SN Business & Economics

Does transitioning between different occupations reshape an Individual's

Socioeconomic standing? Investigating the Influence of Occupational Mobility on the
Socioeconomic landscape of Assam's Tea Garden Laborers.
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number: SNBE-D-23-00637R1

Full Title: Does transitioning between different occupations reshape an Individual's

Socioeconomic standing? Investigating the Influence of Occupational Mobility on the
Socioeconomic landscape of Assam's Tea Garden Laborers.

Article Type: Original Article

Abstract: Investigating occupational mobility holds significant value as a research agenda, as the
process of occupational mobility brings about diverse transformations in the
socioeconomic and demographic attributes of a particular population, making it crucial
to understand and address these changes effectively. Amidst growing distress and
worsening conditions prevalent in the plantation sector, including inadequate working
conditions, outdated labour practices, insufficient wages, and lack of dedicated welfare
programs, Tea garden labourers in Assam have begun to migrate towards more
lucrative job opportunities outside the tea gardens. As a result, a significant
transformation and shift in occupational patterns have emerged within the tea gardens
of Assam, leading to the emergence of a distinct societal group known as the Ex-Tea
Garden labour community. These individuals are driven by the lack of job opportunities
in tea gardens, and the desire for a better life for themselves and their families,
prompting them to seek alternative employment options outside the confines of the tea
gardens. The core objective of this study is to assess the extent to which occupational
mobility plays a significant role in improving the living conditions of the Tea garden
labour community. To elucidate this and drive the point home, a socio-economic status
index (SES) has been constructed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to
provide insights into the living conditions of both the Tea garden and Ex-tea garden
labour communities. Furthermore, employing a binary logistic regression model, the
study identifies and quantifies the various factors influencing the decision-making
process regarding occupational mobility within the Tea garden labour community of
Assam.
Keywords: Socioeconomic status index; occupational mobility; PCA

Response to Reviewers: Reply to the Editor’s comment:

Comment 1: Building upon this background, the present study aims to investigate the
effects of occupational mobility on the socioeconomic status of the tea garden
community in Assam. Additionally, the study will shed.
There is a statement on the aim of the paper. Please add a sentence on the method
and data. Effects cannot be estimated using cross-sectional data. Use the term
relationship. A statement of contribution is missing.
The contribution of your work to the literature should be better highlighted. The method
is standard, and the data is cross-sectional and refers to one region. The theoretical
contribution is not completely clear. The introduction should outline: 1. What is already
known about the topic? 2. What is not known about the subject, and hence, what does
the study intend to examine? This means outline on what is the research gap you seek
to fill. 3. What are the specific research questions the study focuses on?
I do not understand the research question. Why it is interesting to study occupational
mobility in the tea sector. I do not think there is mobility in the tea sector which is often
a second and seasonal job.
Reply: Thank you very much for your valuable advice. Following the advice of the
esteemed editor, certain changes have been made in the modified version of the
manuscript and the changes have been highlighted in yellow colour.
Following the advice of the esteemed editor, certain information on the method of and
data has been incorporated in the last stanza of the introduction part and is highlighted
in yellow colour. The term ‘relationship’ has been used in place of ‘effects’, without
altering the meaning. Furthermore, theoretical contribution of the work has also been
added in the same stanza. To add to it, modifications have been made to highlight the
novelty of the study by incorporating the reason to study occupational mobility in the
tea industry of the region.

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 Comment 2: Add more information to the database. When was the survey conducted?
Reply: The data required to meet the objectives of the paper were collected during
July,2022 to December,2022. Following the advice of the editor, this information has
been added to the part, “Study site and Sample design” and highlighted in yellow
colour.

Comment 3: Please add a conceptual background.

Reply: As per the advice of the reviewer, a conceptual background has been added.
Comment 4: Do not remove outliers.
Reply: The suggestion is incorporated in the modified version.
Comment 5: I suggest using the different socioeconomic variables and not a composite
index. An index is difficult to interpret.
Reply: Following the advice of the editor, the socio-economic status (SES) index has
been removed from the regression analysis and accordingly estimates of the
coefficients of different socio-economic and demographic variables have been
interpreted. Following the suggestion of the editor, per capita income (PCI) is used to
capture socio-economic condition of the respondents.
Comment 6: Page 8, expected utility; please add a reference.
Reply: Thank you so much for this and I strongly feel it was important to add a
reference about expected utility and accordingly it has been added in Page 8.
Comment 7: Add subscript i to the x variables.
Reply: As per the valuable advice of the editor, subscript ‘i’ to the x variables has been
added in the Equation.
Comment 8: There is a substantial degree of multicollinearity between age and the
socioeconomic index. Use the different variables separately.
Reply: As per the comment (5) of the editor, the variable socio-economic index has
been removed from the regression analysis and therefore ruling out all possibilities of
the presence of multicollinearity between the variables; age and socio-economic index.
Moreover, to rule out any possible presence of multicollinearity between the other
variables, attempts were made to check the presence of the same and it was found
that there exists no multicollinearity between the different variables under consideration
for the study. The VIF values shows that there is absence of severe multicollinearity
problem in the estimation.
Comment 9: Do not display the standard deviation for dummy variables.
Reply: With regard to this comment, the values of standard deviation of the dummy
variables have been removed.
Comment 10: Show descriptive statistics for all variables
Reply: The descriptive statistics of all the relevant variables incorporated in the
analysis are shown in the tables. (Table no 2 and Table no 5)
Comment 11: You have estimated a binary logistics model and not a fixed effects
logistics model. Change this.
Reply: As per the advice of the editor, the required changes has been made and
highlighted in yellow colour.
Comment 12: It is sufficient to explain either the odds ratio or the marginal effects but
not both.
Reply: Thank you so much for pointing this out and as per the comment of the
esteemed editor, estimates of the marginal effects have been deleted from the table.
Comment 13: The conclusions need more work. Add limitations and policy implications.
Reply: As per this advice, necessary modification is done in the conclusion part. Also,
limitations of the study and policy implications have been incorporated in the
concluding paragraph and is highlighted in yellow colour.
Comment 14: Please update the references. There are no references after 2018.
There are few references on occupational mobility. Your study should be better
embedded in the literature. I suggest to cite 20-30 journal articles.
Reply: Following this advice from the editor, references were updated and more
references after the year 2018 have been incorporated in the paper. Furthermore,
more references on occupational mobility were included to make the study more
embedded in relevant literature.

