Lecture N4 LIQUIDS AND GASES

Part N1

Fluids. The differences in the physical properties of solids, liquids, and

gases are explained in terms of the forces that bind the molecules. In
a solid, the molecules are rigidly bound; a solid therefore has a
definite shape and volume. The molecules constituting a liquid are
not bound together with sufficient force to maintain a definite shape,
but the binding is sufficiently strong to maintain a definite volume. A
liquid adapts its shape to the vessel in which it is contained. In a gas,
the molecules are not bound to each other. Therefore, a gas has
neither a definite shape nor a definite volume—it completely fills the
vessel in which it is contained. Both gases and liquids are free to flow
and are called fluids.
Fluids and solids are governed by the same laws of mechanics, but, because of their ability to flow, fluids
exhibit some phenomena not found in solid matter. we will discuss the properties of fluid pressure,
buoyant force in liquids, and surface tension with examples from biology and zoology.
Force and Pressure in a Fluid. Solids and fluids transmit forces differently. When
a force is applied to one section of a solid, this force is transmitted to the other
parts of the solid with its direction unchanged. Because of a fluid’s ability to
flow, it transmits a force uniformly in all directions. Therefore, the pressure at
any point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions. The force exerted by a
fluid at rest on any area is perpendicular to the area. A fluid in a container exerts
a force on all parts of the container in contact with the fluid. A fluid also exerts a force on any object
immersed in it. The pressure in a fluid increases with depth because of the weight of the
fluid above. In a fluid of constant density ρ, the difference in pressure, P2 −P1, between two points
separated by a vertical distance h is:
FIGURE1. An illustration of Pascal’s principle.
P2 −P1 = ρgh
Pressure due to gravity in liquids, the pressure generated within a liquid by its own weight. It results
from the force exerted by a liquid column of height h and volume V = hA on its base area A:

Pascal’s law: a change in the pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted undiminished to every point of
the fluid and to the walls of the container.
SI unit of pressure, Pascal, Pa, SI unit of pressure.1 pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of 1 N on an
area of 1 m2. [p] = Pa = pascal = N/m2
 Pressure is not a vector quantity. It acts in any direction with the same magnitude.
 Attention! The same symbol, p, is used for pressure and for linear momentum.
 The pressure due to gravity in a liquid depends on the depth. Hence, the isotropic pressure
in the liquid is the same only at a given level because it depends on depth.
Atmospheric pressure, at sea level about 1 bar = 105 Pa. Fluid pressure is often measured in millimeters
of mercury, or torr. One torr is the pressure exerted by a column of mercury that is 1 mm high. The
relationship between the torr and several of the other units used to measure pressure follows:
1 torr = 1mm Hg = 1.33×103 dyn/cm2 = 1.32×10−3 atm = 1.93×10−2 psi = 1.33×102 Pa (N/m2) = 13.5mm
water.
Definition of pressure. Pressure, force per unit area acting normally to a surface element within a fluid.
This holds only if the pressure due to gravity can be ignored. Shear stresses do not exist in fluids.

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Pascal’s Principle
When a force F1 is applied on a surface of a liquid that has an area A1,
the pressure in the liquid increases by an amount P (see Fig. 4.1), given
by
P = F1/A1 (4.1)
In an incompressible liquid, the increase in the pressure at any point is
transmitted undiminished to all other points in the liquid. This is known
as Pascal’s principle. Because the pressure throughout the fluid is the
same, the force F2 acting on the area A2 in Fig. 4.1 is
𝑨𝟐
F2 =PA2 = F1 (4.2)
𝑨𝟏
The ratio A2/A1 is analogous to the mechanical advantage of a lever.
Hydrostatic paradox, the pressure at the bottom of a vessel
depends only on the density of the liquid and the height of the
liquid column, but not on the shape of the vessel, and hence not
on the quantity of liquid. Fig. 4.2: Hydrostatic paradox. For equal
height h of the column, the pressure on the base area A is independent of the shape of the vessels 1, 2, 3.

