Generally, tropical conditions such as high temperatures and moisture,
monsoons, unseasonal rains during harvest, and flash floods lead to fungal growth and
production of mycotoxins. Poor harvesting practices, improper storage, and less than optimal
conditions during transport and marketing can also contribute to fungal growth and increase the
risk of mycotoxin production.

The chronic incidence of aflatoxin in diets is evident from the presence of aflatoxin M1 in human
breast milk in Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and Sudan and in umbilical cord blood samples in
Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. Together with the hepatitis B virus, aflatoxins
contribute to the high incidence of primary liver cancer in tropical Africa. Recent studies carried
out in West African countries, such as Benin, Gambia, and Togo, indicate chronic exposure of
population groups and fetuses to dietary aflatoxins. Moreover, children exposed to aflatoxins
may experience stunted growth or be chronically underweight and thus be more susceptible to
infectious diseases in childhood and later life.

Trends in Food borne Illness in the United States, 2012

Documenting trends—which illnesses are decreasing and increasing—is essential for monitoring
our progress in reducing food borne illness.
Each year, food borne illness, commonly known as food poisoning, affects about 48 million
people in the United States. Food poisoning can happen anywhere, to anyone, and from foods we

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 might not expect. Public health surveillance, such as that conducted by the Food borne Diseases
Active Surveillance Network (Food Net), provides needed data for tracking trends.
Highlights of the 2012 Food Net Data

Data from Food Net, which monitors 15% of the US population, provide the best measure of
trends in food borne disease in the United States. Overall, the 2012 Food Net data showed a lack
of recent progress in reducing food borne infections and highlight the need for improved
prevention.
 Food Net identified 19,531 laboratory-confirmed cases of infection.
o The incidences of laboratory-confirmed Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium, Salmonella, Shiga
toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157 and non-O157, Shigella, and Yersinia infection
were highest among children aged <5 years.
o The incidences of Listeria and Vibrio infection were highest in adults aged ≥65 years.
 The incidences of laboratory-confirmed Listeria, Salmonella, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia
coli (STEC) O157, and Yersinia infection did not change significantly in 2012 compared with
2006–2008.
 Campylobacter was the second most common infection reported in Food Net (14.3 cases
reported per 100,000 populations). Incidence of infection was 14% higher in 2012 compared
with 2006–2008.
o Campylobacter infections are usually self-limited, but may result in severe complications such as
Guillain-Barré syndrome (a type of paralysis), and arthritis.
o Exposures related to Campylobacter infection include consumption of undercooked poultry, raw
milk, produce, untreated water, and contact with young animals.
 Vibrio infections are rare (0.41 cases reported per 100,000 populations). Incidence of Vibrio
infection was 43% higher in 2012 compared with 2006–2008.
o Some types of Vibrio infections are often serious.
o Many Vibrio infections are acquired by eating raw oysters. These infections are most common
during warmer months when waters naturally contain more Vibrio organisms.
o Infections can be prevented by thoroughly cooking oysters and by not exposing wounds to
bodies of warm seawater.

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 As a group, the incidence of infection with six key pathogens transmitted commonly through
food (Campylobacter, Listeria, Salmonella, E. coli O157, Vibrio, and Yersinia) was not
significantly different in 2012 than in 2006–2008.

Long-term Trends

Comparison with the first three years of Food Net surveillance (1996–1998) shows some clear
changes:
 The incidence of infections caused by Campylobacter, Wisteria, STEC O157, Shebelle, and
Yersinia has declined, mostly in the first years.
 The overall incidence of Salmonella was unchanged, but the incidence of some types of
Salmonella have increased while others have decreased.
 The incidence of Vibrio infection is now 116% higher.
 The overall incidence of infection with six key foodborne pathogens (Campylobacter, Listeria,
Salmonella, STEC O157, Vibrio, and Yersinia) was 22% lower.

Activity 1.1
Discuss the food contaminants responsible for diseases outbreak in
your community
________________________________________________________

Recent Efforts and Next Steps

Most foodborne illnesses can be prevented. Some progress has been made in decreasing
contamination of some foods and reducing illness caused by some pathogens. Recent efforts to
reduce contamination of food and prevent these illnesses include:
 Establishment in 2011 of performance standards for Campylobacter contamination of whole
broiler chickens in processing plants.
 Approval of more stringent time and temperature controls for oysters after harvest to prevent
Vibrio vulnificus infections.
 The Food safety modernization Act of 2011: It gives FDA additional authority to regulate food
facilities, establish standards for safe produce, recall contaminated foods, oversee imported

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foods, and which requires improvements in surveillance and response to outbreaks. It calls on
CDC to strengthen surveillance and outbreak response.
More can be done. Determining where to target prevention efforts that will reduce foodborne
infections requires continued collection of information to understand sources of infection,
implementation of measures known to reduce food contamination, and development of new
measures.
Africa reported the largest number of outbreaks among the three geographical regions included
in this study, with a total of 128 reported in 2008. The region is unique in many ways, such as
seasonality, vehicle, size of the outbreaks and number of illnesses and deaths associated with
outbreaks. Because of its less developed public health sector, the role of the media in outbreak
reporting becomes more relevant and important for assessing the public health impacts of
contaminated food or water.
The largest number of outbreaks was reported in the first quarter (51), followed by the fourth
(38), second (25) and third (14). In 2008, waterborne disease outbreaks that were diagnosed as
cholera were more frequent, larger, and more severe in the end of the fourth and beginning of the
first quarters, during the rainy season.
Unlike the outbreaks in the other two regions included in this study, only a small percentage of
reported outbreaks in Africa were specifically linked to food consumption. In the first quarter,
water was identified as the dominant vehicle (more than 50%), while in the other quarters, most
reports did not identify a vehicle.
Vibrio cholerae was the most frequently reported pathogen in this region, identified in 71% to
86% of the reports, depending on the quarter. Contaminated food and water were the likely
vehicles of exposure, though the exact route was frequently unspecified and probably not known.
The lack of a specified vehicle may indicate that the surveillance system in this region was
relatively ineffective in determining causation
A government-issued warning or recall was mentioned in 20% of the reports. The size of the
outbreaks reported from Africa was larger than in any of the other regions included in this study.
In the first two quarters of the year, one-third of reported outbreaks had 101–1,000 illnesses. In
the third quarter, 43% of the reported outbreaks had 11–100 illnesses, while outbreaks of 101–
1,000 persons were reported in 14%. The final quarter (Oct., Nov., Dec.) had a unique

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distribution: 29% of the outbreaks were in the 11–100 range, 18% in the 101–1,000 range, and
24% over 1001
In the final quarter of 2008, a very large cholera outbreak began in Zimbabwe and spread to
surrounding countries as refugees crossed borders. Five other countries (Botswana,
Mozambique, Malawi, South Africa and Zambia) reported outbreaks linked to the one that origi-
nated in Zimbabwe. These outbreaks were counted as six separate outbreaks in that quarter,
because of the number of countries involved, with morbidity estimates ranging from 8 to over
26,000.
The death rate associated with outbreaks in Africa was comparatively high. Mortality was
reported in 70% of the outbreak reports, with mortality of 1–10 persons in 41% of outbreaks. In
the final quarter, the number of outbreaks with mortality of over 100 persons rose to 42%
Note: The researchers analyzed outbreak reports collected in the first quarter of 2009 in both
English and French for the African region and found that most outbreaks were reported in both
languages. This resulted in part from the involvement of the WHO and other international non-
governmental organizations that work extensively in the African region and publishes their
reports in multiple languages.

You have come to the end of lecture one. In this lecture you have learnt the
trends in food poisoning, food contaminants that causes poisoning and the standards to reduce
the contaminations.
Now reflect on some of the issues we have discussed today and answer the following questions:

1. Explain the potential infection which can arise from eating undercooked poultry, raw
milk, produce, untreated water, and contact with young animals
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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Smith, D. F., & Diack, H. L. (2005). Food Poisoning, Policy, and Politics: Corned Beef and
Typhoid in Britain in the 1960s. Boydell Press.
Zwan, R. van der. (2012). Current trends in Experimental and Applied Psychology Vol 1.
Lulu.com.
Dewaal, C. S., Nadine, R., Witmer, J., & Tian, X. A. (2008) A Comparison of the Burden of
Food borne and Waterborne Diseases in Three World Regions; Food Protection Trends,
Vol. 30, No. 8, Pages 483–490

Lecture 2
Food composition and quality: Methods and effects of processing

Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Define food processing
ii. Outline the various methods of food processing
iii. Describe the nutritional implications of different methods of preservations

A discussion on the effects of food processing on nutrients

Food processing and preservation techniques allow us to enjoy a steady supply and large variety
of high quality foods throughout the year, thereby improving the availability of nutrients in our
diet. Food processing techology also improve the safety of our foods by decreasing the risk of
contracting food-borne diseases due to disease-causing microorganisms. The extended shelf life
resulting from destruction of food spoiling and nutrient reducing enzymes and microorganisms
also prevent nutrient loss and loss of wholesomeness of our foods, which would occur quickly if
the fresh food is not processed. Because the desirable sensory qualities of the foods can be better
preserved, or in the case of baking and frying, improved, appetite and total food intake may be
improved, resulting in higher nutrient absorption. Nutrients can also be artificially added during

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processing to restore or improve the nutritive value of the processed food. Many processing
techniques also increase the digestibility of the food, resulting in greater bioavailability of the
nutrients. For example, when heated excessively in acidic or basic environments and with the
presence of lipolytic enzymes, lypolysis improves the digestibility of fats.

Processes affecting food nutrient content

A variety of things can happen during the growing, harvesting, storage and preparing of food that
can affect its nutritional content. Processes that expose foods to high levels of heat, light or
oxygen cause the greatest nutrient loss.
Fertilisers
Most plant crops are produced with the aid of fertilized soils. High use of nitrogen fertilizers
tends to reduce the vitamin C content in many fruit and vegetable crops. It does not seem to
make any difference to the plant‘s nutrient value whether the fertilizer is organic or not.
Milling
Cereals such as wheat can be ground to remove the fibrous husks. The husks contain most of the
plant‘s dietary fibre, B-group vitamins, phytochemicals and some minerals.
That is why products such as white bread are less nutritious than whole meal varieties, even if
they have been artificially fortified with some of the nutrients that were lost after milling. It is
impossible to add back everything that is taken out, especially the phytochemicals. The ‗fibre‘
that is added back to some products is often in the form of resistant starch, which may not be as
beneficial as the fibre removed.
Blanching
Before a food is canned or frozen, it is usually heated very quickly with steam or water. The
water-soluble vitamins, including vitamin C and B-complex, are sensitive and easily destroyed
by blanching.
Canning
Food is heated inside the can to kill any dangerous micro-organisms and extend the food‘s shelf
life. Some types of micro-organisms require severe heat treatment and this may affect the taste
and texture of the food, making it less appealing. Preservatives are generally not needed or used
in canned foods.

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Water-soluble vitamins are particularly sensitive to high temperatures. Many people believe that
canned foods are not as nutritious as their fresh counterparts, but this is not always the case, as
fresh food often deteriorates more rapidly than canned foods.
Freezing
The nutrient value of a food is retained when it is frozen. Any nutrient losses are due to the
processing prior to freezing and the cooking once the frozen food is thawed.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization involves heating liquid foods such as milk and fruit juices to specific temperatures
to destroy micro-organisms. The nutrient value of milk is generally unaffected. In the case of
pasteurized fruit juices, some losses of vitamin C can occur.
High pressure processing
This alternative preservation method subjects a food to elevated pressures, with or without the
use of heat to kill micro-organisms. This method has been used in foods such as fruit juices. As
heat is not required, this process impacts less on the vitamin content, flavor and color of foods.
Dehydrating
Drying out foods such as fruits can reduce the amount of vitamin C they retain, but it can also
concentrate other nutrients, particularly fibre in plant foods. Dehydrating food also makes food
products more energy dense, which may contribute to weight gain. If a dehydrated food is
reconstituted and cooked with water, further nutrients are leached out of the food and lost in the
cooking water.
Preparation of vegetables
Most vegetables are peeled or trimmed before cooking to remove the tough skin or outer leaves.
But most nutrients, such as vitamins, tend to lie close to the skin surface, so excessive trimming
can mean a huge reduction in a vegetable‘s nutrient value.
Losing nutrients through cooking
Some vitamins dissolve in water, so you lose your vitamins to the cooking water if you prefer to
boil your vegetables. For example, boiling a potato can cause much of the potato‘s B and C
vitamins to migrate into the boiling water.
It is still possible to benefit from these nutrients if you consume the liquid, for example, by
turning the potato and the liquid into a soup. Alternative cooking methods such as grilling,

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roasting, steaming, stir-frying or microwaving generally preserve a greater amount of vitamins
and other nutrients.
Benefits of cooking food
It would be inaccurate to say that cooking food always lessens the nutrient value. Cooking can be
advantageous in many ways, including:
 making the food tastier
 breaking down parts of vegetables that would otherwise be indigestible
 destroying bacteria or other harmful micro-organisms
 making phytochemicals more available, for instance, phytochemicals are more available
in cooked tomatoes than in raw tomatoes. (Phytochemicals are chemicals produced by

Activity 2.1
Describe the various forms of food processing in your community and
discuss their nutritional implication
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
plants).
Preserving the nutrient value of vegetables
Some suggestions to retain the maximum nutrition in the foods you cook include:
 Store foods properly, such as keeping cold foods cold and sealing some foods in airtight
containers.
 Keep vegetables in the crisper section of the refrigerator.
 Try washing or scrubbing vegetables rather than peeling them.
 Use the outer leaves of vegetables like cabbage or lettuce unless they are wilted or
unpalatable.
 Microwave, steam, roast or grill vegetables rather than boiling them.
 If you boil your vegetables, save the nutrient-laden water for soup stock.
 Use fresh ingredients whenever possible.
 Cook foods quickly.
In general, fresh food that has not been processed other than by washing and simple kitchen
preparation, may be expected to contain a higher proportion of naturally occurring vitamins,

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fiber and minerals than the equivalent product processed by the food industry. Vitamin C, for
example, is destroyed by heat and therefore canned fruits have a lower content of vitamin C than
fresh ones.
Food processing can lower the nutritional value of foods. Processed foods tend to include food
additives, such as flavorings and texture enhancing agents, which may have little or no nutritive
value, and some may be unhealthy. Some preservatives added or created during processing, such
as nitrites or sulfites, may cause adverse health effects
Fresh fruits and vegetables and whole grains are rich in vitamins and minerals. Refining grains
and canning or freezing fruits and vegetables can diminish the nutrient content, making them less
healthful than their fresh counterparts. Although fruits, vegetables and baked goods will still
impart some positive nutrition no matter how they are prepared, commercially processed foods
can have reduced fiber and vitamins and an altered balance of minerals that is not as good for
you as fresh foods and whole grains.
Canning
Canned fruits and vegetables are low in nutritional value compared to fresh or freshly frozen
products, according to the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. To extinguish
risk of botulism and other food-borne illnesses, canned goods are heated to high temperatures for
an extended period of time. This can break down or destroy vitamins in the produce. Minerals
are more stable and tend to survive the canning process. However, most manufacturers add salt
to their canned goods to make up for flavor lost by the heat intensity of canning, as well as to act
as an additional preservative. This creates an imbalance between salt and potassium in the food
product, which can contribute to high blood pressure and other negative health effects, according
to the University of Florida IFAS Extension.
Freezing
Frozen fruits and vegetables have usually experienced only a quick blanching shortly after
harvest before being placed in a quick deep freeze that locks in most of the vitamins and
minerals of the fresh produce. Fresh freezing fruits and vegetables at home when they are in
season allows you to take advantage of lower seasonal prices and still have nutritional produce
all year long. Processing foods for freezing does diminish the vitamin C level of the produce,
according to the Penn State University Food Science program, but its effect is less than that of
canning.