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5 Title page
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8 Article Title
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10 Does transitioning between different occupations reshape an Individual's Socioeconomic
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12 standing? Investigating the Influence of Occupational Mobility on the Socioeconomic landscape
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14 of Assam's Tea Garden Laborers
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17 Order-wise authors information
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1. Name : Lipika Kalita
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23 Affiliation: Research Scholar, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, Indian Institute
24 of Information Technology Guwahati, India – 781015
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Email id: lipika.kalita@iiitg.ac.in
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29 2. Name : Hari K. Choudhury*
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31 Affiliation: Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Information
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Technology Guwahati, India – 781015
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35 *Corresponding author: Hari K. Choudhury
36 Email : hari@iiitg.ac.in
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38 Contact (mobile no.): +919749430881
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7 Abstract
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9 Investigating occupational mobility holds significant value as a research agenda, as the process of
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11 occupational mobility brings about diverse transformations in the socioeconomic and demographic
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attributes of a particular population, making it crucial to understand and address these changes
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14 effectively. Amidst growing distress and worsening conditions prevalent in the plantation sector,
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16 including inadequate working conditions, outdated labour practices, insufficient wages, and lack
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18 of dedicated welfare programs, Tea garden labourers in Assam have begun to migrate towards
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20 more lucrative job opportunities outside the tea gardens. As a result, a significant transformation
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22 and shift in occupational patterns have emerged within the tea gardens of Assam, leading to the
23 emergence of a distinct societal group known as the Ex-Tea Garden labour community. These
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25 individuals are driven by the lack of job opportunities in tea gardens, and the desire for a better
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27 life for themselves and their families, prompting them to seek alternative employment options
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29 outside the confines of the tea gardens. The core objective of this study is to assess the extent to
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31 which occupational mobility plays a significant role in improving the living conditions of the Tea
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33 garden labour community. To elucidate this and drive the point home, a socio-economic status
34 index (SES) has been constructed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to provide insights
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36 into the living conditions of both the Tea garden and Ex-tea garden labour communities.
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38 Furthermore, employing a binary logistic regression model, the study identifies and quantifies the
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40 various factors influencing the decision-making process regarding occupational mobility within
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42 the Tea garden labour community of Assam.
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44 Keywords: Socioeconomic status index; occupational mobility; PCA
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47 Statements and Declarations
48 Availability of data and materials
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Data for this study is available and will be provided on request.
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53 Competing interest
54 On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
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56 Funding
57 No funding was received for conducting this study.
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5 Author’s contribution
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7 Lipika Kalita conceived the presented idea, collected primary data and wrote the first draft of the
8 manuscript.
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11 Hari. K. Choudhury analyzed the primary data and fine-tuned the manuscript.
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13 Acknowledgements
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16 Not Applicable.
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22 Author’s information
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24 Lipika Kalita is with the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of
25 Information Technology Guwahati. She is a PhD candidate in Economics at the Department of
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Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Information Technology Guwahati.
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29 Hari K. Choudhury is an Associate Professor of Economics in the Department of Humanities and
30 Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Information Technology Guwahati. His area of research is
31 related to Experimental Economics and Development Economics.
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35 JEL Code: J6
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4 Does transitioning between different occupations reshape an Individual's Socioeconomic
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6 standing? Investigating the Influence of Occupational Mobility on the Socioeconomic landscape
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8 of Assam's Tea Garden Laborers
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13 Introduction
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16 Tea stands as a leading choice among the world's most widely consumed nonalcoholic beverages,
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18 with a remarkable surge in its global consumption in recent times(FAO,2019). In India, it holds a
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20 significant position, being a popular and widely consumed beverage, with approximately 85% of
21 households in the country enjoying tea. India is renowned as one of the world's largest tea
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23 producers, known for its exceptional quality. It stands as the second-largest tea producer globally,
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25 second only to China (Maity & Sinha,2021). Since the establishment of the tea industry in India,
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27 the country has gained a prestigious status in the global tea market. The tea industry has made
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29 remarkable contributions to India's economy through exports, income generation, and employment
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opportunities (Laskar et.al,2018). Notably, India holds the distinction of being the world's largest
32 consumer of black tea, with a domestic market consumption of 911 million kg during 2013-
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34 14(Biggs et.al,2018). In terms of tea exports, India ranks fourth globally, having exported 232.92
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36 million kg during 2015-16. Over the period of 2003-2015, tea production achieved a compound
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38 growth rate of 2.86%, while tea exports recorded a compound growth rate of 1.22% (Das and
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40 Zirmire, 2017).
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42 In India, the best quality tea pours are mainly from Assam. The fame and stature of the brew can
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44 be gauged by the fact that more than 50% of the country’s total production is from Assam (Hussain
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46 and Hazarika, 2010). Assam tea is also the dynamism for the state economy by employing more
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48 than 6 lakh labourers and contributes nearly 50% of the total daily numbers of labourers employed
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50 by the tea industry in the country. One of the world’s largest CTC Tea Auction Centres is in Assam,
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exporting mainly to Europe, the Middle East and also Egypt, Japan and Israel to name a few. As
53 of today, Assam tea has retained its international standards and commands a significant share of
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55 the world market (Arya 2013).
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57 The Tea Industry of Assam holds immense significance in both the state and national economy.
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59 Despite accounting for half of India's tea production and one-sixth of the world's production, the
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4 Tea Industry as a whole is facing numerous problems related with production and other related
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6 issues (Naik.et.al,2022) and therefore tea garden labour community in Assam is distanced from
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8 reaping the benefits of such large-scale production (Saikia, 2008). Existing literature highlights
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10 the backwardness of the Tea garden labour community in various aspects of life. These labourers
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12 face extremely distressing conditions. The various factors contributing to their poor circumstances
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and lamentable conditions can be traced back to colonial times. Inadequate wages and substandard
15 living conditions persisted even during the era of English entrepreneurs who amassed considerable
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17 wealth from these tea gardens before transferring ownership to Indian groups (Bose, 2018). Their
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19 historical background, coupled with structural inequalities, has perpetuated poverty and
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21 deprivation, leading to grave issues such as high maternal mortality, homelessness, and
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23 malnutrition (Government of Assam, 2014). The lack of education among the tea garden
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community, especially women, contributes to their unawareness of the minimum standards of