Pressure Measurements
Barometer Invented by Torricelli. One instrument used to measure atmospheric
pressure is the common barometer, invented by Evangelista Torricelli (1608–
1647). A long tube closed at one end is filled with mercury and then inverted
into a dish of mercury (Fig. 14.6a). The closed end of the tube is nearly a
vacuum, so the pressure at the top of the mercury column can be taken as zero.
In Figure a, the pressure at point A, due to the column of mercury, must equal
the pressure at point B, due to the atmosphere. If this were not the case, there
would be a net force that would move mercury from one point to the other until
equilibrium is established. Therefore, it follows that P0 =ρHg gh, where ρHg is the density of the mercury
and h is the height of the mercury column. As atmospheric pressure varies, the height of the mercury
column varies, so the height can be calibrated to measure atmospheric pressure. Let us determine the
height of a mercury column for one atmosphere of pressure, P0 =1 atm =0.760 m (of Hg) =1.013 *105
Pa:

Manometer
A device for measuring the pressure of a gas contained in a vessel. One end of the U-shaped tube is
open to the atmosphere.
The other end is connected to the pressure to be measured.
The other end is connected to the pressure to be measured.
Pressure at B is P = Po+ρgh
The height can be calibrated to measure the pressure.
The difference in height, "ℎ," which is the sum of the readings above and
below zero, indicates the gauge pressure (𝑝=ρgℎ).
The difference in height, "ℎ," which is the sum of the readings above and
below zero, indicates the amount of vacuum.
sphygmomanometer

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The manometer is a part of medical device that measures the blood
pressure, which is called a sphygmomanometer
There are many types of blood pressure measuring instruments.

Quick Quiz 4.1 Several common barometers are built, with a variety of
fluids. For which of the following fluids will the column of fluid in the
barometer be the highest? (a) mercury (b) water (c) ethyl alcohol (d)
benzene

Blood pressure
Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. It usually refers to
the pressure in large arteries of the systemic circulation. Blood pressure is
usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure (maximum during one
heart beat) over diastolic pressure (minimum in between two heart beats)
and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) above the surrounding
atmospheric pressure (considered to be zero for convenience).
Measuring of blood pressure
Normal resting blood pressure in an adult is approximately 120 millimeters
of systolic, and 80 millimeters of diastolic, abbreviated "120/80mmHg".
Hypertension (high blood pressure)
Blood pressure increases when the heart pumps blood more vigorously or
when arteries narrow, causing increased resistance to blood. In order to understand how narrowness of
arteries can affect blood pressure, imagine pressing a tube of toothpaste. If the tube is normal.

Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’s Principle

Archimedes’ principle states that a body partially or wholly submerged in a fluid is buoyed
upward by a force that is equal in magnitude to the weight of the displaced fluid. The derivation of this
principle is found in basic physics texts. We will now use
Archimedes’ principle to calculate the power required to remain
afloat in water and to study the buoyancy of fish.

Figure. 4.5 (a) A swimmer attempts to push a beach ball

underwater. (b) The forces on a beach ball–sized parcel of water.
The buoyant force B on a beach ball that replaces this parcel is
exactly the same as the buoyant force on the parcel

Buoyancy, a force directed in a direction opposite to Earth’s attraction and acting on all bodies
submerged in a liquid (or gas). Buoyancy results from the difference in pressure on the upper and lower
face of the body (Fig. 4.6). If the upper face of the body with an area A is at the depth h1, and the lower
face (of the same area) at the depth h2, then

Figure 4.6: Buoyancy. The lateral forces F3 cancel each other; the force F2
(below) exceeds the force F1 (above).

FA = F2 − F1 = A (p2 − p1) = A ρFl g (h2 − h1)

(ρFl density of the liquid, p1, p2 pressure at h1 and h2, F1, F2 force at the upper and lower face of the body, FA
buoyant force, g gravitational acceleration). The quantity A (h2 −h1) is the volume V of liquid displaced by the
body. Hence:

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The density stands for the mean density of the entire body, i.e., total mass divided by
total volume.
Principle of Archimedes and properties of buoyancy
Principle of Archimedes, the buoyant force experienced by a body submerged in a liquid
equals the weight of the displaced quantity of liquid.
 This rule holds also for partly submerged bodies.
There are three kinds of buoyant forces:
 FA < FG: The body sinks when its density is larger than the density of the liquid;
 FA = FG: The body remains suspended when its density equals the density of the liquid;
 FA > FG: The body floats and is only partly submerged when its density is less than the density of
the liquid.
The density of iron is 7.8 times that of water. An iron body experiences a buoyant force

i.e., 13% of its weight. The effective weight of iron is only 87% of its true weight when submerged in
water. The effective weight of a submerged body is the real weight minus the buoyancy:

A body in air also experiences a buoyant force corresponding to the weight of the displaced air.