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Grains
Each individual whole grain contains the soft endosperm as well as a two-layer outer wrapper of
the germ and bran that contain the largest portion of the grain's fiber and vitamins. Refined
grains like white flour have had their bran and grain removed in processing. This also removes
most of the grain's B vitamins, vitamin E, selenium, copper, magnesium and zinc along with
dietary fiber, according to Net Wellness. Additional nutrients are lost in the flour-grinding
process, usually due to the high heat of commercial steel mill apparatus. Brown rice, whole
barley and whole oats are all whole grains that retain their full nutritional arsenal when cooked as
a side dish or porridge. Popcorn is also a whole grain snack. Whole wheat flour loses a small
amount of nutrition in grinding but retains much of the nutritive benefits of the whole wheat
grain, especially if slow ground on cooler stone mills. Wheat and oat bran that has been removed
from the grain for milling is also sold separately to add nutrients and fiber back into baked goods
like waffle, bread and muffins.
Packaged Foods
The harder it is to identify the original food ingredients, the more processed a food product is.
Packaged snacks and lunch meats often bear little resemblance to the whole foods and fresh meat
cuts they originated from. These highly processed packaged foods may still contain vitamins and
minerals, or may have vitamins and minerals added back into the product. They also are more
calorie-dense and likely have added salt, fat, and artificial coloring and flavoring that dilutes the
nutritional intensity of fresh whole grains, fruits and vegetables. Additives in packaged foods
have little to no nutritional value, according to the University of Texas, and the ratio of calories
to the nutritional benefits of the products is high. Less processed foods are the healthier option.

In this lecture, we have looked at food processing, the different methods of food
processing as well as the nutritional implication to the food.

1. Describe how you can process vegetables to ensure maximum benefits of nutrients.

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______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Newsome, Rosetta. ―Effects of Food Processing on Nutritive Values.‖ Food

Technology, (1986): 109-116.
Skura, B.J, Li-Chan, E., Liceaga, A.. FNH 200, section 99A. Effects of Food Processing
Operations on Nutrient Retention in Foods. Office of Learning Technology, UBC. 31 October
2008 .
Lecture 3
Methods of preservation

Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Discuss the different methods of preservation
ii. Outline the recommended methods for safe food preservation
iii. Highlight the purpose of food preservation

Food preservation
Food preservation includes a variety of techniques that allow food to be kept for extended
periods of time without losing nutritional quality and avoiding the growth of unwanted
microorganisms.
There are three basic objectives for the preservation of foods:
 Prevention of contamination of food from damaging agents.
 Delay or prevention of growth of microorganisms in the food.

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  Delay of enzymic spoilage, i.e. self-decomposition of the food by naturally occurring
enzymes within it.

For storing or preserving food, one or several of the living conditions needed for the growth of
microorganisms have to be removed. Like humans, microorganisms need a source of food and
water, and they also need a suitable pH and temperature to grow, so food preservation techniques
aim to target these requirements. Food preservation depends on procedures which effectively
manage the microbial content of foods and on processes that alter or delay the activities of
enzymes in the food. The techniques may be applied separately or in combination. Their aims are
to prevent contamination in the first place, to remove or reduce the numbers of contaminants,
and to prevent microbial growth. We describe them below.
Prevention of contamination (aseptic technique)
This technique simply means to prevent contamination of the food by spoilage agents or by
contact with them. The word ‗aseptic‘ means free from harmful bacteria, viruses etc. The
technique requires either using an artificial covering for the food, or keeping its natural
protective covering if there is one. Examples of natural coverings are the shells of eggs, fat or
skins in animals, and/or the skin or peel of fruits. Leaving the natural covering of the food intact,
or applying a clean artificial cover, can prevent microorganisms from entering or dropping on to
the food.

Removal or reduction of microorganisms

Microorganisms can be physically removed from food, or their numbers reduced, by techniques
like washing, trimming, sieving and filtration. For example, vegetables and fruit should be
washed in clean water; any damaged or dirty parts of vegetables should be trimmed off with a
clean knife; flour can be sieved to remove any unwanted contaminants.

The use of high temperature

Heat is one of the oldest methods of destroying microorganisms in food processing and
preservation. The greatest advance in food hygiene was inadvertently made when humans
discovered the advantage of boiling, roasting, baking and other heat treatments of food, hence
preserving the food for longer periods. Food is also rendered safe by the application of heat

16
because most pathogenic microorganisms are comparatively heat-sensitive. Some of the methods
of heat treatment used for food preservation are discussed below.

Cooking/boiling
Boiling is the process of applying heat to water until the temperature reaches about 100°C.
Boiling foods in water cannot completely destroy all microorganisms, but the vegetative cells of
bacteria, yeasts and moulds are generally quickly destroyed at temperatures of 100°C or above.
Spores of some bacteria are extremely resistant to heat and are not killed at this temperature,
although their growth is prevented. For this reason, boiling food can rarely be relied upon to
ensure complete destruction of all organisms. However, most pathogens are killed, provided that
sufficient exposure time is maintained. Although the spores of Clostridium botulinum, which
causes botulism, are extremely heat-resistant, the toxin produced by this organism is readily
destroyed by boiling. However, some toxins produced by other bacteria such as staphylococci
are not easily inactivated. Thermophilic (heat-loving) organisms may survive the effects of
boiling and can cause food spoilage if environmental conditions are favourable for them.
Bacterial destruction by heat is affected by time and temperature variation. The higher the
temperature, the more rapid is the destruction. On the other hand, as the temperature is lowered,
the time of exposure (holding time) needs to be longer. Cooking can have some disadvantages.
It can damage the food‘s appearance, texture and flavour, and may also destroy some important
vitamins. Nevertheless, the advantages of cooking outweigh the disadvantages because it inhibits
spoilage and possible disease transmission.

Pasteurization
Pasteurization is named after its inventor, Louis Pasteur, a French chemist. Pasteurization is a
process of heat treatment of milk, beer and some other beverages. It requires sufficient holding
time to assure the thermal destruction of pathogens and organisms responsible for spoilage,
without altering the nutritional value. It involves heating the food to a specific temperature for a
specific time and then cooling rapidly. Pasteurization kills most but not all of the
microorganisms present. It is a very useful method when more rigorous heat treatment could
harm the quality of the product, as in the case of milk, and when the aim is to kill only the
pathogens that are not very heat-resistant. The temperature applied and the holding time of

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pasteurization varies with the equipment available and the type of food product. In milk
pasteurization, the time-temperature combination is selected on the basis of the thermal death
time of the most resistant pathogens (TB bacilli) that may be present in raw milk and the
maximum temperature and time at which the taste, palatability and nutritive value of milk are
maintained. Normally milk is pasteurized at 62.8°C for at least 30 minutes or at 71.7°C for at
least 15 seconds, or, if using ultra-high temperature (UHT), at 135°C for 1–2 seconds. UHT milk
is sterilized, meaning all forms of life are destroyed. This extends its storage time but does affect
the taste.

Blanching
Blanching is a mild pre-cooking operation which can reduce the bacterial load on vegetables by
90%. It means the application of boiling water or steam for a short time. It wilts some bulky
vegetables and prevents discolouring of others. It cleans peas of the moist and sticky material
around them. Blanching vegetables prior to canning, freezing or drying helps to remove soil,
insects and microorganisms, and destroys or slows the action of enzymes. It sets the green colour
and generally facilitates dicing, peeling and packing.

Canning
Canning is one of the most widely used modern methods of processing and preserving food. It
involves the careful preparation of food packed into a sealed tin, glass or plastic container which
is subjected to defined high temperatures (above 100ºC) for an appropriate period of time, and
then cooled. Following the thermal (heat) processing, the sealed container must be cooled
immediately to a temperature of about 38ºC to prevent unnecessary adverse effects of heat on the
texture, flavour or colour of the food.
The canning method involves the following steps: sterilizing the food to be canned, packing it in
sterile, air-tight stainless metal, glass or plastic containers, and then hermetically sealing (i.e.
with a complete, airtight seal) the containers to prevent contamination during handling and
storage. In the heat process, all vegetative bacteria are destroyed and spores cannot grow. Any
can that is damaged or swollen should not be used. A swollen, bulging can indicates that gas is
being produced on the inside and demonstrates there is microbial activity in the food, so it would
not be safe to eat.

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The use of low temperature
Unlike high temperature, cold is not an effective means of destroying pathogenic bacteria,
viruses and toxins in foods, but it can retard their multiplication and metabolic activities.
No food or food product is rendered free from microorganisms by low temperature (by freezing
or refrigeration). This explains the generally accepted danger of refreezing any kind of thawed
foods. Certain parasites, such as Taenia cysts in beef and all stages of Trichinella spiralis, can be
completely destroyed by storage of infected food at -18ºC for periods of 20 to 30 days,
depending upon the rate of cold penetration. The most important prerequisite for successful
preservation by cold is that the food must be clean to start with.
Chilling
Chilling involves reducing food temperatures, but only to approximately -1ºC. Refrigerators for
cold storage/chilling are normally used at 0ºC to +8ºC for preservation of a wide variety of food
products.

Freezing
Freezing of food, when carried out properly, is one of the best methods of preserving foodstuffs
in as nearly natural a state as possible. Freezing preserves the storage life of foods by slowing
down enzyme reactions and the growth of microorganisms. A low storage temperature of at least
-12°C is important if prolonged storage life is desired without losing flavour. Needless to say,
freezing foods to preserve them is only possible with a freezer and reliable power supply.
Vegetables with high moisture content do not freeze well because cellulose (in plant cell walls)
tends to be broken down by enzymes regardless of the rate of freezing, making the vegetables
soft. Therefore, for such food items, blanching to destroy enzyme activity is required prior to
freezing.

Drying
This is a dehydration process by which the water/moisture content of the food is removed or
decreased. Pathogenic and other bacteria cannot multiply in the absence of water. Most tend to
die in foods that have been dehydrated to a moisture content of 10–20% of weight. Drying,
however, may not kill spores. Drying also achieves food preservation by inactivating enzymes.

19
Drying or evaporation methods have been applied to nearly every kind of watery food, including
milk. Although the loss in vitamins and nutritional value is usually minor, some foods change
physically and chemically, and are sometimes altered in natural colour and flavour. Other dried
products do not compare favourably with their fresh counterparts due to difficulties in
reconstitution, i.e. adding water to return the food to its original form.
Activity 3.1
Discuss Chlostridium botulinum and explain the best method of
handling the bacteria?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Fermentation and pickling

Not all microorganisms are bad. Certain microorganisms are necessary in the preparation and
preservation of many foods and beverages. Essentially, fermentation (a controlled microbial
action) is a process of anaerobic or partially anaerobic oxidation of carbohydrates that produces
acids and alcohol. It is one of the oldest methods of food preservation. In fermentation, food
preservation is achieved by the presence of acid or alcohol, which creates unfavourable
environmental conditions for decomposing and other undesirable bacteria.
Foods commonly processed and preserved by fermentation methods are milk and milk products,
beef, vinegar, drinks like beer and wine, and pickled fruits and vegetables. Pickling is the process
of preserving food by anaerobic fermentation either in brine (salt solution) or in an acid solution,
usually vinegar. The concentrations of the pickling agents and the time needed for pickling are
determined by the type of food. Fermented and/or pickled food products are semi-perishable and
must be protected from moulds, which are able to attack the acids and permit the invasion of
spoilage organisms.

Chemical preservation
It has been customary to classify chemicals incorporated into food for preservation purposes as
‗intentional additives‘. Additives used at food industry level include vitamins, mould inhibitors,
bactericides, emulsifiers, minerals, food colouring, synthetic flavours and sweeteners. Chemicals

20
that get into food accidentally are referred to as ‗unintentional additives‘. They include the
unavoidable residues of agricultural chemicals, pesticides or antibiotics.
There are several traditional methods of food preservation used at the household level that can be
classed as chemical methods. Substances such a sugar, salt, vinegar, spices and wood-smoke are
generally regarded as safe and natural preservatives. Salting, sugaring and smoking are all
methods of curing foods. Curing is a general term that covers all these types of food
preservation.
Salting is the addition of salt (sodium chloride or NaCl) to food for the purpose of preservation.
The growth of microorganisms is inhibited by the salt, which has the effect of drawing water out
of the bacterial cells so they become dehydrated and die. In this manner, salt, in combination
with other measures, acts as a preservative in many foods such as butter, cabbage, cheese,
cucumber, meat and fish. It also gives a desired flavour to the food. Salting can be done by
rubbing adequate quantities of dry salt into foods, or by immersion, where the food item is
soaked in a concentrated salt solution (i.e. brine). For effective preservation, the concentration of
the brine solution has to be maintained above 18%. This is approximately one cupful of salt to
five cups of water.
Sugaring refers to the action of sugar in food preservation. It is similar to the action of salt in
that it depends on the removal of water. In concentrations of at least 65%, sugar solution is
widely used as a sweetening and preserving agent. However, care is needed because at low
concentrations, sugar solution can support the growth of microorganisms. It has been found that
microorganisms rarely survive in solutions above 20–25% sugar concentration.
Smoking is one of the oldest methods used to improve the quality of food and is commonly used
to preserve meat and fish. The smoking process involves exposing food to smoke from burning
or smouldering wood or other plant material. It partially preserves the food by surface drying, i.e.
removing moisture from the surface of the food, but it is not a reliable method of preservation
unless combined with some other method such as salting or drying.
Spices also have some uses in food preservation because they tend to inhibit the growth of
staphylococci and other bacteria. However, they have a very limited application because they
often get contaminated themselves by a number of bacteria.
Other methods of food preservation

21
There are some other methods of food preservation that are used in the food industry and require
special equipment, for example, irradiation and vacuum packing. Irradiation is the process of
exposing food to ionizing radiation in order to destroy microorganisms. Vacuum packing
depends on the removal of oxygen from food packaging to prevent the growth of aerobic bacteria
that will decompose the food.

You have come to the end of this lecture. Having worked through this lecture, you
should be able to discuss the various methods of preservation and the best time to use the
respective methods of preservations.

Now take a break then answer the questions below.

1. Your community does not have a refrigerator to keep foods like meat safely. What
traditional meat preservation method would you recommend for the community in order
to keep meat safe for many days?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Which of the following statements is false? In each case, say why it is incorrect.
A Salting and sugaring are chemical methods of food preservation that rely on soaking
food in a weak solution of salt or sugar.
B Pasteurization of milk kills all microorganisms by rapidly heating the milk until it boils
and then allowing it to cool slowly.
C Canned foods should not be eaten if the can is swollen and bulging.
D Fermentation is a method of food preservation that relies on keeping food in an alkaline
environment.