26 living. Challenges such as multiple childbirths, domestic violence (Hazarika, 2012), child labour
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28 (Saikia, 2008), early marriages, young and frequent childbearing (Goswami, 2005), high child and
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30 maternal mortality (Konwar, 2014), superstitious beliefs, and alcoholism (Devi, 2014) persist
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32 within this community, underscoring the pressing problems faced by its members.
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The health status within the Tea garden labour community is a matter of concern, despite the
36 implementation of numerous welfare schemes and measures. Both children and adults in the
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38 community face lamentable health conditions compared to the state and national averages.
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40 Children in particular suffer from severe, life-threatening illnesses annually. The prevalence of
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42 stunting, wasting, anemia, tuberculosis, and high incidence of intestinal worm infestations is
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44 notable. In recent years, there has been a significant trend of occupational diversification within
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this community, as labourers seek alternative employment opportunities for a better life. However,
47 the lack of education and basic skills poses significant obstacles for those transitioning to other
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49 occupations (Mishra, et.al. 2014; Zhao et al.2022). This indicates how some boundaries that limit
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51 occupational mobility becomes more prominent and rigid with time especially for the less
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53 privileged class in the society (Cheng et al.,2020; Parsons,2022; Nelson &Vallas,2022).
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55 The innate desire and drive to improve one's economic and social standing are inherent in all
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rational individuals (Wang et al,2020.). In any society without significant inhibiting barriers, the
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58 ability to effortlessly switch between career fields and secure meaningful employment or meet
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60 labour demands is an essential prerequisite for individuals to guarantee a dignified and enhanced
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4 quality of life, not just for themselves but also for their families and acquaintances (Paunescu et
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6 al,2018; Arif et al.,2022). Therefore, in light of their dire circumstances, the Tea garden labourers
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8 of Assam have embarked on a journey to break free from their deplorable conditions, resulting in
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10 the emergence of occupational mobility within the tea garden community. This process of
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12 occupational mobility, while presenting opportunities, also poses challenges to the households
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involved, thereby attracting the attention of scholars and academicians worldwide. Literature
15 emphasizing the profound impact of occupational mobility on the socioeconomic and demographic
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17 status of those who have chosen to leave tea garden employment in search of a better life is lacking
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19 in academic discourse. Building on this foundation, the current study seeks to explore the intricate
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21 relationship between occupational mobility and the socioeconomic status of the tea garden
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23 community in Assam. The study will also shed light on the various factors influencing the decision
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to pursue occupational mobility within the community After employing a multi-stage sampling
26 approach, a total of 927 participants was included in the current study. Among them, 60%
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28 (approximately 584 individuals) are affiliated with the Tea Garden Community, while the
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30 remaining 40% (around 383 individuals) are associated with the Ex-tea garden labor community.
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32 Given that the study spans five districts with the highest concentration of tea gardens, we are
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34 focusing on approximately 20% of the total households in these districts for the present
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investigation. While extensive literature exists on the socio-economic and demographic aspects of
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37 tea garden laborers, studies elucidating the noteworthy and profound influence of the phenomenon
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39 of occupational mobility among former tea garden laborers are scarce and notably lacking in
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41 academic discourse. Considering that Ex-tea garden laborers constitute a substantial segment of
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43 the state's overall population, it is imperative to integrate this continually expanding demographic
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45 into the objectives of 'broad-based growth' and 'pro-poor growth.' This entails ensuring their active
46 participation in the economic growth process. Furthermore, there is a notable gap in research that
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48 addresses the consequences of tea garden laborers transitioning to alternative employment sectors
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50 and whether such transitions should be actively promoted within the plantation workforce of the
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52 region. The tea industry is currently grappling with a surplus of labor, and conducting
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54 comprehensive research on redirecting this surplus workforce toward other economically viable
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56 and rewarding opportunities could potentially offer a resolution to the challenges faced by the
57 plantation industry. This could involve exploring avenues that provide stable, lucrative, and
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59 productive employment for the labor force.
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5 Conceptual framework
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7 Occupational mobility, a prevalent phenomenon globally throughout history, is extensively
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explored in literature. Various factors contribute to the transition of individuals from one
10 profession to another (Arif, 2020; Kaur & Kaur, 2023). This shift is often instigated by push
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12 factors, such as limited opportunities in the socio-economic landscape, and pull factors,
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14 represented by more attractive job prospects in economically developed regions (Khan et al., 2023;
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16 Mulska et al., 2021; Kwilinski et al., 2022).
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18 A fundamental approach to understanding occupational mobility involves recognizing the push
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20 and pull factors that drive such transitions (Urbanski, 2022). Push factors encompass a range of
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reasons compelling individuals to leave their current employment, while pull factors represent the
23 allure of more promising opportunities or a more developed environment, motivating individuals
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25 to switch professions. Push factors prompt individuals to relocate from their original locations,
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27 while pull factors entice them to explore new areas.
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29 Across various professions, reasons for leaving a job may include low wages, unfavorable working
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31 conditions, job dissatisfaction, and broader socio-economic and political issues (Khalid et al.,
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33 2021; Hager, 2021). Conversely, pull factors involve greater job security, improved job
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opportunities, or the promise of a more fulfilling lifestyle. Once a decision is made to change jobs,
36 it significantly influences the socio-economic and demographic dynamics (Gupta & Bharat, 2022)
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38 and the overall profile of the individual or the community. This, in turn, further shapes the push
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40 and pull factors influencing occupational mobility. Thus the relationship flows in a circular manner
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42 which is shown in the figure below-
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44 Push Factors
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48 Socio-economic
49 Pull Factors and
50 Demographic
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52 Aspects
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54 Occupational
55 mobility
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57 Figure 1: Linkage of occupational mobility of tea garden labour community with various factors
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4 The above figure demonstrates how a combination of the two forces I.e. the push factors and the
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6 pull factors triggers occupational mobility in any given population or community. The
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8 phenomenon of occupational mobility extends its impact significantly on the socio-economic and
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10 demographic dimensions of the population (Begu et al., 2022). Furthermore, the entire mechanism
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12 of occupational mobility is subjective, exhibiting variations from one individual to another and
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14
from one population to another. Consequently, the factors, both push and pull, that underlie
15 occupational mobility can differ significantly across various communities and individuals with
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17 diverse socio-economic and demographic backgrounds.
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19 Nonetheless, migration constitutes a multifaceted phenomenon, transcending a simplistic interplay
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21 of push and pull dynamics. To comprehensively understand this process, one must consider a
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23 myriad of social, economic, and demographic factors that contribute to its intricacies (Zanabazar