Balloon
flying object kept in the air by the buoyant force. The force is generated by filling the balloon with a gas
having a density lower than that of the atmosphere (heated air, helium; in the past, hydrogen).
Surface tension,
force on the surface of a liquid caused by the molecular forces within the liquid
(Fig. 4.7). In the interior of the liquid, cohesive forces act isotopically with the
same magnitude, since any molecule is surrounded in any direction by other
molecules in the same way. At the surface, however, a resultant cohesive force
arises towards the interior, which must be compensated by a pressure within
the liquid.
Surface energy, the potential energy resulting from the surface tension. The surface tension
opposes an increase in the surface area. In order to enlarge the surface by an amount A, an amount of
work W is required. The ratio of the work W to the surface increase A is called the surface tension σ:

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 Surface tension is measured by a wire frame of length d (Fig. 4.8) submerged in a liquid and pulled out
by an amount s, thereby forming a thin liquid film of surface A = 2d s. If the frame is pulled out of the
liquid with a force F, the work done to generate the liquid film is W = F s. Therefore,

Figure Fig. 4.8: Measurement of surface tension. A liquid film is drawn

with a wire frame, and the force F is measured.

Specific properties of surface tension

Surface tension represents a force per unit length of the boundary line.

▲ The force Fσ acting due to the surface tension on a boundary line of length l is
Fσ = lσ .
 A system always tends to approach the state of lowest potential energy. For this reason,
the surface of a liquid is always a minimum surface.
 The body with the minimum surface for a given volume is the sphere. If no other
forces are present, a drop of liquid takes a spherical shape. Special case: soap-bubble.
Definition of the flow field
Every particle of a flowing fluid has a velocity defined by magnitude and direction. The basic
assumption of hydrodynamics is that the mean velocity of the particles over a small volume is nearly
constant. One therefore may assign to any point in the fluid a mean velocity v of the mass particles in a
small volume element around this point. The velocity distribution in space and time arising in this way is
called the velocity field v(x, y, z, t). Analogously, one introduces the pressure field p(x, y, z, t), the
temperature field T (x, y, z, t) and the density field ρ(x, y, z, t).
The velocity field is a vector field; its value v(x, y, z, t) gives the mean velocity of the
particles that at the instant t are within a small volume element around the position (x, y, z).
One distinguishes between time-independent (stationary) and time-dependent (non-stationary)
flow, and also between space-dependent (non-uniform) and space-independent (uniform) flow.
For stationary flows:

Streamlines and pathlines serve for visualization of the flow field (Fig. 4.9).
Streamlines follow the velocity vectors in a given instant, i.e., a tangent to a
streamline gives the direction of flow at this point (Fig. 4.9). The streamlines must
be distinguished from the pathlines, which describe the real motion of the
material particles over a certain period.
▲ For steady flows, streamlines and pathlines coincide.

In a streamline plot, the finite density of lines n (n: number of streamlines intersecting a unit area)
characterizes the flow velocity: n ∼ |v|. Stream tube, tube-like space region. The boundary lines of the
tube coincide with streamlines (Fig. 4.10). In stationary flow, the liquid does not cross the boundary of
the stream tube (Fig. 4.10).

Fig. 4.10a Flow field Fig. 4.10b Velocity field. Streamlines in Fig. 4.10c Streamline density n in a tube of
around a plate a stream tube with the cross-sectional variable cross-section.
areas A and A_.
Ideal liquid, liquid that is incompressible and does not exhibit friction. In an ideal liquid, no
vortices can occur, rot _v = 0. As the name suggests, this idealization cannot be realized physically. Ideal
flow, an incompressible flow without frictional forces.
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➤ Ideal gases are gases with a compressibility that follows the law of ideal gases. The
flow of real gases is not ideal flow.