22
Rahman, S. (Ed.). (2007). Handbook of food preservation (2nd ed). Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Gould, G. W. (2012). New Methods of Food Preservation. Springer Science & Business Media.

Lecture 4
Spoilage: microorganisms, insects, physical and chemical reactions
Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Describe important characteristics of microorganisms in foods causing food
spoilage
ii. Describe the role of microorganisms in the deterioration or spoilage of food
iii. Discuss the factors (chemical, enzymatic, microbiological) that commonly
contribute to food deterioration and spoilage
iv.
Food spoilage
About 10-20 % of all agricultural commodities are lost each year (pre-harvest deterioration) due
to: weeds, insects, microorganisms, rodents and birds.
All foods (agricultural & aquatic products) undergo varying degrees of deterioration after harvest
(post-harvest) and during storage.
Losses occur in the nutritional value, safety, and aesthetic appeal (colour, texture, flavour).
Food is subject to physical, chemical and biological deterioration.

23
Biological deterioration involves: heat, cold, light, oxygen, moisture, dryness, food enzymes,
microorganisms and macro organisms

Microorganisms
Microorganisms are ubiquitous. Almost all food materials that arrive at food processing plants,
retail stores, food service receiving docks, and even your kitchen, are contaminated with a
variety of microorganisms. Microorganisms cause a great deal of food spoilage throughout the
world. This has major economic consequences and as well as loss of potential sources of
nutrients, since the spoiled food typically is discarded.
Microorganisms can be classified into 3 general categories:
The Good: Microorganisms used in the production of fermented foods such as cheese, yogurt
and olives.
The Bad: Microorganism that cause food spoilage. Food preservation, packaging and storage
technologies kill or delay the metabolic activities of these microorganisms.
The Ugly: Microorganisms that can cause food borne diseases. Food processing, packaging and
storage are designed to kill these microorganisms, prevent their entry into foods, or to prevent
their growth.
Microorganisms can be put to good use for the production of fermented foods, but that they can
also be the causes of spoilage and food borne diseases. Bacteria, yeasts and moulds may
contribute to fermented foods, as well as food spoilage and food borne disease. Viruses can be
agents of food borne disease but do not cause food spoilage, nor are they used to produce
fermented foods.

Bacteria
Bacteria are the microorganisms that grow the fastest in food. They reproduce by cell division,
whereby one cell divides into two, and these two daughter cells further each divide into another
two cells. The time taken for bacterial cells to complete one complete cycle of cell division is the
generation time. With a generation time of 7 minutes, a single bacterial cell could produce a
population of a billion cells within 210 minutes (3 1/2 hours).
Bacteria may exist in two forms:

24
Vegetative cells, which are actively metabolizing cells that consume nutrients and produce waste
products
Spores, which are the dormant form of the bacterial cell. The spore is analogous to the seed of a
green plant. All of the genetic material is contained within the spore. When favourable
conditions are encountered, the spore germinates and produces an actively metabolizing bacterial
cell capable of cell division).

Yeasts
Yeasts are commonly found in many foods of agricultural and aquatic origin. Yeasts reproduce
by budding. They generally grow more slowly than bacteria but can tolerate more severe
environmental conditions than bacteria. For example:
Yeasts are not inhibited by pH to the same extent as bacteria
Yeasts can grow in many foods with low water activity that would normally inhibit growth of
bacteria.
Some yeast is used to produce fermented foods and beverages.

Moulds
Moulds are filamentous and are also found on most foods of agricultural and aquatic origin. Most
moulds produce spores. Like yeasts, moulds can grow on foods that have a low pH and also in
foods with low water activities that would inhibit growth of bacteria and yeasts.
Some moulds are used in the production of mould-fermented foods (e.g. mould ripened cheeses),
but most moulds are agents of food spoilage and many also produce toxins (mycotoxins) under
favourable conditions.
Microbial Spores
Mold and some bacteria produce spores. Microbial spores are very resistant to a variety of
conditions (heat, dehydration, ionizing radiation, antimicrobial agents) that can inhibit or cause
death of the vegetative cell. In food preservation and processing, the spores of Clostridium
botulinum, an anaerobic bacterium, are of great concern because the spores are very heat
resistant. Clostridium botulinum is also the group of bacteria that produces the toxin that causes
the very serious illness, botulism.

25
Growth Requirements
Microorganisms can also be characterized on the basis of temperature ranges and oxygen
requirements over which growth occurs. For example, mould are strictly aerobic (require
oxygen), but different mould species can have different temperature requirements. Some bacteria
are aerobic mesophiles, and some are anaerobic mesophiles.

Activity 4.1
What is the effect of poor food storage in respect to food spoilage?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Oxygen Requirements
Aerobic grow only in the presence of dissolved oxygen Bacteria, yeast, mould
Anaerobic grow only in the absence of dissolved oxygen Bacteria

Facultative Anaerobe can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen Bacteria, yeast

Temperature Requirements
Growth
Classification Temperatures
(°C)
Psychrophiles 0 to 18
Psychrotrophs -5 to 35
Mesophiles 10 to 45
Thermophiles 50 to >100
Characteristics
Psychrophiles grow well in cold temperatures
Psychrotrophs have adapted to living and multiplying in cold
environments. Psychrotrophs are the major cause of spoilage
in refrigerated foods.
Mesophiles grow well in moderate temperatures. Many
mesophiles have an optimum growth temperature of 37°C.
Most spoilage and disease-causing organisms are mesophiles
Thermophiles grow best at high temperatures. Most
thermophilic organisms are spoilage-causing.

26
 Insects, Rodents and Parasites
 Pests are major contributors to post-harvest losses.
 Rodents alone ruin more than 30,000,000 tonnes of food each year worldwide.
 Insects are believed to destroy 5-10% of the U.S. grain crop annually, and in some parts of the
world this figure can be as high as 50%.
 Pests will damage the food and open it to microbial contamination.
 Rodent, insect and bird control are important factors in the agriculture and food industries.

Parasites can cause damage to food quality. An example is the visible appearance of parasitic
cysts in fish flesh which lower quality and market value of infested products. Parasites such as
Trichinella spiralis in pork and Anisakid species in some types of fish can also cause health
problems in humans if they are ingested in inadequately cooked or improperly processed foods
that are infested with those parasites.
Enzymes Endogenous to Foods
Enzymes can catalyze reactions leading to chemical changes in foods. Living organisms (animal
and plant) have their own enzyme balance. This enzyme balance is disrupted once the animal is
killed or the plant is harvested, but the enzymes may continue to catalyze chemical reactions
within foods even after slaughter or harvest.

Some examples of enzymatic deterioration in foods are described below:

The softening of fruit tissue and the changes in flavour and colour during storage after picking
are examples of deterioration of food quality by enzymes. It is enzymatic action that causes the
softening of apple tissue during storage, with texture changing from that of a crisp apple to a
somewhat soft and mealy apple with a concomitant loss of sweetness. Enzymes in the apple
tissue degrade pectins that cement the cells together, leading to the textural change.

You also no doubt have experienced the browning of apples, potatoes and peaches after they
have been sliced and exposed to oxygen in the atmosphere. This browning phenomenon is
known as enzymatic browning and is catalyzed by an enzyme known as polyphenol oxidase

27
 which catalyzes the oxidation of colorless phenols in the tissues to brown colored compounds, as
shown in the following equation:

Enzymes can be inactivated by means of heat, chemicals (e.g. antioxidants), and by controlling
the gaseous environment.

Temperature (Heat and Cold), Moisture, Oxygen and Light

Temperature, moisture and oxygen as well as light may have profound influences on microbial
growth, enzyme activity and chemical reactions in foods.
Temperature Effects
 Rates of reactions generally increase as the temperature increases until an optimum is achieved,
after which further increases in temperature cause the rates of reaction to decrease because of
inactivation of microorganisms or enzymes or because of inhibitory effects on chemical
reactions.
 Excessive heat also denatures proteins, breaks emulsions, removes moisture from foods (drying
out), and destroys vitamins.
 Cold temperatures can also deteriorate food. A well known example is "chill injury", the change
in texture and discolouration of fruits and vegetables when they are exposed to freezing
temperatures.
 Freezing temperatures can deteriorate liquid foods such as milk, causing emulsions to break and
fat to separate and denaturing protein causing it to curdle or coagulate. "Freezer burn" due to loss
of moisture can occur in solid and liquid foods.

Gain or Loss of Moisture

 Water loss during storage (e.g. wilting of lettuce in the refrigerator), or water uptake (e.g. by
dehydrated foods) can lead to deterioration.
 Retrogradation of starch, resulting in staling of bread, is caused by packing of linear starch
molecules leading to the exclusion of water that was previously absorbed during gelatinization.
The bread becomes tough and develops a dry texture.

28
 Changes in water activity (free versus bound water) can influence chemical and enzymatic
reactions and microbial growth.

Oxygen Effects
 Oxygen is an important factor in food quality, since many oxidative reactions lead to
deterioration in the quality of food and, in some cases, to losses in nutritive value. Oxidative
deterioration is often accelerated by light.
 For example, deterioration frequently occurs because of oxidation of the fats in food products.
The development of rancidity in breakfast cereals, vegetable oils and oil-based products, and in
deep-fried foods is due to reaction of oxygen with fats, particularly those with high unsaturated
fatty acid content. This type of rancidity is known as oxidative rancidity. This is in contrast to
rancidity induced in foods upon the release of free fatty acids by very high temperatures or by
the action of lipase enzymes, either endogenous or produced by spoilage-causing
microorganisms. The latter rancidity is known as hydrolytic or lipolytic rancidity.
 Oxidation of vitamins and colour pigments can lead to the deterioration of nutritive quality and
aesthetic appeal of foods.

Physical Deterioration
 Physical abuse causes tissue disruption and release of enzymes into tissues which can lead to
changes such as enzymatic browning mentioned earlier.
 Furthermore, improper packaging, for example, can cause crushing and tissue damage, making
foods such as fruits and vegetables particularly susceptible to microbial invasion as well as
enzymatic and chemical reactions.

You have now come to the end of this lecture. The following were discussed during
thr lecture: food spoilage from various ways such as microorganisms, insects, physical and
chemical reactions.

29
1. Describe the two main forms that the bacteria may exist.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

1. Khetarpaul, N. 2005. Food processing and preservation. Daya Publishing House, Delhi.
555p.
2. Potter, N.N. and Hotchkiss, J.H. 1998. Food science. 5th Ed. Aspen Publishers,
Maryland, USA. 608 p.
3. Sivasankar, B. 2002. Food processing and preservation. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
360p.
4. Smith, J. S. and Hui, Y.H. 2004. Food Processing: principles and applications. Blackwell
Publishing, USA. 511p.

Lecture 5
Sanitary measures: Food and environmental sampling, good agricultural
practices (GAP), Good hygiene practices (GHP), Good manufacturing
practice (GMP), plant design, layout, maintenance, food handling, reputable
sources, food inspection, premises and equipment cleansing, personal hygiene

Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Describe good agricultural practices (GAP)
ii. Discuss principles of Good hygiene practices (GHP)
iii. Describe Good manufacturing practice (GMP) and sanitary measures

30
Hygiene standards and procedures usually described as Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) or Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMP), have been in place for many years and constituted an essential
tool in traditional food control. These concepts are still essential in a modern food control system
by providing the basic environmental and operating conditions for production of safe food and
thus being a requisite or foundation for HACCP in an overall food safety management
programme
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)
Those procedures for a particular manufacturing operation which practitioners of, and experts in,
that operation consider to be the best available using current knowledge
There is no clear definition of the term Good Hygienic Practices (GHP). However, "food
hygiene" has been defined by Codex (CAC, 2001) as "all conditions and measures necessary to
ensure the safety and suitability of food at all stages of the food chain" and GHP can therefore be
regarded as:
Good Hygienic Practices (GHP)
All practices regarding the conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety and suitability
of food at all stages of the food chain
The terms GMP and GHP therefore basically cover the same ground and for the purpose of this
book, the term GHP will mainly be used.
Various definitions of GHP or prerequisite programmes have been proposed by national and
international organizations as shown:

GAP is based on the dual principle of:

methods used in agriculture shall be economically in harmony with the food industry regulations
and shall conserve the own natural resources declared and latent consumer demands, on the other
hand, emphasize the importance of safe, high quality food production, and products.
At the same time, GAP does not entail new standards; it provides a tool to help the
harmonization of present standards by integrating environmental and social indicators into the
production process.
The principle, ―from farm to table‖, is very well-reflected within the integrated production
system; this process starts with open-field plant cultivation, continues with feed process, and

31
 finishes with animal husbandry and animal process. The implementation of GAP in this process
provides the following:
 apply GAP guidelines for open-field plant cultivation
 introduce Good Hygienic Practice (GHP) into all links of the chain
 introduce certified HACCP system (verified upon the relevant regulations on manufactured
goods) operating in an integrated way into all links of the chain
Introduce quality and environmental management systems into all links of the chain in harmony
with integrated ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 14001 standards

Plant location, physical environment and infrastructure

Early considerations in building a new plant are the identification of a suitable location. A
number of factors should be considered such as physical and geographical factors and
infrastructure available.
Some of the physical needs for a plant location is a plot of adequate size (for present needs and
future developments), with easy access by road, rail or water. An adequate supply of potable
water and energy must be available throughout the year at a reasonable cost. Special
considerations must be given to waste disposal. The plant should have proper sanitary sewers.
Seafood processing plants usually contain significant amounts of organic matter which must be
removed before waste water is discharged into rivers or the sea. Also solid waste handling needs
careful planning, and suitable space - away from the plant - must be allocated or be available.
Assessment of pollution risk from adjacent areas must also be considered. Contaminants such as
smoke, dust, ash, foul odours (e.g. neighbouring fish meal plant using poor raw material) are
obvious, but even bacteria may have to be considered as airborne contaminants (e.g. proximity of
a poultry rearing plant upwind may be a source of Salmonella spp).
The immediate physical surroundings of a seafood factory should be landscaped and present
attractive appearance to the visitor (or potential buyer of products). However, this should be done
in a way that rodents and birds are not attracted. Shrubbery should be at least 10 m away from
buildings and a grass free strip covered with a layer of gravel or concrete should follow the outer
wall of buildings. This allows for thorough inspection of walls and control of rodents. Ground
immediately in front of doors and entrances should be paved to minimize dust. All areas around

32
 the plant and facilities should be well drained to prevent any standing water, where flies and
microorganisms could breed and develop.