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25
et al., 2022; Pitoski et al., 2021). The conceptual framework for occupational mobility or job
26 transitions should be attuned to the diverse realities present worldwide, which exhibit contextual
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28 variations (Loughead and Black, 1990).
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30 As previously mentioned, the nuanced workings of push and pull factors are inherently subjective,
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32 varying across dimensions such as social class, gender, ethnicity, age, and physical ability (Bircan
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34 et al., 2020). Consequently, researchers delving into the study of occupational mobility must
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36
discern between the individual and structural levels. At the individual level, push factors
37 encapsulate immediate reasons compelling migration, including an individual's risk-taking ability,
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39 age, and education. On the other hand, at the structural level, institutional reforms and urban
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41 development, among other factors, can serve as catalysts for occupational migration.
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43 Study site and sample design
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46 The present study is confined to Assam. The study is grounded in empirical evidence as it relies
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48 on data collected (during July,2022 to December,2022) directly from primary sources to achieve
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its objectives. According to the current administrative division of districts in Assam, India, the
51 state has five regional divisions categorized under five heads i.e., North Assam Division, Lower
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53 Assam Division, Central Assam Division, Upper Assam Division and Barak Valley Division. To
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55 ensure representation from different administrative divisions, one district is chosen from each
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57 division. The district with the highest number of tea gardens is selected from each of the divisions.
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59 Henceforth, primary data have been collected from five tea plantation districts of the state namely
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4 Dibrugarh, Sonitpur, Nagaon, Baksa and Silchar. Following a multi-stage random sampling
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6 procedure, two development blocks from each district have been chosen for the study and from
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8 each development block, two tea estates/gardens are sampled. Primary data have been collected
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10 from both tea garden and ex-tea garden labour households. In the study, tea garden labour
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12 households are defined as those households, whose means of support or livelihoods of the
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households come from getting employment (either full-time or part-time) in the tea gardens. On
15 the other hand, an Ex-tea garden labour household is defined as a household, where no person
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17 from the household presently generates any income by getting employment in a tea garden,
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19 although their forefathers were employed in tea gardens. Thus, on the basis of the present
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21 employment status of member(s) of a household, sample households have been categorized as Tea
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23 garden labour and Ex-tea garden labour community.
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25 Since there is few documented secondary information regarding the number of Ex-tea garden
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27 households, an attempt is made in the study to collect primary information related to different
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29 socioeconomic aspects of the Ex-tea garden labour community, who are living in a tea garden or
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31 in the periphery of a tea garden or nearby tea garden areas so that impact of occupation mobility
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33 on the socio-economic status can be analyzed. A total of 584 and 343 households from the Tea
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and Ex-tea garden labour community respectively have been interviewed during the field visit.
36 Primary data are collected through an appropriately designed sample survey using a well-designed
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38 interview schedule containing both close-ended and open-ended questions. A few focus group
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40 discussions were also held to get more information, which is otherwise difficult to get from
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42 individual household schedules.
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45 Statistical methods used for data analysis
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48 In order to measure the impact of occupational mobility on socio-economic status, the comparison
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50 has been made between the Tea and Ex-tea tea garden labour community households. Following
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52 Rutstein and Johnson (2004) and Vyas and Kumaranayake (2006), a socioeconomic status (SES)
53 index has been constructed by applying Principle Component Analysis (PCA). Different indicators
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55 were considered for the construction of the indicator which shed light on the socioeconomic
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57 condition of the respondents. Responses on the possession of the various assets were coded as 1 if
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59 the respondent possess that particular asset and 0 if they do not. In the study, a total of 35 indicators
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4 were considered to depict the socioeconomic condition of the two groups under study. However,
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6 11 indicators whose mean was more than 0.80 and less than 0.20 were removed from the analysis.t
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9 The impact of determinants or factors on the decision of a household to change occupation is
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11 modelled on the basis of the ‘household’s production theory’ and ‘utility maximization theory’. In
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13 the present study, it is considered that two occupational choices are available for the households
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15 to make and apparently they are either to remain as ‘Tea garden labour’ or switch to some non–
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17 tea garden jobs and become an ‘Ex-tea garden labour’. The decision to switch or not to switch for
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any rational household is undoubtedly guided by their utility maximization behaviour. The
20 Expected Utility Theory posits that when faced with choices involving risky or uncertain
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22 prospects, the decision maker assesses and selects among them based on their respective
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24 anticipated utility values (Mongin,1998). Therefore, based on this theory, when a household
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26 anticipates that the expected utility of occupational mobility from Tea garden labour to Ex-tea
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28 garden labour is more than the expected utility of sticking to the same job and remaining as tea
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garden labour (status quo), the very phenomenon of occupational mobility is triggered and
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31 stimulated (i.e. the household decides to change the job). The concerned household seeking to
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33 maximize its utility; thereby compares its expected net utility (EU*) of the previous occupation
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35 (i.e., of Tea garden labour) with the expected net utility to be derived from the new occupation
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37 (i.e.; Ex-tea garden labour). A reduced form of this net utility can be expressed as:
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40 EU* = Xiβ + Ɛi … (1)
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43 where, ‘Xi’ is the vector of explanatory variables and ‘β’ is the vector of coefficients to be
44 estimated. The error term ‘Ɛi’ captures all the randomness and arbitrariness of the estimated
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46 function since the true net utility function is unknown.
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49 Depending on the nature of the dependent variable, literature shows that different econometric
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51 models can be used to estimate the parameters of any analysis. Since here the decision (to remain
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53 as Tea garden labour or to become Ex-tea garden labour) is dichotomous; logistic regression has
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been used to estimate the impact of factors on the decision of occupational change. In the model,
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56 the dependent variable is the decision to remain as Tea garden labour or to become Ex-tea garden
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58 labour. The specification of the model is presented as:
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2
3
4 𝐿∗𝑇 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1 𝑋1𝑖 + 𝛽2 𝑋2𝑖 + 𝛽3 𝑋3𝑖 + 𝛽4 𝑋4𝑖 + 𝛽5 𝑋5𝑖 + 𝛽6 𝑋6𝑖 + 𝛽7 𝑋7𝑖 + 𝛽8 𝑋8𝑖 + 𝛽9 𝑋9𝑖 + 𝜀𝑖 … (2)
5
6
7 Where,
8
9
10 X1i = Age of the respondent,
11
12 X2i = Education of the respondents (1 for literate, 0 for illiterate),
13
14
X3i = Gender of the respondent (1 for male, 0 for otherwise),
15 X4i = Type of family (1 for nuclear, 0 for joint)
16
17 X5i = Total number of family members (in numbers)
18
19 X6i = Socioeconomic index (measured through PCA)
20
21 X7i = Perception index (measured through PCA)
22
23 X8i = Monthly per capita income (in rupees)
24 X9i = District (controlled variable)
25
26 𝜀𝑖 = error term.
27
28 𝛽 ′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑.
29
30
31 However, 𝐿∗𝑇 is a latent variable, which is not directly observable. The researcher can observe the
32
33 household’s decision to occupational mobility such that 𝐿𝑇 is equal to 1 if at least one member of
34
35 the household works in the Tea garden and 0 if no single member of the household works in Tea
36 garden, which is observable i.e.,
37
38
1 if L*T  0
39
40
LT = 