Continuity equation, expresses the conservation of mass. One

considers (Fig. 4.11) a tube with the cross-sectional area A through
which a liquid is flowing. The mass ∆m of all particles passing the
area A in a time interval ∆t is given by the product of area, time
interval, density ρ and velocity v of the liquid:
Figure 4.11: Flow in a tube of varying cross-section A ∆m = ρ v A∆t .
At another position along the tube, where the cross-section is A_ and the velocity is v, the
same mass must pass the area per unit time because there is assumed to be no sources or
sinks for the material. Then
ρvA = ρ'v ‘A’.
Incompressible liquid: ρ = ρ', and therefore:

▲ The smaller the cross-sectional area of a tube, the higher the velocity of the liquid passing through it.
Volume flux, volume flow, Q = vA, [Q] = m3/s. Volume of liquid that passes a tube of cross-sectional area
A per unit time.
Bernoulli’s law
Bernoulli’s law, establishes a relation between the cross-sectional area of a tube and the pressure in the
tube. One distinguishes:
• static pressure, which acts with equal magnitude perpendicular and parallel to the flow direction;
• pressure due to gravity (geodesic pressure), which corresponds to the hydrostatic pressure in a liquid
column;
• dynamic pressure, which occurs because of the flow. The dynamic pressure depends on the flow
velocity.
➤ In a flowing liquid, the pressure is not the same in different directions, it is not
isotropic. The static pressure is just the isotropic component of the total pressure.
▲ Bernoulli’s law:
In steady flow, the sum of static and dynamic pressure is constant.

Derivation of Bernoulli’s equation

Bernoulli’s law follows from energy conservation. If a volume ∆V of a liquid has a kinetic energy
1 2
2
ρ∆V v (ρ density, v velocity) at a point where the tube cross-section is A, and the kinetic energy 12
1
ρ∆V v’2 at another point where the cross-section is A’, then the difference
2
𝟏
∆Wkin = ρ∆V (v2 - v’2),
𝟐
must originate from the pressure difference and the difference of the potential energies ∆Vρg(h – h’) (h,
h’ are the corresponding heights).
Pressure energy, Wp, the work to be expended to force the volume V at a pressure p into the
tube,
Wp = pA∆s = p∆V .
Then:
∆Wkin = V (p – p’) + ∆Vρg(h – h’),
and therefore:

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 The first term is the static pressure, the second and third are the dynamic pressure and the
pressure due to gravity (Fig. 4.12).
➤ Bernoulli’s equation holds for steady, non-viscous flow, and is therefore an idealization.

Figure 4.12: On Bernoulli’s equation.

Methods of measurement based on Bernoulli’s law

Flow nozzle, constriction of a pipe along the flow direction to increase the flow velocity. Basic tool to
convert pressure energy into kinetic energy. Application in turbines, jet nozzles.
Diffuser, channel extension. Inverse of nozzle: kinetic energy of the flowing liquid is converted to
pressure energy. Application in flow-type pumps. The continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation form
the basis of several methods of pressure measurement (Fig. 4.13):
M Static-pressure tube, for measurements of static pressure. The pressure is probed at an opening in
the pipe and measured by a manometer.
M Pitot tube, for measurements of static and dynamic pressure. The pressure arises at the mouth of a
tube in a direction opposite to the flow direction.
M Prandtl’s impact tube, combines the Pitot tube and the static pressure tube for measurements
of the dynamic pressure as the
difference between the total and static
pressure. For known density ρ of the
liquid, one can evaluate the flow velocity
v from the dynamic pressure pS,
𝟐𝒑𝑺
v =√
𝝆

Figure 4.13: Methods for pressure measurements based on Bernoulli’s law. (a): static pressure tube, (b): Pitot
tube (static pressure and dynamic pressure), (c): Prandtl’s impact tube (dynamic pressure).
Venturi tube, (nozzle device), for measuring the volume flow Q according to the Venturi principle. The
difference between the static pressure before and in a nozzle constriction is measured. The faster the
liquid flows, the smaller the static pressure (Fig. 4.14):

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(A1 cross-section of tube, A2 constricted cross-section, p pressure difference, ρ density of fluid, g
acceleration of gravity, h difference of heights in the ascension tube).

Figure 4.14: Venturi tube for measuring

volume flow according to the Bernoulli
equation.