Activity 5.1
Discuss good manufacturing practices
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Buildings, construction and layout

A food processing plant shall provide (quoted from Troller, 1993):
 adequate space for equipment, installations and storage of materials
 separation of operations to avoid cross contamination
 adequate lightning and ventilation
 Protection against pests.
External walls, roofs, doors and windows should be water-, insect- and rodent-proof. Internal
walls, on the other hand, should be smooth, flat, and resistant to wear and corrosion, impervious,
easily cleanable and white or light coloured. Also the floors should ideally be impervious to
spillage of product, water and disinfectants, durable to impact, resistant to disinfectants and
chemicals used, slip resistant, non-toxic, non-tainting and of good appearance and easy
repairable. Floors should be provided with a slope to drains to prevent formation of puddles. All
openings (doors, windows, skylights, ventilators) must be adequately screened or otherwise
constructed and fitted so as to prevent the entrance of any pests (flies or rodents).
Lighting should be adequate to carry out plant operations and protected so that broken glass will
not be a potential hazard.
Proper ventilation is basic to good food plant sanitation. This will control condensation and help
to eliminate any mould growth. Intake air should be filtered and positive air pressure maintained
in the finished product area. The technical requirements, choice of materials, costs, etc. to obtain
these goals may be found in a number of publications such as Shapton and Shapton (1991),
Imholte (1984), Troller (1993).
The general layout and arrangement of rooms within a processing establishment is important in
order to minimize the risk of contamination of the final product. A large number of bacteria

33
(pathogens and spoilage bacteria) enter with the raw material. To avoid cross contamination it is
therefore essential that raw material is received in a separate area and stored in a separate chill
room. From here the sequence of processing operations should be as direct as possible - and a
"straight line" process flow is regarded as most efficient (Hayes, 1992). This layout minimizes
the risk of recontamination of a semi-processed product.
Clear physical (e.g. a wall) segregation between "clean" and "unclean" areas is of prime
importance. "Unclean" areas are those where raw material is handled and often a cleaning
operation (wash) or for example a heat treatment (cooking of shrimp) is marking the point, where
the process flow goes from "unclean" to "clean" areas. Thus a "clean" area is defined:
Clean area
An area where any contaminant added to the product will carry over to the final product
(ICMSF, 1988)
I.e. there is no subsequent processing step that will reduce or destroy contaminating microbes.
Also cooled rooms must be separated from hot rooms where cooking, smoking, retorting etc. are
taking place. Dry rooms must be separated from wet rooms and separate rooms must be provided
for waste material, chemicals (cleaning and disinfection compounds, insecticides, all toxic
materials), packaging materials and wood (for smoking).
The separation between the clean and unclean areas must be complete. There should be no
human traffic between these areas, and equipment and utensils used in the unclean areas should
never be used in the clean area. This means that there should also be separate wash and hygiene
facilities for equipment and personnel in these areas. For easy identification the personnel should
wear different coloured protective clothing for different operations (e.g. white in the clean and
blue in the unclean).
Equally important in layout and design of food factories is to ensure that there are no
interruptions and no "dead ends" in the product flow, where semi processed material can
accumulate and remain for a long time at ambient temperature. Time/temperature conditions for
products during processing are extremely important critical control points (CCPs) in order to
prevent bacterial growth. This means that a steady and uninterrupted flow of all products is
necessary in order to have full control of this critical factor. If any delays in product flow are
necessary, the products should be kept chilled.
In addition, to facilitate product flow the factory layout and practices should ensure that:

34
 all functions should proceed with no criss-crossing and backtracking
 visitors should move from clean to unclean areas
 ingredients should move from "dirty" to "clean" areas as they become incorporated into food
products
 conditioned (e.g. chilled) air and drainage should flow from "clean" to "dirty" areas
 the flow of discarded outer packing material should not cross the flow of products
 There is sufficient space for plant operations including processing, cleaning and maintenance.
Space is also required for movement of materials and pedestrians
 Operations are separated as necessary. There are clear advantages in minimizing the number of
interior walls since this simplifies the movement of materials and employees, makes supervision
easier, and reduces the area of wall that needs cleaning and maintenance (the list is partly after
Shapton and Shapton, 1991).

Maintenance of facilities for personal hygiene

According to the US Federal Seafood HACCP regulations (FDA, 1995) the condition of the
personal hygiene facilities should be monitored separately.
The number and location of toilets and hand-washing facilities needs consideration. An adequate
number of readily accessible toilet facilities must be available and maintained in a hygienic
condition and good repair. Hand-washing facilities must be strategically and conveniently
located near toilets and at entrances to the processing areas. Wash basin taps must not be hand-
operated.
Hand-washing facilities should be dedicated to hand-washing only and never be used for
washing dishes, utensils or equipment. Similarly, hand-washing should never take place in sinks
or tanks used for food preparation. Hand-washing facilities should include:
 liquid soap in a dispenser
 hot water (~40-43°C)
 disposable paper towels or air blowers (- refuse receptacles if needed)
 Hand disinfection facilities (bowls for hand dip).
Typically hand disinfectants are composed of chlorine compounds (100-200 ppm chlorine) or
iodine compounds (20-25 ppm iodine).

35
Model prerequisite programme: Maintenance of facilities for personal hygiene
Criteria: Toilets and hygiene areas kept cleaned and in good repair
Hand-washing and disinfection facilities must be located at toilets and at the
entrance to all processing areas and maintained in a good condition
The facilities must be equipped with liquid soap, disposable towels and effective
disinfectant dips
Monitoring: Daily check of facilities for cleanliness and good repair. More than one daily
check for concentration of disinfectant dip. One person (e.g. the Q.A. supervisor)
should be designated to carry out this monitoring
Corrective Immediate repair if facilities are broken down or not functioning properly
action: Replenishing of supplies if lacking or concentration is inadequate
Records: The daily Hygiene Record form should include all observations made and actions
carried out

Utensils and equipment

A great variety of utensils and equipment is used in the fish industry. There is an abundance of
advice and regulations available concerning the requirements for equipment. All of them agree
that the food equipment should be non-contaminating and easy to clean. In particular, all food
contact surfaces (utensils, knives, tables, cutting boards, boxes and containers, conveyer belts,
gloves, aprons etc.) must be designed and of such material as to be easily cleanable. Such
surfaces shall be constructed of non-toxic, non-absorbent material that is resistant to the
environment, the food, cleaning and disinfecting agents. Food contact materials that should be
avoided are: wood, ferrous metals, brass and galvanized metals. However, the degree of
stringency in hygienic requirements must be related to the product being processed. Raw fish, for
example, do not require the same standard of hygiene as cooked and peeled shrimp. Criteria for
hygienic design are particularly important for equipment used in the later stages of processing
and particularly after a bacteria-eliminating processing step. There are seven basic principles for
hygienic design agreed upon by a working party appointed by the Food Manufacturers
Federation (FMF) and Food Machinery Association FMA (FMF/FMA, 1967) as quoted by
Hayes (1992):

36
 All surfaces in contact with food must be inert to the food under the conditions of use and must
not migrate to or be absorbed by the food
 all surfaces in contact with food must be smooth and non-porous so that tiny particles of food,
bacteria, or insect eggs are not caught in microscopic surface crevices and become difficult to
dislodge thus becoming a potential source of contamination
 all surfaces in contact with the food must be visible for inspection or the equipment must be
readily disassembled for inspection, or it must be demonstrated that routine cleaning procedures
eliminate possibility of contamination from bacteria or insects
 all surfaces in contact with food must be readily accessible for manual cleaning, or if not readily
accessible, then readily disassembled for manual cleaning, or if clean-in-place techniques are
used, it must be demonstrated that the results achieved without disassembly are the equivalent of
those obtained with disassembly and manual cleaning
 all interior surfaces in contact with food must be so arranged that the equipment is self emptying
or self draining
 equipment must be so designed as to protect the contents from external contamination
 The exterior or non-product contact surfaces should be arranged to prevent harbouring of soils,
bacteria or pests in and on the equipment itself as well as in its contact with other equipment,
floors, walls or hanging supports.
In the design and construction of equipment it is important to avoid dead areas where food can
be trapped and bacterial growth takes place. Also dead ends (e.g. thermometer pockets, unused
pipe work, T-pieces) must be avoided, and any piece of equipment must be designed so that the
product flow is always following the "first in first out" principle
Cleanability of equipment involves a number of factors such as construction materials,
accessibility and design. The most common design faults which cause poor cleanability are
(Shapton and Shapton, 1991):
 poor accessibility - equipment should be sited at least 1 m from a wall, ceiling or the nearest
equipment
 inadequately rounded corners - minimum radius should be 1 cm, but 2 cm is regarded as
optimum by the American 3-A Sanitary Standards Committee (Hayes, 1992)
 sharp angles
 Dead ends - including poorly designed seals.

37
PERSONAL HYGIENE
1. High standards of personal hygiene should be maintained.
2. All employees handling food should wash their hands properly:
 before preparing food
 after touching raw food or materials, specially meat/poultry or eggs
 after breaks
 after using the toilet
 after cleaning the raw materials or utensils / equipments
3. Staff working with food must wear suitable clean clothes and where necessary, shall wear
head cover, apron, and musk mouth and use gloves etc.
4. Street shoes inside the food preparation area should not be worn while handling & preparing
food.
5. Food handlers should ensure careful food handling & protect food from environmental
exposure.
6. Food handlers should avoid following practices while handling food:
 Chewing or smoking tobacco
 Chewing betel nut or gums
 Touching mouth, tongue, nose, eyes or other body parts
 Spitting, sneezing, coughing, etc.
 Touching ready-to-eat food with bare hands
 Handling food and money at same time
 not to wear watches or jewellery while preparing food
7. All food handlers should be medically fit and free from diseases

EIGHT GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOOD HYGIENE- GHP

1. Primary production
2. Establishment Design and Facilities
3. Control of operations
4. Maintenance and sanitation
5. Personal Hygiene

38
6. Transportation
7. Product information and consumer awareness
8. Training

Congratulations. You have succesfully completed this lecture on Sanitary

measures: Food and environmental sampling, good agricultural practices (GAP), Good
hygiene practices (GHP), Good manufacturing practice (GMP), plant design, layout,
maintenance, food handling, reputable sources, food inspection, premises and equipment
cleansing, personal hygiene.

Answer the questions below

1. Highlight the difference between Good hygiene practices (GHP) and Good manufacturing practice
(GMP)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. Outline ways of ensuring standard personal hygiene

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

39
CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission) 2000. Proposed Draft. Code of Practice for Fish and
Fishery Products. Alinorm 01/18. Food and Agriculture Organization / World Health
Organization, Rome, Italy.

CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission) 2001. Food Hygiene Basic texts. 2nd ed. Food and
Agriculture Organization / World Health Organization, Rome, Italy.

Gould, W.A. 1994. Current Good Manufacturing Practices. Food Plant Sanitation 2nd ed. CTI
Publications Inc., Baltimore, MD, USA.

Imholte, T.J. 1984. Engeneering for Food Safety and Sanitation. Crystal, MINN: The Technical
Institute for Food Safety, Medfield, MA, USA.

Jouve, J.L. 1998. Principles of food safety legislation. Food Control 9, 75-81.

Lecture 6
Codex of alimentarius
Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Describe the codex of alimentarius
ii. Outline various functions of the codex of alimentarius

STATUTES OF THE CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION

The Codex Alimentarius Commission shall, subject to Article 5 below, be responsible for
making proposals to, and shall be consulted by, the Directors-General of the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) on all matters
pertaining to the implementation of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, the
purpose of which is:
(a) Protecting the health of the consumers and ensuring fair practices in the food trade;

40
(b) Promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental
and non-governmental organizations;
(c) Determining priorities and initiating and guiding the preparation of draft standards through
and with the aid of appropriate organizations;
(d) finalizing standards elaborated under (c) above and publishing them in a Codex Alimentarius
either as regional or worldwide standards, together with international standards already finalized
by other bodies under (b) above, wherever this is practicable;
(e) Amending published standards, as appropriate, in the light of developments.

Purpose of the Codex Alimentarius

1. The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of internationally adopted food standards and related
texts3 presented in a uniform manner. These food standards and related texts aim at protecting
consumers‘ health and ensuring fair practices in the food trade.
The publication of the Codex Alimentarius is intended to guide and promote the elaboration and
establishment of definitions and requirements for foods to assist in their harmonization and in
doing so to facilitate international trade.

Scope of the Codex Alimentarius

2. The Codex Alimentarius includes standards for all the principle foods, whether processed,
semi-processed or raw, for distribution to the consumer. Materials for further processing into
foods should be included to the extent necessary to achieve the purposes of the Codex
Alimentarius as defined. The Codex Alimentarius includes provisions in respect of food hygiene,
food additives, residues of pesticides and veterinary drugs, contaminants, labelling and
presentation, methods of analysis and sampling, and import and export inspection and
certification.

Nature of Codex Standards

3. Codex standards and related texts are not a substitute for, or alternative to national legislation.
Every country‘s laws and administrative procedures contain provisions with which it is essential
to comply.

41
4. Codex standards and related texts contain requirements for food aimed at ensuring for the
consumer a safe, wholesome food product free from adulteration, correctly labelled and
presented. A Codex standard for any food or foods should be drawn up in accordance with the
Format for Codex Commodity Standards and contain, as appropriate, the sections listed therein.

For the purposes of the Codex Alimentarius:

Food means any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for
human consumption, and includes drink, chewing gum and any substance which has been used in
the manufacture, preparation or treatment of ―food‖ but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or
substances used only as drugs.

Food Hygiene comprises conditions and measures necessary for the production, processing,
storage and distribution of food designed to ensure a safe, sound, wholesome product fit for
human consumption.

Food Additive means any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself and not normally
used as a typical ingredient of the food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional
addition of which to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the
manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such
food results, or may be reasonably expected to result, (directly or indirectly) in it or its by-
products becoming a component of or otherwise affecting the characteristics of such foods. The
term does not include ―contaminants‖ or substances added to food for maintaining or improving
nutritional qualities

Good Manufacturing Practice in the use of Food Additives means that:

 the quantity of the additive added to food does not exceed the amount reasonably
required to accomplish its intended physical nutritional or other technical effect in food;

 the quantity of the additive that becomes a component of food as a result of its use in the
manufacturing, processing or packaging of a food and which is not intended to

42
 accomplish any physical, or other technological effect in the food itself, is reduced to the
extent reasonably possible;

 The additive is of appropriate food grade quality and is prepared and handled in the same
way as a food ingredient. Food grade quality is achieved by compliance with the
specifications as a whole and not merely with individual criteria in terms of safety.

Processing Aid means any substance or material, not including apparatus or utensils, and not
consumed as a food ingredient by itself, intentionally used in the processing of raw materials,
foods or its ingredients, to fulfil a certain technological purpose during treatment or processing
and which may result in the non-intentional but unavoidable presence of residues or derivatives
in the final product.

Contaminant means any substance not intentionally added to food, which is present in such
food as a result of the production (including operations carried out in crop husbandry, animal
husbandry and veterinary medicine), manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing,
packaging, transport or holding of such food or as a result of environmental contamination. The
term does not include insect fragments, rodent hairs and other extraneous matter.
Activity 6.1
Describe Good Manufacturing Practice in the use of Food Additives
__________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Codex Maximum Level for a Contaminant in a Food or Feed Commodity is the maximum
concentration of that substance recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to be
legally permitted in that commodity.

Pesticide means any substance intended for preventing, destroying, attracting, repelling, or
controlling any pest including unwanted species of plants or animals during the production,
storage, transport, distribution and processing of food, agricultural commodities, or animal feeds

43
or which may be administered to animals for the control of ectoparasites. The term includes
substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, fruit thinning agent,
or sprouting inhibitor and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the
commodity from deterioration during storage and transport. The term normally excludes
fertilizers, plant and animal nutrients, food additives, and animal drugs.