0 if L T  0
*
41
42
43 It is to be noted here that a perception index is also constructed following the methodology used
44
45 to construct the SES index. Perceptions of the respondents on various aspects like living
46
47 conditions, lifestyle, future prospects, future of children, and availability of social security
48
49 measures were recorded by asking certain questions. However, the questions were framed favoring
50 the Ex-tea garden labourers. Responses were coded as 1 for agree and 0 for disagree or otherwise.
51
52 The following table shows the question asked to both groups (i.e., Tea garden and Ex-tea garden
53
54 labour community).
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 11
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 Table 1 Description of the questions asked to measure the perception index
5
6 Sl. No Questions Measurement
7
8 1. Ex-tea garden labourers are enjoying a better life 1 for Agree and 0 for otherwise
9 than the tea garden labourers.
10
11 2. By working in tea gardens, we can’t enjoy the same 1 for Agree and 0 for otherwise
12 lifestyle of ex –tea garden labourers
13 3. Living condition in tea gardens is not well. 1 for Agree and 0 for otherwise
14
15 4. Future of children is less secured in tea gardens 1 for Agree and 0 for otherwise
16 than outside of the gardens.
17 5. Future development prospect is less for Tea garden 1 for Agree and 0 for otherwise
18
19 labourers than Ex-tea garden labourers
20 6. I am less skilled than an Ex tea garden labourer. 1 for Agree and 0 for otherwise
21
22 7. Social security benefit is more for Tea garden 1 for Agree and 0 for otherwise
23 labourers.
24
25
26 Results and discussion
27
28
29 Socioeconomic status of the Tea and Ex-Tea Garden labourers- A comparison
30
31
32
33
As stated earlier, following the methodology of Rutstein and Johnson (2004) and Vyas and
34 Kumaranayake (2006), while constructing the socioeconomic status (SES) index, a comprehensive
35
36 set of 35 socioeconomic indicators or variables was initially considered. This extensive range of
37
38 variables aims to minimize sampling bias and achieve a more representative distribution of
39
40 households. However, before applying the Principle Component Analysis (PCA), a careful
41
42 evaluation of the identified variables is necessary. Thus, data cleaning becomes essential, focusing
43
44
on selecting only those variables that effectively distinguish between 'relatively wealthy' and
45 'relatively less wealthy' households. A general guideline used in the study is to exclude indicators
46
47 or variables that are owned by either more than 80% or less than 20% of the sample households.
48
49 As a result, certain indicators such as chairs, land phones, hand watches, computers, refrigerators,
50
51 and cars were excluded from the analysis, and finally, a total of 24 indicators (out of the original
52
53 35) were used to construct the SES index. The descriptive statistics of the selected indicators and
54
55
the variables are presented in Table2.
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 12
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 Table 2 Descriptive statistics of the indicators used for construction of socio-economic index
5
6
7
8 Sl.no. Socioeconomic Indicators Measurement Mean
9 1 Separate bedroom for couple 1 for Yes and 0 for No .679
10 2 Separate bedroom for children 1 for Yes and 0 for No .594
11
12 3 Type of Latrine 1 for Pucca and 0 for Otherwise .271
13 4 Type of Bathroom 1 for Pucca and 0 for Otherwise .217
14
15 5 Private source of water 1 for Yes and 0 for No .667
16 6 Water treatment 1 for Yes and 0 for No .455
17 7 Type of House 1 for Pucca and 0 for Otherwise .276
18
19 8 Ownership of House 1 for Own and 0 for Otherwise .253
20 9 Type of floor 1 for Concrete and 0 for Otherwise .359
21
22
10 Boundary demarcation if present 1 for Yes and 0 for No .737
23 11 Possession of Goats 1 for Yes and 0 for No .239
24 12 Possession of Pigs 1 for Yes and 0 for No .215
25
26 13 Possession of Sofa 1 for Yes and 0 for No .206
27 14 Possession of Dining table 1 for Yes and 0 for No .213
28
29
15 Possession of Study table 1 for Yes and 0 for No .207
30 16 Possession of Mobile 1 for Yes and 0 for No .770
31 17 Possession of Colour TV 1 for Yes and 0 for No .320
32
33 18 Possession of D2H 1 for Yes and 0 for No .200
34 19 Possession of Bicycle 1 for Yes and 0 for No .606
35
36
20 Possession of Motorcycle 1 for Yes and 0 for No .211
37 21 Possession of Wall Clock 1 for Yes and 0 for No .406
38 22 Possession of Steel Amirah 1 for Yes and 0 for No .226
39
40 23 Pressure Cooker use 1 for Yes and 0 for No .436
41 24 Energy source of cooking 1 for LPG and 0 for Otherwise .214
42 Source- Author’s calculations
43
44
45 The principle component analysis which is a data reduction procedure generates weights or factor
46
47 scores for each household socioeconomic variable or indicators for which information was
48
49 collected from the respondents. By applying this, the dimensionality of the data set is reduced and
50
51 this is done by replacing many correlated variables with a set of principal uncorrelated ‘principle
52
components’ and thus new meaningful underlying variables and unobserved characteristics of the
53
54 population (which can explain much of the variance) are discovered (Jollife and Cadima,2016).
55
56 The factor analysis procedure first standardizes the resulting score in relation to a standard normal
57
58 distribution with a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one. For a better understanding of the
59
60 SES index (which is a continuous variable), the standardized scores are then used to create
61
62 13
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 breakpoints that define SES quintiles as: Lowest, Second, Middle, Fourth, and Highest (Rutstein
5
6 and Johnson,2004). A single SES index is developed on the basis of the data from the entire sample
7
8 and used in the tabulation presented in Table 3.
9
10
11 Table 3 Socioeconomic status-wise distribution of Tea and Ex-tea garden labour community
12
13 Sl. Socioeconomic status Category of the respondents
14 No.
15 Tea garden Percentage Ex-tea garden Percentage
16 labour labour
17
1 Lowest 136 23.3 51 14.9
18
19 2 Second 143 24.5 42 12.2
20 3 Middle 98 16.8 87 25.4
21 4 Fourth 60 10.3 125 36.4
22
23
5 Highest 147 25.2 38 11.1
24 Total 584 100 343 100
25 Source- Author’s calculations
26
27
28 It is observed from Table 2 that 23.3% and 24.5% of the Tea garden labourers belong to the lowest
29
30 and the second quintile of the SES group, whereas, figures are 14.9% and 12.2% (lowest and
31 second lowest respectively) for the Ex-tea garden labourers belonging to the same group. Put
32
33 simply, a higher proportion of households from the Tea garden labour community is found in the
34
35 lowest (and second lowest) category of socioeconomic status quintile than compared to the Ex-tea