➤ In real, viscous flows the friction must be

taken into account. In practice, one applies
correction factors determined by a calibration.

Torricelli’s effluent formula

Effluent velocity
The effluent velocity of a liquid through a small aperture on the surface of a vessel under the influence
of the weight is obtained from Bernoulli’s equation. If one compares a small volume of liquid at an
arbitrary point in the vessel (height h1, at rest) with another volume at the effluent aperture (height h2,
velocity v), with atmospheric pressure p0, one gets

𝝆
ρgh1 + p0 = ρgh2 + v2 + p0 ,
𝟐
and therefore:

Torricelli’s effluent law

The effluent velocity in a liquid column of height h above the effluent aperture equals the
velocity of free fall of a body from the height h (Fig. 4.15).
The horizontal distance L of the jet from the outlet of the vessel at the depth h2 below
the aperture is
L = 2 √𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟐 ·
For an aperture in the bottom of the vessel follows an effluent velocity of
v =√𝟐𝒈𝒉
If an additional pressure pext acts on the surface of the liquid, the effluent velocity is

𝒑𝐞𝐱𝐭
v =√𝟐𝒈𝒉 + 𝝆

Figure 4.15: Torricelli’s effluent law. The effluent velocity v depends on the height h1 of the liquid
column above the aperture.
Effluent velocity

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By the same consideration, one may find the effluent velocity from a pipe in which an overpressure p
(compared with the exterior) exists:

➤ In the considerations above, the friction within the liquid has been ignored. Friction may be taken into
account by multiplying the velocity by a velocity coefficient φ (water: φ ≈ 0.97). Moreover, a
constriction of the jet arises when the liquid leaves the exit aperture; the effect may be taken into
account by the coefficient of contraction α (sharp-edged exit: α ≈ 0.61). The product of both corrections
is called coefficient of discharge μ, μ = φ α. In order to take the friction and the influence of the exit
aperture into account, the values for the effluent velocity v and the distance L calculated with the above
formulae must be multiplied by the coefficient of discharge μ.

Suction effects
According to Bernoulli’s law, the static pressure in a flowing fluid is smaller than the static pressure in
the liquid at rest. This causes suction effects in flows:
▲ Venturi principle, by reducing the cross-sectional area of a pipe and the resulting acceleration of the
flow, the static pressure in the tube may fall below the atmospheric pressure in the vicinity; hence,
another liquid may be sucked in.
a) Water-jet pump, suction of a gas by a liquid (Fig. 4.16). The liquid (water, mercury) flowing at high
speed through a nozzle leads to a reduction of the static pressure, which causes suction of the gas from
the vessel to be evacuated.
Mercury-vapor diffusion pumps
of this design are used in vacuum
technology; such pumps reach
pressure values of 1 Pa = 10−5
bar. The pressure that can be
reached is limited by the vapor
pressure of the liquid.

Figure 4.16: Water-jet pump. Figure 4.16: Sprayer.

b) Sprayer, for suction of a liquid into an air flow (Fig. 4.16). The top of the sprayer capillary is placed
into an air flow. Owing to the reduced static pressure, as compared with the pressure on the liquid in
the vessel, the liquid is sucked in.
Adhesion,
denotes the attractive forces between the molecules of two distinct materials, unlike cohesion, which is
between molecules of the same material. Adhesion may occur between solid, liquid, or gaseous
materials. In particular, in the contact of a liquid (drop) and a solid (supporting surface) the following
cases must be distinguished, depending on the ratio of strengths of cohesive and adhesive forces (Fig.
4.17):
• the adhesive forces dominate: the liquid spreads over the entire supporting surface
(perfect wetting),
• the cohesive forces dominate: the liquid contracts into drop-like objects (no wetting). Rim angle, φ,
the angle between the liquid surface and the supporting surface at the contact point. For wetting
liquids, 0 ≤ φ ≤ π/2. For a non-wetting liquid, π/2 < φ ≤ π. Figure

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Figure4.17: Contact of a liquid drop with a solid support area. (a): wetting, rim angle φ < π/2, (b): no
wetting, rim angle φ > π/2.
Capillary action,
the phenomenon of the rising of a liquid in a thin tube (capillary) (Fig4.18). It is caused by the surface
tension at the boundary line of the liquid, and the resulting force is Fσ =σl = σ · 2πr (l: circumference).
This force is compensated by the weight of the liquid column FG = mg = ρ · h · πr2 (m mass of the liquid
column). From FG = Fσ , one obtains:

Figure 4.18: Capillarity. (a): capillary ascension, (b): capillary depression.