Pesticide Residue means any specified substance in food, agricultural commodities, or animal
feed resulting from the use of a pesticide. The term includes any derivatives of a pesticide, such
as conversion products, metabolites, reaction products, and impurities considered to be of
toxicological significance.

Codex Maximum Limit for Pesticide Residues (MRL) is the maximum concentration of a
pesticide residue (expressed as mg/kg), recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to
be legally permitted in or on food commodities and animal feeds. MRLs are based on GAP data
and foods derived from commodities that comply with the respective MRLs are intended to be
toxicologically acceptable.
Codex MRLs, which are primarily intended to apply in international trade, are derived from
estimations made by the JMPR following:
(a) Toxicological assessment of the pesticide and its residue; and
(b) Review of residue data from supervised trials and supervised uses including those reflecting
national good agricultural practices.

You have come to the end of this lecture. We have learnt about the codex of
alimentarius.

1. state the definition of food for the purpose of alimentarius

44
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission) 2000. Proposed Draft. Code of Practice for Fish and
Fishery Products. Alinorm 01/18. Food and Agriculture Organization / World Health
Organization, Rome, Italy.

CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission) 2001. Food Hygiene Basic texts. 2nd ed. Food and
Agriculture Organization / World Health Organization, Rome, Italy.
EC (European Commission) 1980. Council Directive 80/778/EEC of 15 July 1980 relating to the
quality of water intended for human consumption. Official Journal of the European Communities
L 229, 30/08/1980 pp. 11-26.

Lecture 7
Food poisoning
Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Describe food poisoning
ii. Highlight the different types of food contamination
iii. Discuss the vehicles and route of bacterial contamination
iv. Discuss the various ways of preventing food poisoning

Food poisoning and food-borne diseases

45
 Food poisoning is an unpleasant illness which usually occurs within 1 to 36 hours of eating
contaminated or poisonous food. Symptoms normally last from 1 to 7 days and include one or
more of the following: abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting and nausea.
Food illness may be caused by:
1 bacteria or their toxins;
2 viruses:
3 chemicals such as insecticides and weed killers;
4 metals such as lead, copper and mercury;
5 Poisonous plants such as deadly nightshade and toadstools.
Bacterial food poisoning is by far the commonest and in some instances may result in death. A
large number of bacteria are usually involved and this requires them to multiply within the food.
How to control bacteria:
 Keep potentially hazardous food out of the Danger Zone.
 Keep food cold, at 4°C or colder.
 Keep food hot, at 60°C or hotter.
 Cook food to safe temperatures.
 Chill hot food quickly.
 Wash your hands.
 Clean and sanitize utensils, equipment and food preparation surfaces.

Food contamination
To prevent the consumption of unsound and unsafe food it is essential that contamination of
high-risk food is kept to a minimum. There are three types of contamination of high-risk food
1. Bacterial contamination - which usually occurs within food premises because of ignorance,
inadequate space, poor design or because of food handlers taking short cuts. Contamination of
this sort is the most serious and may result in food spoilage, food poisoning or even death.
2. Physical contamination - by foreign bodies which may be dangerous, for example glass
or nails, but is normally unpleasant and a nuisance,
3. Chemical contamination - from pesticides, waste or cleaning chemicals, Food should never be
stored near poisonous chemicals, and such chemicals should never be stored in empty food
containers.

46
 Sources of food poisoning bacteria
(1) The person: People commonly harbor food poisoning bacteria in the nose, mouth, and intestine
and also on the skin. Food may be contaminated directly by the hands, sneezing or coughing, or
indirectly by sewage contaminated water. The water used in food premises should be suitably
treated, for example by chlorination.
(2) Raw food: Raw food is particularly hazardous, especially red meat, poultry (up to 80% of frozen
birds may carry salmonella), untreated milk, eggs and shellfish such as oysters. Raw food
should always be kept separate from high-risk food. The liquid from defrosting foods,
especially frozen poultry, must not be allowed to contaminate wiping cloths, high-risk food
or equipment used for high-risk food
(3) Soil harbours harmful bacteria, and care must be taken when bringing vegetables into food
rooms
(4) Several insects may transmit food poisoning bacteria to food: Flies and cockroaches present the
greatest hazard because of their feeding habits and the sites which they visit. Flies often land on
animal faeces where they pick up large numbers of bacteria on their hairy bodies. In addition
they defecate and vomit previous meals back onto the food as they feed.
Careless use of insecticide may result in dead insects ending up in food
Cockroaches often live in sewers and commonly feed on infected waste. They hide in the most
inaccessible places in food rooms and may carry food poisoning organisms on their legs and
bodies to food and equipment on which they walk.
(5) Rodents: Both rats and mice commonly excrete organisms such as salmonellae. Contamination
of food may occur from droppings, urine, hairs and gnawing. Food-contact surfaces on which
rodents have walked must be disinfected before use. Food suspected of being contaminated by
rodents must be destroyed.
(6) Dust: There are always large numbers of bacteria in dust and floating about in the air.
Open food should always be covered when cleaning is carried out, especially dusting and
sweeping.
(7) Refuse and waste food: Waste and unfit food must not be allowed to accumulate in food rooms.
Care must be taken to avoid contamination of food from waste either directly or indirectly. Food

47
 operatives must wash their hands after handling refuse Refuse receptacles are a favourite
breeding place for flies and must always have tight-fitting lids which are replaced after use.
(8) Animal and birds: Both domestic and wild animals are known to carry harmful bacteria on their
bodies and in their intestines. Furthermore dirt can be transferred to food from their feet, and
hairs and feathers may end up in the food. Pets must always be kept out of food rooms Terrapins
are occasionally implicated in cases of food poisoning through contact with infected water. Other
incidents have occurred because of contamination of food by bird droppings.

Vehicles and routes of bacterial contamination

Sometimes- harmful bacteria pass directly from the source to high- risk food, but, as bacteria are
usually static and the sources may not be in direct contact with food, the bacteria rely on other
things to transfer them to food. These things are known as vehicles and the main ones are
1 hands:
2 cloths and equipment,
3 hand-contact surfaces,
4 food-contact surfaces
Indirect contamination using an intermediate vehicle is by far the commonest, for example the
passage of bacteria from the; intestine of a food handler to food via the hands, after using the
toilet. Where contamination is passed from raw food to high-risk, food via, for example a
worktop, this is known as cross-contamination. The path which bacteria use to transfer from the
source to the food is known as the route.
Activity 7.1
List the various sources of food poisoning bacteria in your community
________________________________________________________

Physical contamination
Foreign bodies found in food-may be brought into food premises with the raw materials or
introduced during storage, preparation, service or display. Although there are many different
types of foreign bodies, it is essential that managers are aware of those commonly found in their
particular sector of the food industry and that they exercise all due diligence to secure their
removal or prevent their introduction. Food handlers must observe all company rules and take

48
 appropriate precautions to ensure that they are not responsible for the contamination of food.
Foreign bodies which often result in food complaints include.
 Bolts, nuts, wire, staples and other pieces of metal often found after maintenance and
repair work; cardboard, string and polythene - often introduced from
packaging Rodent‘s hairs, insects, feathers and droppings. sweet papers and cigarette
ends; items from personnel such as earrings, fingernails, hair, buttons, soiled bandages
and plasters; glass; cleaning materials; mould; wood splinters, grease and oil: Flaking
paint or rust.
Contaminated raw materials must not be accepted by a food busies. Food must be so stored and
protected to minimize any risk of contamination. Hazardous and/or inedible substances must be
labeled and stored in secure containers. It is an offence to sell food which is unsafe or not of the
nature, substance or quality demanded by the purchaser.
The prevention of food poisoning
In most cases of food poisoning a chain of events takes place and if we are to reduce the
incidence of illness this chain must be broken
There are three ways of breaking the food poisoning chain
1. Protecting food from contamination
2. Preventing any bacteria within food from multiplying
3. Destroying those bacterial present within the food

Protecting food from contamination:

1. Keeping food covered wherever possible.
2. Not using unsuitable defective or dirty equipment.
3. Not using dirty wiping cloths. Disposable cloths are preferable.
4. Only handling food when unavoidable. Tongs, plates and trays should be used in preference to
hands.
5. separating raw and cooked food at all stages of preparation, storage and distribution, the
same equipment and working surface must not be used to handle raw and high-risk foods;
6. preventing insects, animals and birds from entering food room or coming into contact with food,
7. storing food in rodent-proof containers and ensuring that the lids are tightly replaced after use,

49
8. Maintaining the highest standards of personal hygiene at all times; all food handlers wearing
suitable protective clothing. not handling parts of crockery or cutlery that come into contact with
food, for example knife blades or inside glasses and cups; removing unfit or waste food and
refuse promptly and keeping them apart from high-risk food, keeping food and equipment off the
floor;
9. ensuring that the liquid from thawed frozen meat and poultry does not come into contact with
high-risk food or surfaces and equipment used for high-risk food; using the correct cleaning and
disinfection procedures; not using wash-hand basins for washing food or food equipment and not
using food sinks for hand washing; purchasing food from reputable sources.

Preventing any bacteria within food from multiplying by:

 Storing food out of the danger zone. Food should be kept below 5°C for example in a
refrigerator, or kept above 63°C.
 Ensuring that during preparation, food is within the danger zone for as short a time as possible.
High-risk food must not be left in the ambient temperatures for long
 using suitable preservatives such as salt and sugar;
 not allowing dried foods to absorb moisture

Destroying those bacteria within food by:

 through cooking;
 heat processing such as pasteurization, sterilization or canning
A combination of a suitable temperature and sufficient time is always required to destroy
bacteria. The time and the temperature required will depend on particular organism. For
example, spores of Clostridium perfringens are much more heat resistant than salmonella bac-
teria. Pasteurization of milk can be as low as 63°C for 30 minutes. Cooking temperatures of
75°C should normally be achieved at the centre of food to ensure safety.

50
 You have come to the end of lecture 7. In this lecture, we have discussed
about food poisoning. We have seen that there are various ways of food contamination
and ways of preventing food poisoning

1. Highlight the various methods that can be employed to destroy chlostridium perfringens.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

1. McLauchlin, J., Little, C., & Hobbs, B. C. (2007). Hobbs’ Food Poisoning and Food

Hygiene, Seventh Edition. CRC Press.

2. Trickett, J. (2001). The Prevention of Food Poisoning. Nelson Thornes.

Lecture 8
Investigations of outbreaks and management
Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Discuss the outbreak investigation procedures
ii. List the stakeholders involved in the process
51
Outbreak investigation and management
A suspected outbreak may be identified by a healthcare worker, by laboratory personnel, or by
state/territory health authorities conducting routine surveillance or investigating reports of illness
and from reportable disease notifications. When an outbreak is detected, the healthcare facility‘s
infection control management system should be notified and an outbreak control team formed
relevant to the size and seriousness of the outbreak and the healthcare facility involved. There
may also be a requirement to notify the state/territory public health unit.
The responsibility for investigation and the extent of investigations will vary according to the
outbreak type and circumstances. It is important to investigate an outbreak immediately, as the
availability and quality of microbiological evidence and epidemiological data diminishes rapidly
with time between illness and investigation.
An outbreak management plan should be developed based on local policy and consultation
between the infection control professional, healthcare workers, patients, facility management and
state/territory health authorities as appropriate. Such a plan is multifactorial and its
implementation is typically overseen by a person with designated responsibility for infection
control, such as an infection control professional, clinical microbiologist or infectious diseases
physician.
Table A outlines the process of outbreak investigation and corresponding management.

Table A: Steps in an outbreak investigation

Steps Suggested approach Responsibilities
(dependent on
facility and type of
outbreak)
Step 1. Recognize outbreak and prepare to investigate
Determine existence of  Establish background rate of disease  Healthcare
the outbreak  Consider if observed number of cases is workers
in excess of the usual number and cases  Laboratory
are typical personnel
 Examine surveillance data

52
Determine if immediate  Reinforce standard precautions  Healthcare
control measures are  Apply appropriate transmission-based workers — as
needed Precautions soon as outbreak is
suspected
Notify and communicate  Healthcare workers and ancillary staff in  Healthcare
immediate area workers — as
 Infection control professional soon as outbreak is
 Executive suspected
 Laboratory  Laboratory
 Public health unit (if notifiable disease or personnel (e.g.
required pursuant to public health routine screening
legislation) can identify
outbreak) — as
soon as outbreak is
suspected
Formation of an outbreak Membership may include but is not limited  Management — as
investigation/management to: soon as notified
team (OMT) – this will  Administrators (medical and nursing)
vary according to  Managers of implicated areas
location/resources, made  Infection control professional or
up of one or more people designated
with designated  person with infection control experience
responsibility  Clinical Microbiologist
 Infectious diseases
 physician/epidemiologist/statistician
 Lead investigator or ‗chair‘ nominated
 Others as defined by circumstances
Step 2. Verify the diagnosis and confirm that an outbreak exists
Confirm that there are  Confirm clinical diagnoses (symptoms  Laboratory
more than expected and features of illness) personnel to report
number of cases meeting  Review laboratory data and request results
the surveillance case additional laboratory tests if necessary,  Clinicians to
e.g. molecular typing of organisms to verify clinical
definition of the disease
confirm clonality diagnosis
of interest in the period
under review
Consider likely outbreak  Are there more cases than expected  OMT
definition and whether compared to previous weeks / months? representatives
criteria are met  Review scientific literature  (clinical
 Consider epidemiology of cases - are microbiologist,
there two or more linked cases of the senior clinicians)

53
 same illness?
Step 3. Establish case definition and find cases
Establish a set of standard  Case definition should be based on:  OMT
criteria to decide whether  Clinical information about the disease representatives
or not a person has the  Characteristics of the people who are (clinical
disease of concern. affected microbiologist,
 Information about the location senior clinicians)
 Specification of time period for the
outbreak
 Case definition can be refined later after
collection of primary data
 Cases can be classified as ‗Confirmed’
(usually laboratory verification);
‗Probable‘ (usually has typical clinical
features); ‗Suspect’ (usually has fewer
typical clinical features)
Find cases  Gather critical information by:  Healthcare
 Interview workers
 Follow-up of disease notification  OMT
 Health alerts representatives
 Healthcare facility
management
Identify and count cases  Collect the following types of  OMT
information representative
 Identifying information
 Demographic information
 Clinical information
 Risk factor information (including
environmental tests)
Tabulate this information  Time – date of onset of illness  OMT
in a line list that is  Person – age, sex representative
updated as new cases  Place – where did the exposure occur?
appear  Other relevant information

Step 4. Characterize outbreak by person, place, and time

Review descriptive  Person: sex, age, occupation, residence  OMT
epidemiology of all cases  Place: information that provides representative
information on possible source of agent
and nature of exposure
 Time: date and time of onset; record
relevant events in a timeline
Create epidemic curve to  Number of cases on y-axis  OMT
determine hypotheses  Time on x-axis representative