36
37 garden labour community. Again, if we consider the middle and fourth quintile of the SES group,
38
39 the proportion of households of the Ex-tea garden labour community is 25.4% and 36.4%
40
41 respectively. However, only 16.8% and 10.3% of Tea garden labour community belong to this
42 very quintile. Thus, we can observe that the proportion of households in the Ex-tea garden labour
43
44 community is more in the middle and fourth quintile of the SES group than compared to the Tea
45
46 garden labour community. However, 25.2% of the Tea garden labour community belongs to the
47
48 highest quintile of the SES group.
49
50
51 Therefore, in totality, we can draw the conclusion that about 48% of households in the Tea garden
52 labour community fall into the lower than middle quintile of the socioeconomic status group. In
53
54 contrast, only 27% of households in the Ex-tea garden labour community belong to the same
55
56 socioeconomic status group. Again, almost 73% of households of the Ex-tea garden labour
57
58 community belong to the middle and above quintiles of the socioeconomic status group (i.e. fourth
59
60 and highest). Hence, based on the empirical evidence presented in this study, it is evident that the
61
62 14
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 transition from the Tea garden labour community to the non-tea garden labour community has
5
6 resulted in noteworthy positive improvements in the overall socioeconomic status of the Ex-tea
7
8 garden labour community. Therefore, such a move or occupational shift must be encouraged to
9
10 bring about a positive change in the larger community.
11
12
13 The socioeconomic status of the Tea and Ex-tea garden labour community is also represented
14 diagrammatically in Figure 1. From the figure, the distribution of the two categories under study
15
16 under the five classes of socioeconomic statuses can be easily comprehended.
17
18
19 40
20
21 35
22
23
30
24
25
26 25
27
28 20
29
30 15
31
32 10
33
34 5
35
36 0
37 1 2 3 4 5
38
39 tea ex tea
40
41
42
43 Fig.1 Socioeconomic status-wise distribution of Tea and Ex-tea garden labour community
44
45 In order to cross-check and verify the findings observed from the SES index, a comparison of the
46
47 per capita income of both groups is also made in the study. The mean per capita income of the
48
49 sample households of both the category (Tea and Ex-tea garden labour community) are compared
50
51 by applying an independent sample ‘t-test’. The results of ‘t-test’ are presented in Table 4.a. and
52
53 Table 4.b. It is observed from the table that the mean per capita income of the Tea and Ex-tea
54
55
garden labour community is Rs. 1,816.44 and Rs. 1,985.54 respectively. Estimated t-scores of the
56 independent ‘t-test’ is found significant at a 5% level of significance. Therefore, it can be
57
58 concluded that the average per capita income of Ex-tea garden labour is more than that of the Tea
59
60 garden labour community.
61
62 15
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 Table 4.a. Comparison of Per capita income between Tea and Ex-Tea garden labour
5
6 community
7
Category of the N Mean Std. Std. Error
8 Variable
9 respondent Deviation Mean
10 Per capita Tea garden labour 584 1816.4452 1096.99102 45.39381
11 Income Ex-tea garden labour 343 1985.5481 921.15327 49.73760
12
13 Source- Author’s calculations
14
15
16
Table 4.b. Independent t test for Per capita Income
17 Sl. Assumed Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means Mean
18
19
No. Equality of Difference
20 Variances
21 F Sig. t df Sig. (2-
22 tailed)
23
24 1 Equal variances .522 .470 -2.401 925 .017 -169.102
25
26
27 2 Equal variances not assumed -2.511 816.65 .012 -169.102
28
29 Source- Author’s calculations
30
31
32 Therefore, the overall analysis clearly indicates that by switching jobs from tea gardens to non-
33
34 tea garden avenues like opening small-scale businesses, mason jobs, carpenter jobs etc., the
35
36 socioeconomic condition of the labourers has been better off than their previous situations.
37 However, the different perks and advantages of being a Tea garden labour accrue only to the
38
39 people working in the tea gardens of the state; be it permanent or temporary.
40
41
42 Factors affecting occupational mobility of the Tea Garden Labour Community
43
44 of Assam
45
46
47 As stated earlier, to analyze the impact of the determinants or factors on the decision of
48
49 occupational mobility of Tea garden labourers in Assam, logistic regression has been estimated.
50
51
The Table 5 shows the descriptive statistics of the factors considered for the regression analysis.
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 16
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 Table 5 Descriptive statistics of the factors affecting occupational mobility
5
6 Tea garden labour community Ex-tea garden labour
7 Sl. Factors Unit of community
8 No measurement Mean St. Dev Min Max Mean St. Dev Min Max
9
10
11 1 Age In years 41.57 11.34 21 89 42 10.02 21 65
12 2 Education 1 for literate, 0.878 - 0 1 0.848 - 0 1
13 0 for illiterate
14 3 Gender 1 for male, 0 0.510 - 0 1 0.422 - 0 1
15
16 for otherwise
17 4 Family type 1 for nuclear, 0.385 - 0 1 0.740 - 0 1
18 0 for joint
19 5 Total family In numbers 4.527 1.482 2 9 5.355 1.479 2 10
20 members
21
22 6 Per capita In rupees 1816.4 1096.9 400 10200 1985.5 921.53 644 4905
23 income
24 7 Perception Measured -0.059 1.124 -1.681 1.596 0.102 0.731 -1.68 1.60
25 index through PCA
26 Source: Author’s calculations.
27
28
29 Table 6 Estimates of the binary logistic regression of occupational mobility
30
31
Sl. Factors/Variables Exp(β) Robust Z P≥ |z| VIF
32 No. Coeff. standard error
33
1. Age 0.012 1.023 0.0145 1.36 0.369 1.08
34
35 2. Education -0.215 0.789 0.4785 -0.63 0.738 2.03
36 3. Gender -0.325 0.963 0.2389 -2.43 0.237 1.03
37 4. Family type -1.752 0.345 0.4872 -7.09 0.000 1.67
38
39
5. Total family members -0.635 0.783 0.1852 -9.65 0.001 1.89
40 6. Per capita income -0.0003 0.889 0.00008 -9.36 0.000 2.00
41 7. Perception index -0.354 0.852 0.1258 -5.39 0.000 1.96
42 8. Constant 5.652 45.236 0.7698 7.56 0.000 -
43 Note: Marginal effects for discrete variables are calculated at mean value.
44 Marginal effect is for discrete change of the dummy variable from 0 to 1.
45 Exp= Exponential
46 The estimates of the logistic regression are presented in Table 6. Data analysis is done with the
47
48 help of STATA software. It is observed from the table that the estimated binary logit model is
49
50 significant at a 5% level of significance with the calculated value of Wald Chi2 at 123.36. In the
51
52 estimated mode, factors such as type of family, per capita income and perception index have a
53
54 statistically significant impact (at a 5% level of significance) on the decision of occupational
55
mobility. On the other hand, variables like age education and gender do not appear to be
56
57 statistically significant at conventional significance levels (p > 0.05). Since variance inflating
58
59
60
61
62 17
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 factor (VIF) values of the independent factors are less than 5, it indicates the absence of any severe
5
6 multicollinearity problem in the model.
7
8
9 The analysis of the significant coefficients provides valuable insights into the nature and strength
10
11 of the relationships between the independent variables and the dependent variable.
12
13
14 "Family type" emerges as a crucial predictor with robust statistical significance. Holding other
15
16 variables constant, the estimated coefficient suggests that in a nuclear family system, the likelihood
17
18 of being a Tea garden laborer decreases. The odds of Tea garden laborer status are estimated to be
19
20 0.345 times lower for individuals in nuclear family setups. Likewise, an increase in the number of
21
22 family members is associated with a decrease (by approximately 0.635 units) in the probability of
23 being a Tea garden laborer. This implies limited living space in Tea garden households, potentially
24
25 necessitating relocation to other housing settlements.
26
27
28 Monthly per capita income negatively influences the logit, indicating that as monthly per capita
29
30 income rises, the likelihood of becoming a Tea garden laborer decreases, all else being equal. This
31
32 is corroborated by a comparison of per capita income between Ex-tea garden laborers and current
33
34 Tea garden laborers, revealing higher incomes for the former. Despite its relatively modest impact
35
36 (0.008%), the income variable remains a noteworthy predictor of the dependent variable.
37
38
39 The coefficient of the perception index indicates that, with an increase in its value and while
40
41 holding other variables constant, the probability of a household remaining as a Tea garden laborer
42 household decreases. In other words, the likelihood of transitioning to Ex-tea garden labor status
43
44 increases. The marginal effect of the perception index reveals that a one-unit increase in its value
45
46 decreases the probability of becoming a Tea garden laborer by 0.354 units.
47
48
49 As for age, education, and gender, the study fails to reject the null hypothesis due to insufficient
50
51 statistical evidence. These variables do not appear to have a significant impact on the dependent
52
53 variable based on the provided results.
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 18
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5 Conclusion
6
7 Academic discourse has placed significant emphasis on the subject of occupational mobility and
8
9 its profound influence on socioeconomic status. The decision to shift from one occupation to
10
11 another presents a dynamic landscape for a household, encompassing both challenges and
12
13 prospects. The present study specifically focuses on the Tea and Ex-tea garden labour communities
14
15 of Assam, India, with a total of 584 households from the tea community and 343 households from
16
17
the Ex-tea garden labour community serving as the primary sources of information. The study
18 reveals that approximately 48% of households in the Tea garden labour community are within the
19
20 below-middle socioeconomic status group (specifically the second and lowest categories). In
21
22 contrast, the Ex-tea garden labour community comprises only 27% of households within the same
23
24 socioeconomic status categories. In essence, the proportion of Tea garden labour community
25
26 households in the lowest and second lowest socioeconomic status categories is notably higher
27
28
compared to the Ex-tea garden labour community. Thus, the empirical evidence indicates an
29 improvement in the overall socioeconomic conditions of labourers who have transitioned from tea
30
31 gardens to alternative occupations. The findings derived from the logistic regression analysis,
32
33 show that the type of family, per capita income, socioeconomic status, and perception index have
34
35 a statistically significant impact on the decision to shift from Tea garden to Ex-tea garden labour.
36
37 The estimates of the logistic regression suggest that the limited availability of living space in the
38
39
tea garden housing quarters has compelled labourers to seek alternative settlements for their
40 residential needs. Moreover, the probability of transitioning to Ex-tea garden labour increases with
41
42 higher monthly per capita income and also an increase in the favourable perception towards Ex-
43
44 tea garden labour.
45
46
47 The plantation industry nationwide is grappling with a surplus of labor, primarily due to the low
48
49
skill requirements of jobs within this sector. Given the scenario in a developing nation like India,
50 it becomes imperative to strategically alleviate the excess supply of unskilled labor from sectors
51
52 already under strain. Instead, efforts should be directed toward offering educational courses and
53
54 skill development training to these laborers. This way, they can be equipped with the expertise
55
56 needed to transition into sectors facing a shortage of skilled workers.
57
58
59
The research demonstrates that laborers who have exited tea garden employment and embraced
60 other opportunities have experienced a boost in their per capita income, albeit to a small extent.
61
62 19
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 Providing these individuals with improved facilities and an environment conducive to personal
5
6 and professional growth has the potential to significantly contribute to inclusive growth in the
7
8 country. Such initiatives could pave the way for a more equitable distribution of opportunities in
9
10 the growth process, irrespective of individuals' socioeconomic backgrounds. This approach aligns
11
12 with the goal of fostering inclusive growth where every segment and community in society has a
13
14
fair and equal chance to participate in and benefit from the growth trajectory.
15
16 It is to be mentioned here that the study suffers from certain limitations. The study seems to present
17
18 a snapshot of the situation at a particular point in time. Longitudinal data or a historical perspective
19
20 could provide a deeper understanding of the changes in occupational mobility over time.
21
22 Moreover, the study provides information about socioeconomic factors influencing occupational
23
24
mobility but does not delve into other factors, such as social networks, access to resources, or
25 government policies, which could also play a significant role.
26
27
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Author’s Response to Reviewers‘ Comments Click here to access/download;Author’s Response to
Reviewers‘ Comments;Reply to the editors comments.docx