54
Step 5. Determine who is at risk
Identify groups at risk  Number of people ill  OMT
 Time and place of onset representative
 Personal characteristics
Initiate precautionary  Use of standard precautions and  Healthcare
measures appropriate transmission-based workers
precautions  Infection control
 Increase frequency and efficiency of  professional
environmental cleaning using
appropriate products;
 Prophylactic treatment/immunization
 Antibiotic restrictions
 Exclusion of cases from high risk
activities
 Isolation and/or cohorting of patients
 Restricting movement of patients, staff
and visitors
 Screening of patients with isolation of
patients and
 cohorting of contacts;
 Provision of health information and
advice
Step 6. Develop hypothesis – the „how‟ and „why‟
Develop hypotheses from  Data collected by interview  OMT
the factual information  Common links representative
gathered to date on  Plausible exposures
potential source, vector,  Environmental test results where
pathogen, route of appropriate
 Review literature
transmission

Step 7. Test hypothesis with established facts

Perform epidemiologic  Cohort  OMT
study  Case-control representative

Analyze the data  Compare risk factors among ill (cases)  OMT
vs. not ill (controls) representative or
 Attack rates outsourced to
 Relative risk consultant with
knowledge of
statistical methods
Step 8. Carry out further studies if necessary

To support the hypothesis  Further study to refine case  OMT

definition
55
or If analytic studies do  May involve testing of
not confirm the environmental samples, food
hypothesis samples or environmental screening
in some situations (e.g. Legionella,
Pseudomonas)
Step 9. Implement ongoing control / prevention measures
(This can be done at any time during the outbreak as deemed necessary).
Review measures initiated  Are infection control measures adequate  Healthcare
for immediate control to reduce risk of transmission? workers
(Step  OMT
1 and Step 5)  Healthcare facility
management
Implement appropriate  Restrict spread from the case  Healthcare
ongoing control measures  Interrupt chain of infection workers
and  Interrupt transmission or reduce  OMT
strategies to prevent exposure  Healthcare facility
further illness  Reduce susceptibility to infection management
 Assessment of policy, regulations,
standards
Communicate and  Electronic flagging of medical records of  OMT
coordinate with all contacts;  Infection control
stakeholders  Reinforcement of infection control professional
precautions to staff, patients and visitors  Healthcare
workers
Make plans to evaluate  Document type and time of  Healthcare
their effectiveness implementation of infection control workers
measures  OMT
 Monitor factors contributing or affected  Infection control
by outbreak and any associated changes professional

Step 10. Communicate findings

Prepare written report that  Include discussion of factors leading to  OMT
evaluates methods used outbreak comprehensive timelines,  Healthcare facility
for the control of the summary of investigation  management
outbreak  and documented actions
 Short and long term recommendations
for
 prevention of similar outbreak
 Disseminate to appropriate stakeholders
including
 Publication

56
 Activity 8.1
Describe the processes which are supposed to be undertaken during a
cholera outbreak in your village
________________________________________________________

Congratulations. You are now done with lecture 8. We have briefly discussed the
Investigations of outbreaks, management and the relevant stakeholders involved in the
process.

What is the primary function of the outbreak management team?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Arias, K. M. (2010). Outbreak Investigation, Prevention, and Control in Health

Care Settings: Critical Issues in Patient Safety. Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Koepsell, T. D., & Weiss, N. S. (2014). Epidemiologic Methods: Studying the Occurrence of

Illness. Oxford University Press.

Norman, N. (2006). Controlling Communicable Disease. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).

Lecture 9
Health education
Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you 57

should be able to:
i. Explain the concept of Health.
ii. Define Health Education.
Introduction to Health Education
Before discussing about health education, it is imperative to conceptualize what health itself
means. Health is a highly subjective concept. Good health means different things to different
people, and its meaning varies according to individual and community expectations and context.
Many people consider themselves healthy if they are free of disease or disability. However,
people who have a disease or disability may also see themselves as being in good health if they
are able to manage their condition so that it does not impact greatly on their quality of life.
WHO defined health as ―a state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not the
mere absence of disease or infirmity.‖
Physical health – refers to anatomical integrity and physiological functioning of the body. To
say a person is physically healthy:
• All the body parts should be there.
• All of them are in their natural place and position.
• None of them has any pathology.
• All of them are doing their physiological functions properly.
• And they work with each other harmoniously.
Mental health - ability to learn and think clearly. A person with good mental health is able to
handle day-to-day events and obstacles, work towards important goals, and function effectively
in society.
Social health – ability to make and maintain acceptable interactions with other people. E.g. To
feel sad when somebody close to you passes away. The absence of health is denoted by such
terms as disease, illness and sickness, which usually mean the same thing though social scientists
give them different meaning to each.

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Disease is the existence of some pathology or abnormality of the body, which is capable of
detection using, accepted investigation methods.
Illness is the subjective state of a person who feels aware of not being well.
Sickness is a state of social dysfunction: a role that an individual assumes when ill

Health Education
Historical development
While the history of health education as an emerging profession is only a little over one hundred
years old, the concept of educating about health has been around since the dawn of humans. It
does not stretch the imagination too far to begin to see how health education first took place
during pre-historic era. Someone may have eaten a particular plant or herb and become ill. That
person would then warn (educate) others against eating the same substance. Conversely,
someone may have ingested a plant or herb that produced a desired effect. That person would
then encourage (educate) others to use this substance.
At the time of Alma Ata declaration of Primary Health Care in 1978, health education was put as
one of the components of PHC and it was recognized as a fundamental tool to the attainment of
health for all. Adopting this declaration, Kenya utilizes health education as a primary means of
prevention of diseases and promotion of health. In view of this, the national health policy and
Health Sector Development Program of Ethiopia have identified health education as a major
component of program services.
Definition
Health education has been defined in many ways by different authors and experts. Lawrence
Green defined it as ―a combination of learning experiences designed to facilitate voluntary
actions conducive to health.‖
The terms “combination, designed, facilitate and voluntary action” have significant
implications in this definition.
Combination: emphasizes the importance of matching the multiple determinants of behavior
with multiple learning experiences or educational interventions.
Designed: distinguishes health education from incidental learning experiences as systematically
planned activity.
Facilitate means create favorable conditions for action.

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Voluntary action means behavioral measures are undertaken by an individual, group or
community to achieve an intended health effect without the use of force, i.e., with full
understanding and acceptance of purposes.
Most people use the term health education and health promotion interchangeably. However,
health promotion is defined as a combination of educational and environmental supports for
actions and conditions of living conducive to health.
Various terms used for communication and health education activities
Information, Education and Communication (IEC) is a term originally from family planning
and more recently HIV/AIDS control program in developing countries. It is increasingly being
used as a general term for communication activities to promote health.
• Information: A collection of useful briefs or detailed ideas, processes, data and theories that
can be used for a certain period of time.
• Education: A complex and planned learning experiences that aims to bring about changes in
cognitive (knowledge), affective (attitude, belief, value) and psychomotor (skill) domains of
behavior.
• Communication: the process of sharing ideas, information, knowledge, and experience among
people using different channels.
Social mobilization is a term used to describe a campaign approach combining mass media and
working with community groups and organizations.
Health extension is an approach of promoting change through demonstration, working with
opinion leaders and community based educational activities.
Nutrition education is education directed at the promotion of nutrition and covers choice of
food, food-preparation and storage of food.
Family Life Education refers to education of young people in a range of topics that include
family planning, child rearing and childcare and responsible parenthood.
Patient education is a term for education in hospital and clinic settings linked to following of
treatment procedures, medication, and home care and rehabilitation procedures.
Behavior Change Communication (BCC): Is an interactive process aimed at changing
individual and social behavior, using targeted, specific messages and different communication
approaches, which are linked to services for effective outcomes.

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Advocacy: refers to communication strategies focusing on policy makers, community leaders
and opinion leaders to gain commitment and support. It is an appeal for a higher-level
commitment, involvement and participation in fulfilling a set program agenda.

Activity 9.1
List health education settings found in your locality
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Aims and principles of health education
Aims
• Motivating people to adopt health-promoting behaviors by providing appropriate knowledge
and helping to develop positive attitude.
• Helping people to make decisions about their health and acquire the necessary confidence and
skills to put their decisions into practice.
Basic Principles
• All health education should be need based. Therefore before involving any individual, group or
the community in health education with a particular purpose or for a program the need should be
ascertained. It has to be also specific and relevant to the problems and available solutions.
• Health education aims at change of behavior. Therefore multidisciplinary approach is necessary
for understanding of human behavior as well as for effective teaching process.
• It is necessary to have a free flow of communication. The two way communication is
particularly of importance in health education to help in getting proper feedback and get doubt
cleared.
• The health educator has to adjust his talk and action to suit the group for whom he has to give
health education. E.g. when the health educator has to deal with illiterates and poor people, he
has to get down to their level of conversation and human relationships so as to reduce any social
distance.
• Health Education should provide an opportunity for the clients to go through the stages of
identification of problems, planning, implementation and evaluation. This is of special
importance in the health education of the community where the identification of problems and

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planning, implementing and evaluating are to be done with full involvement of the community to
make it the community‘s own program.
• Health Education is based on scientific findings and current knowledge. Therefore a health
educator should have recent scientific knowledge to provide health education.
• The health educators have to make themselves acceptable. They should realize that they are
enablers and not teachers. They have to win the confidence of clients The health educators
should not only have correct information with them on all matters that they have to discuss but
also should themselves practice what they profess. Otherwise, they will not enjoy credibility.
• It must be remembered that people are not absolutely without any information or ideas. The
health educators are not merely passing information but also give an opportunity for the clients
to analyze fresh ideas with old ideas, compare with past experience and take decisions that are
found favorable and beneficial.
• The grave danger with health education programs is the pumping of all bulk of information in
one exposure or enthusiasm to give all possible information. Since it is essentially a learning
process, the process of education should be done step-by-step and with due attention to the
different principles of communication.
• The health educator should use terms that can be immediately understood. Highly scientific
jargon should be avoided.
• Health Education should start from the existing indigenous knowledge and efforts should aim
at small changes in a graded fashion and not be too ambitious. People will learn step by step and
not everything together. For every change of behavior, a personal trail is required and therefore
the health education should provide opportunities for trying out changed practices.
Approaches to health education
• The persuasion approach –deliberate attempt to influence the other persons to do what we
want them to do (DIRECTIVE APPROACH)
• The informed decision making approach-giving people information, problem solving and
decision making skills to make decisions but leaving the actual choice to the people.
E.g. family planning methods
Many health educators feel that instead of using persuasion it is better to work with communities
to develop their problem solving skills and provide the information to help them make informed
choices.

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However in situations where there is serious threat such as an epidemic, and the actions needed
are clear cut, it might be considered justified to persuade people to adopt specific behavior
changes.
Targets for health education
• Individuals such as clients of services, patients, healthy individuals
• Groups E.g. groups of students in a class, youth club
• Community E.g. people living in a village
Health education settings
When considering the range of health education interventions, they are usually described in
relation to different settings. Settings are used because interventions need to be planned in the
light of the resources and organizational structures peculiar to each. Thus, health education and
promotion takes place, amongst other locations, in:
• Communities, Health care facilities, Work sites, Schools, Prisons, Refugee camps …etc
Who is responsible for health education?
Health education is the duty of everyone engaged in health and community development
activities. Health Extension Workers are primarily responsible in working with the families and
community at a grass root level to promote health and prevent disease through provision of
health education. If health and other workers are not practicing health education in their daily
work, they are not doing their job correctly. When treating someone with skin infection or
malaria, a health worker should also educate the patient about the cause of the illness and teach
preventive skills. Drugs alone will not solve the problems. Without Health Education, the patient
may fall sick again from the same disease. Health workers must also realize that their own
personal example serves to educate others.
Role of health educator
• Talking to the people and listening of their problems
• Thinking of the behavior or action that could cause, cure and prevent these problems.
• Finding reasons for people‘s behaviors
• Helping people to see the reasons for their actions and health problems.
• Asking people to give their own ideas for solving the problems.
• Helping people to look as their ideas so that they could see which were the most useful and the
simplest to put into practice.

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 You have come to the end of another lecture where we discussed about health education,
historical development of health education, objectives of Health Education and basic principles of
Health Education

1. Define health and health education?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Explain why voluntary actions are so important in health education programs.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

John Hubley (2002). Communicating Health, An action guide Health Education

and Health promotion.

World Health Organization (1988). Education for Health. A manual on Health Education in
Primary Health Care, Geneva, WHO.
Jannie N., Jane W (1995). Health Promotion Foundations for Practice, 2nd edition, UK.
Lecture 10
HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points)
Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Outline the guidelines for application of the HACCP system
ii. Describe hazard analysis and critical control
64 (HACCP) system

iii. Describe the principles of the HACCP system

HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP) SYSTEM AND
GUIDELINES FOR ITS APPLICATION

Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 3 (1997)

The HACCP system, which is science based and systematic, identifies specific hazards and
measures for their control to ensure the safety of food. HACCP is a tool to assess hazards and
establish control systems that focus on prevention rather than relying mainly on end-product
testing. Any HACCP system is capable of accommodating change, such as advances in
equipment design, processing procedures or technological developments.
HACCP can be applied throughout the food chain from primary production to final consumption
and its implementation should be guided by scientific evidence of risks to human health. As well
as enhancing food safety, implementation of HACCP can provide other significant benefits. In
addition, the application of HACCP systems can aid inspection by regulatory authorities and
promote international trade by increasing confidence in food safety.
The successful application of HACCP requires the full commitment and involvement of
management and the work force. It also requires a multidisciplinary approach; this
multidisciplinary approach should include, when appropriate, expertise in agronomy, veterinary
health, production, microbiology, medicine, public health, food technology, environmental
health, chemistry and engineering, according to the particular study. The application of HACCP
is compatible with the implementation of quality management systems, such as the ISO 9000
series, and is the system of choice in the management of food safety within such systems.
While the application of HACCP to food safety was considered here, the concept can be applied
to other aspects of food quality.
DEFINITIONS
Control (verb): To take all necessary actions to ensure and maintain compliance with criteria
established in the HACCP plan.
Control (noun): The state wherein correct procedures are being followed and criteria are being
met.

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Control measure: Any action and activity that can be used to prevent or eliminate a food safety
hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
Corrective action: Any action to be taken when the results of monitoring at the CCP indicate a
loss of control.
Critical Control Point (CCP): A step at which control can be applied and is essential to prevent
or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
Critical limit: A criterion which separates acceptability from unacceptability.
Deviation: Failure to meet a critical limit.
Flow diagram: A systematic representation of the sequence of steps or operations used in the
production or manufacture of a particular food item.
HACCP: A system which identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards which are significant for
food safety.
HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure
control of hazards which are significant for food safety in the segment of the food chain under
consideration.
Hazard: A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to
cause an adverse health effect.
Hazard analysis: The process of collecting and evaluating information on hazards and
conditions leading to their presence to decide which are significant for food safety and therefore
should be addressed in the HACCP plan.
Monitor: The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of control
parameters to assess whether a CCP is under control.
Step: A point, procedure, operation or stage in the food chain including raw materials, from
primary production to final consumption.
Validation: Obtaining evidence that the elements of the HACCP plan are effective.
Verification: The application of methods, procedures, tests and other evaluations, in addition to
monitoring to determine compliance with the HACCP plan.
PRINCIPLES OF THE HACCP SYSTEM
The HACCP system consists of the following seven principles:
PRINCIPLE 1
Conduct a hazard analysis.