Reply to the Editor’s comment:

Comment 1: Building upon this background, the present study aims to investigate the effects
of occupational mobility on the socioeconomic status of the tea garden community in Assam.
Additionally, the study will shed.

There is a statement on the aim of the paper. Please add a sentence on the method and data.
Effects cannot be estimated using cross-sectional data. Use the term relationship. A statement
of contribution is missing.

The contribution of your work to the literature should be better highlighted. The method is
standard, and the data is cross-sectional and refers to one region. The theoretical contribution
is not completely clear. The introduction should outline: 1. What is already known about the
topic? 2. What is not known about the subject, and hence, what does the study intend to
examine? This means outline on what is the research gap you seek to fill. 3. What are the
specific research questions the study focuses on?

I do not understand the research question. Why it is interesting to study occupational mobility
in the tea sector. I do not think there is mobility in the tea sector which is often a second and
seasonal job.

Reply: Thank you very much for your valuable advice. Following the advice of the esteemed
editor, certain changes have been made in the modified version of the manuscript and
the changes have been highlighted in yellow colour.

Following the advice of the esteemed editor, certain information on the method of and data has
been incorporated in the last stanza of the introduction part and is highlighted in yellow colour.
The term ‘relationship’ has been used in place of ‘effects’, without altering the meaning.
Furthermore, theoretical contribution of the work has also been added in the same stanza. To
add to it, modifications have been made to highlight the novelty of the study by incorporating
the reason to study occupational mobility in the tea industry of the region.

Comment 2: Add more information to the database. When was the survey conducted?

Reply: The data required to meet the objectives of the paper were collected during July,2022
to December,2022. Following the advice of the editor, this information has been added
to the part, “Study site and Sample design” and highlighted in yellow colour.
Comment 3: Please add a conceptual background.

Reply: As per the advice of the reviewer, a conceptual background has been added.

Comment 4: Do not remove outliers.

Reply: The suggestion is incorporated in the modified version.

Comment 5: I suggest using the different socioeconomic variables and not a composite index.
An index is difficult to interpret.

Reply: Following the advice of the editor, the socio-economic status (SES) index has been
removed from the regression analysis and accordingly estimates of the coefficients of
different socio-economic and demographic variables have been interpreted. Following
the suggestion of the editor, per capita income (PCI) is used to capture socio-economic
condition of the respondents.

Comment 6: Page 8, expected utility; please add a reference.

Reply: Thank you so much for this and I strongly feel it was important to add a reference about
expected utility and accordingly it has been added in Page 8.

Comment 7: Add subscript i to the x variables.

Reply: As per the valuable advice of the editor, subscript ‘i’ to the x variables has been added
in the Equation.

Comment 8: There is a substantial degree of multicollinearity between age and the

socioeconomic index. Use the different variables separately.

Reply: As per the comment (5) of the editor, the variable socio-economic index has been
removed from the regression analysis and therefore ruling out all possibilities of the
presence of multicollinearity between the variables; age and socio-economic index.
Moreover, to rule out any possible presence of multicollinearity between the other
variables, attempts were made to check the presence of the same and it was found that
there exists no multicollinearity between the different variables under consideration for
the study. The VIF values shows that there is absence of severe multicollinearity
problem in the estimation.

Comment 9: Do not display the standard deviation for dummy variables.

Reply: With regard to this comment, the values of standard deviation of the dummy variables
have been removed.

Comment 10: Show descriptive statistics for all variables

Reply: The descriptive statistics of all the relevant variables incorporated in the analysis are
shown in the tables. (Table no 2 and Table no 5)

Comment 11: You have estimated a binary logistics model and not a fixed effects logistics
model. Change this.

Reply: As per the advice of the editor, the required changes has been made and highlighted in
yellow colour.

Comment 12: It is sufficient to explain either the odds ratio or the marginal effects but not
both.

Reply: Thank you so much for pointing this out and as per the comment of the esteemed editor,
estimates of the marginal effects have been deleted from the table.

Comment 13: The conclusions need more work. Add limitations and policy implications.

Reply: As per this advice, necessary modification is done in the conclusion part. Also,
limitations of the study and policy implications have been incorporated in the
concluding paragraph and is highlighted in yellow colour.

Comment 14: Please update the references. There are no references after 2018. There are few
references on occupational mobility. Your study should be better embedded in the
literature. I suggest to cite 20-30 journal articles.

Reply: Following this advice from the editor, references were updated and more references
after the year 2018 have been incorporated in the paper. Furthermore, more references
on occupational mobility were included to make the study more embedded in relevant
literature.

With Regards
Cover Letter

To Dated: 03-11-2023
The Editor
SN Business and Economics

Sub: Submission of an original research paper for publication – Regarding

Dear Editor,

I am sending herewith modified version of the research paper entitled, “Does transitioning
between different occupations reshape an Individual's Socioeconomic standing? Investigating
the Influence of Occupational Mobility on the Socioeconomic landscape of Assam's Tea Garden
Laborers” for publication in your esteemed journal ‘SN Business and Economics’. The paper
is original and prepared as per the guidelines of the journal. It has neither been published nor
sent for publication elsewhere.

The order of authors of the paper is as follows:

1. Lipika Kalita (First Author)

2. Hari K. Choudhury (Second Author)

Corresponding author: Hari K. Choudhury

Address : Indian Institute of Information Technology Guwahati, India - 781015
Email : hari@iiitg.ac.in
Contact: +919749430881

Looking forward to hearing from you.

With kind regards,

Yours sincerely,

Dr. Hari K Choudhury

Assistant Professor of Economics
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences
Indian Institute of Information Technology Guwahati
Assam, India - 781015