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PRINCIPLE 2
Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs).
PRINCIPLE 3
Establish critical limit(s).
PRINCIPLE 4
Establish a system to monitor control of the CCP.
PRINCIPLE 5
Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring indicates that a particular CCP is not
under control.
PRINCIPLE 6
Establish procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP system is working effectively.
PRINCIPLE 7
Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these principles
and their application.

GUIDELINES FOR THE APPLICATION OF THE HACCP SYSTEM

Prior to application of HACCP to any sector of the food chain, that sector should be operating
according to the Codex General Principles of Food Hygiene, the appropriate Codex Codes of
Practice, and appropriate food safety legislation. Management commitment is necessary for
implementation of an effective HACCP system. During hazard identification, evaluation, and
subsequent operations in designing and applying HACCP systems, consideration must be given
to the impact of raw materials, ingredients, food manufacturing practices, role of manufacturing
processes to control hazards, likely end-use of the product, categories of consumers of concern,
and epidemiological evidence relative to food safety.
The intent of the HACCP system is to focus control at CCPs. Redesign of the operation should
be considered if a hazard which must be controlled is identified but no CCPs are found.
HACCP should be applied to each specific operation separately. CCPs identified in any given
example in any Codex Code of Hygienic Practice might not be the only ones identified for a
specific application or might be of a different nature.
The HACCP application should be reviewed and necessary changes made when any
modification is made in the product, process, or any step.

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It is important when applying HACCP to be flexible where appropriate, given the context of the
application taking into account the nature and the size of the operation.

APPLICATION
The application of HACCP principles consists of the following tasks as identified in the Logic
Sequence for Application of HACCP (Diagram 1).
1. Assemble HACCP team
The food operation should assure that the appropriate product specific knowledge and expertise
is available for the development of an effective HACCP plan. Optimally, this may be
accomplished by assembling a multidisciplinary team. Where such expertise is not available on
site, expert advice should be obtained from other sources. The scope of the HACCP plan should
be identified. The scope should describe which segment of the food chain is involved and the
general classes of hazards to be addressed (e.g. does it cover all classes of hazards or only
selected classes).

2. Describe product
A full description of the product should be drawn up, including relevant safety information such
as: composition, physical/chemical structure (including Aw, pH, etc.), microcidal/static
treatments (heat-treatment, freezing, brining, smoking, etc.), packaging, durability and storage
conditions and method of distribution.
3. Identify intended use
The intended use should be based on the expected uses of the product by the end user or
consumer. In specific cases, vulnerable groups of the population, e.g. institutional feeding, may
have to be considered.
4. Construct flow diagram
The flow diagram should be constructed by the HACCP team. The flow diagram should cover all
steps in the operation. When applying HACCP to a given operation, consideration should be
given to steps preceding and following the specified operation.
5. On-site confirmation of flow diagram
The HACCP team should confirm the processing operation against the flow diagram during all
stages and hours of operation and amend the flow diagram where appropriate.

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6. List all potential hazards associated with each step, conduct a hazard analysis, and consider
any measures to control identified hazards
(SEE PRINCIPLE 1)
The HACCP team should list all of the hazards that may be reasonably expected to occur at each
step from primary production, processing, manufacture, and distribution until the point of
consumption.
The HACCP team should next conduct a hazard analysis to identify for the HACCP plan which
hazards are of such a nature that their elimination or reduction to acceptable levels is essential to
the production of a safe food.
In conducting the hazard analysis, wherever possible the following should be included:
 the likely occurrence of hazards and severity of their adverse health effects;
 the qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the presence of hazards;
 survival or multiplication of microorganisms of concern;
 production or persistence in foods of toxins, chemicals or physical agents; and,
 Conditions leading to the above.
The HACCP team must then consider what control measures, if any, exist which can be applied
for each hazard.
More than one control measure may be required to control a specific hazard(s) and more than
one hazard may be controlled by a specified control measure.
7. Determine Critical Control Points
(SEE PRINCIPLE 2)
There may be more than one CCP at which control is applied to address the same hazard. The
determination of a CCP in the HACCP system can be facilitated by the application of a decision
tree (e.g. Diagram 2), which indicates a logic reasoning approach. Application of a decision tree
should be flexible, given whether the operation is for production, slaughter, processing, storage,
distribution or other. It should be used for guidance when determining CCPs. This example of a
decision tree may not be applicable to all situations. Other approaches may be used. Training in
the application of the decision tree is recommended.
If a hazard has been identified at a step where control is necessary for safety, and no control
measure exists at that step, or any other, then the product or process should be modified at that
step, or at any earlier or later stage, to include a control measure.

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8. Establish critical limits for each CCP
(SEE PRINCIPLE 3)
Critical limits must be specified and validated if possible for each Critical Control Point. In some
cases more than one critical limit will be elaborated at a particular step. Criteria often used
include measurements of temperature, time, moisture level, pH, Aw, available chlorine, and
sensory parameters such as visual appearance and texture.
9. Establish a monitoring system for each CCP
(SEE PRINCIPLE 4)
Monitoring is the scheduled measurement or observation of a CCP relative to its critical limits.
The monitoring procedures must be able to detect loss of control at the CCP. Further, monitoring
should ideally provide this information in time to make adjustments to ensure control of the
process to prevent violating the critical limits. Where possible, process adjustments should be
made when monitoring results indicate a trend towards loss of control at a CCP. The adjustments
should be taken before a deviation occurs. Data derived from monitoring must be evaluated by a
designated person with knowledge and authority to carry out corrective actions when indicated.
If monitoring is not continuous, then the amount or frequency of monitoring must be sufficient to
guarantee the CCP is in control. Most monitoring procedures for CCPs will need to be done
rapidly because they relate to on-line processes and there will not be time for lengthy analytical
testing. Physical and chemical measurements are often preferred to microbiological testing
because they may be done rapidly and can often indicate the microbiological control of the
product. All records and documents associated with monitoring CCPs must be signed by the
person(s) doing the monitoring and by a responsible reviewing official(s) of the company.
10. Establish corrective actions
(SEE PRINCIPLE 5)
Specific corrective actions must be developed for each CCP in the HACCP system in order to
deal with deviations when they occur.
The actions must ensure that the CCP has been brought under control. Actions taken must also
include proper disposition of the affected product. Deviation and product disposition procedures
must be documented in the HACCP record keeping.
11. Establish verification procedures
(SEE PRINCIPLE 6)

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Establish procedures for verification. Verification and auditing methods, procedures and tests,
including random sampling and analysis, can be used to determine if the HACCP system is
working correctly. The frequency of verification should be sufficient to confirm that the HACCP
system is working effectively. Examples of verification activities include:
 Review of the HACCP system and its records;
 Review of deviations and product dispositions;
 Confirmation that CCPs are kept under control.
Where possible, validation activities should include actions to confirm the efficacy of all
elements of the HACCP plan.
12. Establish Documentation and Record Keeping
(SEE PRINCIPLE 7)
Efficient and accurate record keeping is essential to the application of a HACCP system.
HACCP procedures should be documented. Documentation and record keeping should be
appropriate to the nature and size of the operation.
Documentation examples are:
 Hazard analysis;
 CCP determination;
 Critical limit determination.
Record examples are:
 CCP monitoring activities;
 Deviations and associated corrective actions;
 Modifications to the HACCP system.
An example of a HACCP worksheet is attached as Diagram 3.
TRAINING
Training of personnel in industry, government and academia in HACCP principles and
applications, and increasing awareness of consumers are essential elements for the effective
implementation of HACCP. As an aid in developing specific training to support a HACCP plan,
working instructions and procedures should be developed which define the tasks of the operating
personnel to be stationed at each Critical Control Point.
Cooperation between primary producer, industry, trade groups, consumer organizations, and
responsible authorities is of vital importance. Opportunities should be provided for the joint

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training of industry and control authorities to encourage and maintain a continuous dialogue and
create a climate of understanding in the practical application of HACCP.
DIAGRAM 3. EXAMPLE OF A HACCP WORKSHEET

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 Activity 10.1
Discuss the principles of the HACCP system
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

DIAGRAM 1. LOGIC SEQUENCE FOR THE APPLICATION OF HACCP

73
DIAGRAM 2. EXAMPLE OF DECISION TREE TO IDENTIFY CCPS (answer questions
in sequence)

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 Congratulations. You have completed lecture 10. In this lecture, we discussed
HACCP system and guidelines for its application

1. Discuss critical control point according to HACCP definition

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. Discuss the application of HACCP principles using the identified logic sequence
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission) 2000. Proposed Draft. Code of Practice for Fish and
Fishery Products. Alinorm 01/18. Food and Agriculture Organization / World Health
Organization, Rome, Italy.
CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission) 2001. Food Hygiene Basic texts. 2nd ed. Food and
Agriculture Organization / World Health Organization, Rome, Italy.
Corlett, D. A. (1998). HACCP User’s Manual. Springer Science & Business Media.
Mortimore, S. E., Wallace, C., & Cassianos, C. (2008). HACCP. John Wiley & Sons.
Mortimore, S., & Wallace, C. (2013). HACCP: A Practical Approach. Springer Science &
Business Media.

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 Lecture 11
Relevant food laws legislations

Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. Describe the kenya food drugs and chemical substance act
ii. Outline the malaysian food act of 1983

FOOD, DRUGS AND CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES ACT

An Act of Parliament to make provision for the prevention of adulteration of food, drugs
and chemical substances and for matters incidental thereto and connected therewith
[Act No. 8 of 1965, L.N. 41/1970, L.N. 72/1977, Act No. 20 of 1989, Act No. 2 of 2002.]

PART I – PRELIMINARY
1. Short title
This Act may be cited as the Food, Drugs and Chemical Substances Act.
2. Interpretation
In this Act, except where the context otherwise requires—
“advertisement” includes any representation by any means whatsoever for the purpose of
promoting directly or indirectly the sale or disposal of any food, drug, cosmetic, device or
chemical substance;“article” includes—
(a) Any food, drug, cosmetic, device or chemical substance and any labeling or advertising
materials in respect thereof;
(b) Anything used for the preparation, preservation, packing or storing of any food, drug,
cosmetic, device or chemical substance;
“authorized officer” means a medical officer of health, a public health officer or any suitably
qualified person authorized in writing by a municipal council for the purposes of this Act, and—

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(a) For the purpose of any provision of this Act relating to the taking of samples, includes a
police officer of or above the rank of sub inspector;
(b) For the purpose of section 29, includes a Veterinary Surgeon registered or licensed under the
Veterinary Surgeons Act (Cap.366);
(c) For the purpose of any proceedings under section 35 of this Act, includes the clerk of a
municipal council;
“Board” means the Public Health (Standards) Board established by section27;
“Drug” includes—
(a) Any substance included in any publication mentioned in the Schedule; and
(b) Any substance or mixture of substances prepared, sold or represented for use in—
(i) The diagnosis, treatment, mitigation or prevention of a disease, disorder or abnormal
physical state, or the symptoms thereof, in man or animal; or
(ii) Restoring, correcting or modifying organic functions in man or animal;
“Food” includes any article manufactured, sold or represented for use as food or drink for
human consumption, chewing gum, and any ingredient of such food, drink or chewing gum;
“Insanitary conditions” means such conditions or circumstances as might contaminate food, a
drug or a cosmetic with dirt or filth or might render the same injurious or dangerous to health;
“Label” includes any legend, work or mark attached to, included in, belonging to or
accompanying any food, drug, cosmetic, device or chemical substance;
“Medical officer of health” means a person appointed as a medical officer of health in
accordance with the Public Health Act (Cap. 242), and includes a deputy medical officer of
health and an assistant medical officer of health so appointed;
“Package” includes anything in which any food, drug, cosmetic, device or chemical substance is
wholly or partly placed or packed;
“Premises” includes any building or tent together with the land on which the same is situated
and any adjoining land used in connection therewith, and includes any vehicle, conveyance or
vessel;
“Preparation” includes manufactured and any form of treatment, and
“Prepared” shall be construed accordingly;
“Public analyst” means a person appointed by the Minister, or by a municipal council with the
approval of the Minister, to act as an analyst for the purposes of this Act:

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Provided that no person shall be appointed a public analyst for any area in which he is engaged
directly in any trade or business connected with the sale of food, drugs, cosmetics, devices or
chemical substances;
“Public health officer” means any person for the time being lawfully appointed as such by the
Minister or by a municipal council to be a public health officer;
“sell” includes offer, advertise, keep, expose, transmit, convey, deliver or prepare for sale or
exchange, dispose of for any consideration whatsoever, or transmit, convey or deliver in
pursuance of a sale, exchange or disposal as aforesaid;
“Ship” includes any boat or craft;
“Substance” includes liquid. [L.N. 41/1970, L.N. 72/1977.]

PART II – GENERAL PROVISIONS

A – Food
3. Prohibition against sale of unwholesome, poisonous or adulterated food
Any person who sells any food that—
(a) Has in or upon it any poisonous or harmful substance; or
(b) is unwholesome or unfit for human consumption; or
(c) consists in whole or in part of any filthy, putrid, disgusting, rotten, decomposed or diseased
substance or foreign matter; or
(d) Is adulterated, shall be guilty of an offence.
4. Deception
Any person who labels, packages, treats, processes, sells or advertises any food in contravention
of any regulations made under this Act, or in a manner that is false, misleading or deceptive as
regards its character, nature, value, substance, quality, composition, merit or safety, shall be
guilty of an offence.
5. Standards of foods
Where a standard has been prescribed for any food, any person who labels, packages, sells or
advertises any food which does not comply with that standard, in such a manner that it is likely
to be mistaken for food of the prescribed standard, shall be guilty of an offence.
6. Prohibition against sale of food not of nature, substance or quality demanded

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Any person who sells to the prejudice of the purchaser any food which is not of the nature, or is
not of the substance, or is not of the quality, of the article demanded by the purchaser shall be
guilty of an offence.
7. Preparation of food under insanitary conditions
Any person who sells, prepares, packages, conveys, stores or displays for sale any food under
insanitary conditions shall be guilty of an offence.
26. Preparation of chemical substances under insanitary conditions
Any person who sells, prepares, preserves, packages, stores or conveys for sale any chemical
substance under insanitary conditions shall be guilty of an offence.
29. Inspection of animals by authorized officers
An authorized officer may, for the purposes of this Act, inspect any animal intended for
slaughter and may seize and examine any meat which he considers to be unfit for consumption

Food Act 1983

An Act to protect the public against health hazards and fraud in the preparation, sale and use of
food, and for matters incidental thereto or connected therewith.
To prevent food poisoning we must identify the risk of contamination. It can come from 3
sources - Biological, Chemical and Physical.
The human error is one of the most common factor contributed to the food contamination.
Therefore the individual personal hygiene practice together with the team work that are
discipline to maintain the hygiene standard all the time is very critical.
Food premise means premises used for or in connection with the
reparation,preservation,packaging,storage,conveyance,distribution or sale of any food, or the
relabelling, reprocessing or reconditioning of any food. (Malaysian Food Act 1983(Act 281) &
regulations)
Enforcement activity: Food Premises Inspection :
 premises are rated based on a standard format
 unhygienic premises are closed based on provision in the Food Act 1983

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 Activity 11.1
What is the major role of the food act of 1983 as discussed above?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Congratulations. You have completed lecture 10. In this lecture, we have

discussed on food, drugs and substance act and malaysian food act 1983.

Explain the various roles of the food, drugs and substance at in relation to food.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Tyler, V. M., & Richter, R. (2013). Herbal medicine: chaos in the marketplace. Routledge.

Malaysian food act 1983

80
 Lecture 12
Analytical procedures
Lecture Overview

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

i. basic principles of the analytical procedures
ii. discuss their application to specific food components, e.g. lipids, proteins, water,
carbohydrates and minerals commonly used to analyze foods

ANALYSIS OF FOOD PRODUCTS

Food analysis is the discipline dealing with the development, application and study of
analytical procedures for characterizing the properties of foods and their constituents. These
analytical procedures are used to provide information about a wide variety of different
characteristics of foods, including their composition, structure, physicochemical properties and
sensory attributes. This information is critical to our rational understanding of the factors that
determine the properties of foods, as well as to our ability to economically produce foods that are
consistently safe, nutritious and desirable and for consumers to make informed choices about
their diet.
Who analyzes foods? Why do they analyze foods? What types of properties are measured?
How does one choose an appropriate analytical technique for a particular food?

Reasons for Analyzing Foods

Foods are analyzed by scientists working in all of the major sectors of the food industry
including food manufacturers, ingredient suppliers, analytical service laboratories, government
laboratories, and University research laboratories. The various purposes that foods are analyzed
are briefly discussed in this section.

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Government Regulations and Recommendations
Government regulations and recommendations are designed to maintain the general quality
of the food supply, to ensure the food industry provides consumers with foods that are
wholesome and safe, to inform consumers about the nutritional composition of foods so that they
can make knowledgeable choices about their diet, to enable fair competition amongst food
companies, and to eliminate economic fraud. There are a number of Government Departments
Responsible for regulating the composition and quality of foods, including the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the National
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Each of
these government agencies is responsible for regulating particular sectors of the food industry
and publishes documents that contain detailed information about the regulations and
recommendations pertaining to the foods produced within those sectors.

Standards
Government agencies have specified a number of voluntary and mandatory standards
concerning the composition, quality, inspection, and labeling of specific food products.
Mandatory Standards:
Standards of Identity. These regulations specify the type and amounts of ingredients that
certain foods must contain if they are to be called by a particular name on the food label. For
some foods there is a maximum or minimum concentration of a certain component that they
must contain, e.g., peanut butter must be less than 55% fat, ice-cream must be greater than 10%
milk fat, cheddar cheese must be greater than 50% milk fat and less than 39% moisture.
Standards of Quality. Standards of quality have been defined for certain foods (e.g., canned
fruits and vegetables) to set minimum requirements on the color, tenderness, mass and freedom
from defects.
Standards of Fill-of-Container. These standards state how full a container must be to avoid
consumer deception, as well as specifying how the degree of fill is measured.
Voluntary Standards:
Standards of Grade. A number of foods, including meat, dairy products and eggs, are graded
according to their quality, e.g. from standard to excellent. For example meats can be graded as

82
prime, choice, select, standard etc according to their origin, tenderness, juiciness, flavor and
appearance. There are clear definitions associated with these descriptors that products must
conform to before they can be given the appropriate label. Specification of the grade of a food
product on the label is voluntary, but many food manufacturers opt to do this because superior
grade products can be sold for a higher price. The government has laboratories that food
producers send their products too to be tested to receive the appropriate certification. This
service is requested and paid for by the food producer.

Properties Analyzed
Food analysts are interested in obtaining information about a variety of different
characteristics of foods, including their composition, structure, physicochemical properties and
sensory attributes.
Composition
The composition of a food largely determines its safety, nutrition, physicochemical
properties, quality attributes and sensory characteristics. Most foods are compositionally
complex materials made up of a wide variety of different chemical constituents. Their
composition can be specified in a number of different ways depending on the property that is of
interest to the analyst and the type of analytical procedure used: specific atoms (e.g., Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Sodium, etc.); specific molecules (e.g., water, sucrose,
tristearin, lactoglobulin types of molecules (e.g., fats, proteins, carbohydrates, fiber, minerals), or
specific substances (e.g., peas, flour, milk, peanuts, butter). Government regulations state that the
concentration of certain food components must be stipulated on the nutritional label of most food
products, and are usually reported as specific molecules (e.g., vitamin A) or types of molecules
(e.g., proteins).

Structure
The structural organization of the components within a food also plays a large role in
determining the physicochemical properties, quality attributes and sensory characteristics of
many foods. Hence, two foods that have the same composition can have very different quality
attributes if their constituents are organized differently. For example, a carton of ice cream taken
from a refrigerator has a pleasant appearance and good taste, but if it is allowed to melt and then

83
is placed back in the refrigerator its appearance and texture change dramatically and it would not
be acceptable to a consumer. Thus, there has been an adverse influence on its quality, even
though its chemical composition is unchanged, because of an alteration in the structural
organization of the constituents caused by the melting of ice and fat crystals. Another familiar
example is the change in egg white from a transparent viscous liquid to an optically opaque gel
when it is heated in boiling water for a few minutes. Again there is no change in the chemical
composition of the food, but its physiochemical properties have changed dramatically because of
an alteration in the structural organization of the constituents caused by protein unfolding and
gelation.

The structure of a food can be examined at a number of different levels:

Molecular structure ( 1-100 nm). Ultimately, the overall physicochemical properties of a food
depend on the type of molecules present, their three-dimensional structure and their interactions
with each other. It is therefore important for food scientists to have analytical techniques to
examine the structure and interactions of individual food molecules.
Microscopic structure ( 10 nm-100 m). The microscopic structure of a food can be observed by
microscopy (but not by the unaided eye) and consists of regions in a material where the
molecules associate to form discrete phases, e.g., emulsion droplets, fat crystals, protein
aggregates and small air cells.
Macroscopic structure ( > 100 m). This is the structure that can be observed by the unaided
human eye, e.g., sugar granules, large air cells, raisons, chocolate chips
The forgoing discussion has highlighted a number of different levels of structure that are
important in foods. All of these different levels of structure contribute to the overall properties of
foods, such as texture, appearance, stability and taste. In order to design new foods, or to
improve the properties of existing foods, it is extremely useful to understand the relationship
between the structural properties of foods and their bulk properties. Analytical techniques are
therefore needed to characterize these different levels of structure. A number of the most
important of these techniques are considered

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Physicochemical Properties
The physiochemical properties of foods (rheological, optical, stability, flavor) ultimately
determine their perceived quality, sensory attributes and behavior during production, storage and
consumption.
The optical properties of foods are determined by the way that they interact with electromagnetic
radiation in the visible region of the spectrum, e.g., absorption, scattering, transmission and
reflection of light. For example, full fat milk has a whiter appearance than skim milk because a
greater fraction of the light incident upon the surface of full fat milk is scattered due to the
presence of the fat droplets.
The rheological properties of foods are determined by the way that the shape of the food
changes, or the way that the food flows, in response to some applied force. For example,
margarine should be spreadable when it comes out of a refrigerator, but it must not be so soft that
it collapses under its own weight when it is left on a table.
The stability of a food is a measure of its ability to resist changes in its properties over time.
These changes may be chemical, physical or biological in origin. Chemical stability refers to the
change in the type of molecules present in a food with time due to chemical or biochemical
reactions, e.g., fat rancidity or non-enzymatic browning. Physical stability refers to the change in
the spatial distribution of the molecules present in a food with time due to movement of
molecules from one location to another, e.g., droplet creaming in milk. Biological stability refers
to the change in the number of microorganisms present in a food with time, e.g., bacterial or
fungal growth.
The flavor of a food is determined by the way that certain molecules in the food interact with
receptors in the mouth (taste) and nose (smell) of human beings. The perceived flavor of a food
product depends on the type and concentration of flavor constituents within it, the nature of the
food matrix, as well as how quickly the flavor molecules can move from the food to the sensors
in the mouth and nose. Analytically, the flavor of a food is often characterized by measuring the
concentration, type and release of flavor molecules within a food or in the headspace above the
food.
Foods must therefore be carefully designed so that they have the required physicochemical
properties over the range of environmental conditions that they will experience during

85
processing, storage and consumption, e.g., variations in temperature or mechanical stress.
Consequently, analytical techniques are needed to test foods to ensure that they have the
appropriate physicochemical properties.

Sensory Attributes
Ultimately, the quality and desirability of a food product is determined by its interaction with
the sensory organs of human beings, e.g., vision, taste, smell, feel and hearing. For this reason
the sensory properties of new or improved foods are usually tested by human beings to ensure
that they have acceptable and desirable properties before they are launched onto the market.
Even so, individuals' perceptions of sensory attributes are often fairly subjective, being
influenced by such factors as current trends, nutritional education, climate, age, health, and
social, cultural and religious patterns. To minimize the effects of such factors a number of
procedures have been developed to obtain statistically relevant information. For example, foods
are often tested on statistically large groups of untrained consumers to determine their reaction to
a new or improved product before full-scale marketing or further development. Alternatively,
selected individuals may be trained so that they can reliably detect small differences in specific
qualities of particular food products, e.g., the mint flavor of a chewing gum.
Although sensory analysis is often the ultimate test for the acceptance or rejection of a
particular food product, there are a number of disadvantages: it is time consuming and expensive
to carry out, tests are not objective, it cannot be used on materials that contain poisons or toxins,
and it cannot be used to provide information about the safety, composition or nutritional value of
a food. For these reasons objective analytical tests, which can be performed in a laboratory using
standardized equipment and procedures, are often preferred for testing food product properties
that are related to specific sensory attributes. For this reason, many attempts have been made to
correlate sensory attributes (such as chewiness, tenderness, or stickiness) to quantities that can be
measured using objective analytical techniques, with varying degrees of success.

Choosing an Analytical Technique

There are usually a number of different analytical techniques available to determine a
particular property of a food material. It is therefore necessary to select the most appropriate
technique for the specific application.

86
 The analytical technique selected depends on;
 the property to be measured
 the type of food to be analyzed, and
 the reason for carrying out the analysis
Information about the various analytical procedures available can be obtained from a number of
different sources. An analytical procedure may already be routinely used in the laboratory or
company where you are working. Alternatively, it may be possible to contact an expert who
could recommend a certain technique, e.g., a University Professor or a Consultant. Often it is
necessary to consult scientific and technical publications.

Tabulated Official Methods of Analysis

A number of scientific organizations have been setup to establish certain techniques as
official methods, e.g. Association of the Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) and American Oil
Chemists Society (AOCS). Normally, a particular laboratory develops a new analytical
procedure and proposes it as a new official method to one of the organizations. The method is
then tested by a number of independent laboratories using the same analytical procedure and type
of equipment stipulated in the original proposal. The results of these tests are collated and
compared with expected values to ensure that the method gives reproducible and accurate results.
After rigorous testing the procedure may be accepted, modified or rejected as an official method.
Organizations publish volumes that contain the officially recognized test methods for a variety of
different food components and foodstuffs. It is possible to consult one of these official
publications and ascertain whether a suitable analytical procedure already exists or can be
modified for your particular application.

Developing a New Technique

In some cases there may be no suitable techniques available and so it is necessary to develop
a new one. This must be done with great care so as to ensure that the technique gives accurate
and reliable measurements. Confidence in the accuracy of the technique can be obtained by
analyzing samples of known properties or by comparing the results of the new technique with
those of well-established or official methods.

87
 One of the most important factors that must be considered when developing a new analytical
technique is the way in which the analyte will be distinguished from the matrix. Most foods
contain a large number of different components, and therefore it is often necessary to distinguish
the component being analyzed for ("the analyte") from the multitude of other components
surrounding it ("the matrix"). Food components can be distinguished from each other according
to differences in their molecular characteristics, physical properties and chemical reactions:
Molecular characteristics: Size, shape, polarity, electrical charge, interactions with radiation.
Physical properties: Density, rheology, optical properties, electrical properties, phase
transitions (melting point, boiling point).
Chemical reactions: Specific chemical reactions between the component of interest and an
added reagent.

When developing an appropriate analytical technique that is specific for a particular

component it is necessary to identify the molecular and physicochemical properties of the
analyte that are sufficiently different from those of the components in the matrix. In some foods
it is possible to directly determine the analyte within the food matrix, but more often it is
necessary to carry out a number of preparatory steps to isolate the analyte prior to carrying out
the analysis. For example, an analyte may be physically isolated from the matrix using one
procedure and then analyzed using another procedure. In some situations there may be one or
more components within a food that have very similar properties to the analyte. These
"interferents" may make it difficult to develop an analytical technique that is specific for the
analyte. It may be necessary to remove these interfering substances prior to carrying out the
analysis for the analyte, or to use an analytical procedure that can distinguish between substances
with similar properties.
Activity 11.1
List some of the factors to consider when choosing an analytical
technique
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

88
Selecting an Appropriate Technique
Some of the criteria that are important in selecting a technique are listed below:
Precision: A measure of the ability to reproduce an answer between determinations performed
by the same scientist (or group of scientists) using the same equipment and experimental
approach.
Reproducibility: A measure of the ability to reproduce an answer by scientists using the same
experimental approach but in different laboratories using different equipment.
Accuracy: A measure of how close one can actually measure the true value of the parameter
being measured, e.g., fat content, or sodium concentration.
Simplicity of operation: A measure of the ease with which relatively unskilled workers may carry
out the analysis.
Cost: The total cost of the analysis, including the reagents, instrumentation and salary of
personnel required to carry it out.
Speed: The time needed to complete the analysis of a single sample or the number of samples
that can be analyzed in a given time.
Sensitivity: A measure of the lowest concentration of a component that can be detected by a
given procedure.
Specificity: A measure of the ability to detect and quantify specific components within a food
material, even in the presence of other similar components, e.g., fructose in the presence of
sucrose or glucose.
Safety: Many reagents and procedures used in food analysis are potentially hazardous e.g. strong
acids or bases, toxic chemicals or flammable materials.
Destructive/Nondestructive: In some analytical methods the sample is destroyed during the
analysis, whereas in others it remains intact.
On-line/Off-line: Some analytical methods can be used to measure the properties of a food
during processing, whereas others can only be used after the sample has been taken from the
production line.
Official Approval: Various international bodies have given official approval to methods that have
been comprehensively studied by independent analysts and shown to be acceptable to the various
organizations involved, e.g., ISO, AOAC, AOCS.

89
Nature of Food Matrix: The composition, structure and physical properties of the matrix material
surrounding the analyte often influences the type of method that can be used to carry out an
analysis, e.g., whether the matrix is solid or liquid, transparent or opaque, polar or non-polar.

Congragulations. You have completed the last lecture whereby we discussed

about food analysis and analytical procedures employed

1. Describe the different characteristics of foods that food analyst are interested in during
analysis
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Food Analysis, 2nd Edition. S.S. Nielsen, Aspen Publishers

Food Analysis: Theory and Practice. Y. Pomeranz & C.E. Meloan, Chapman and Hall
Food Analysis: Principles and Techniques. D.W. Gruenwedel and J.R. Whitaker, Marcel Dekker
Analytical Chemistry of Foods. C.S. James, Blackie Academic and Professional

90
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91