Internal friction
Internal friction, friction originating from cohesion forces between molecules of liquids or gases. The
kinetic energy of the fluid is dissipated by friction, which manifests itself as an increase in temperature.
Laminar flow, a flow in which individual films of liquid of finite
thickness slide over each other, without notable mixing between the
layers, as e.g., in the flow between two parallel plates moving with
respect to each other (Fig. 4.19).
Fig. 4.19 Layers of liquid in laminar flow between two plates moving
with respect to each other.
The liquid moves in the same direction over the entire volume considered, but the individual layers
move with different velocities. Frictional forces arise in this sliding and cause a uniform decrease of
velocity across the flow profile (Fig. 4.20). The opposite is turbulent flow.
Turbulent Flow
If the velocity of a fluid is increased past a critical point, the smooth
laminar flow shown in Fig. 4.21 is disrupted. The flow becomes
turbulent with eddies and whirls disrupting the laminar flow. In a
cylindrical pipe the critical flow velocity vc above which the flow is
turbulent, is given by
Figure 4.21 Turbulent fluid flow.
𝐑𝜼
vc =
𝝆𝑫
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Here D is the diameter of the cylinder, ρ is the density of the fluid, and η is the viscosity. The symbol R is
the Reynold’s number, which for most fluids has a value between 2000 and 3000. The frictional forces in
turbulent flow are greater than in laminar flow. Therefore, as the flow turns turbulent, it becomes more
difficult to force a fluid through a pipe.

Figure 4.22: Velocity profile in laminar flow between two parallel plates
owing with respect to each other
Velocity gradient, dv/dx, the difference of velocities of two
neighboring layers, referred to the thickness of a layer. A plot of the
velocity of a layer versus its position shows the velocity profile v(x); the
first derivative dv/dx of the profile represents the velocity gradient.

Newtonian viscosity,
describes the strength of the frictional force between neighboring layers of a laminar flow. The force
acting on such a layer is proportional to the area of the layer, and to the velocity gradient with respect
to the neighboring layers:

The proportionality constant η is called dynamic viscosity, or simply viscosity. The unit of viscosity is
Pascal second (Pa · s). The higher the viscosity of a liquid, the greater the force required to move the
layers against each other. A typical order of magnitude for η is 10−5 Pa · s for gases, 10−3 Pa · s for water
and between 0.1 and 0.01 Pa · s (depending on temperature) for lubricating oils.
The viscosity manifests itself directly when one pulls a plate out of a narrow vessel. If the
distance between the plate and the wall of the vessel is sufficiently small, viscosity shows up as a
braking force.
Non-SI unit: Poise (named after the physicist Poiseuille)
1 Poise = 0.1 Pa · s.
Reynolds number,
Re, describes the hydrodynamic similarity
The Reynolds number is a
dimensionless quantity. L
denotes a typical extension
in the geometry
considered, e.g., the
diameter of a sphere or the
edge length of a cube. The
Reynolds number is a
measure for the ratio of
the inertial force of a
volume of liquid to the
drag force acting on it. The behavior of the flow is determined by the interplay of both quantities. The
Reynolds number depends on the temperature.
Fluidity and kinematic viscosity
Fluidity, φ, the reciprocal value of dynamic viscosity:

φ = 1/η, [φ] = m2/Ns

Obsolete unit:
1 Stokes = 1 St = 10−4 m2/s.

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Typical orders of magnitude of the kinematic viscosity are 10−6 m2/s for water, 10−4 m2/s for air, and
from 1 to several hundred m2/s for motor oils. Although the dynamic viscosity gives the force acting on a
layer of liquid, the kinematic viscosity takes into account the density of the liquid, and hence the mass
∆m = ρ∆V =ρ A∆x of the layer of liquid. The kinematic viscosity specifies the acceleration
(a acceleration, ∆m mass of layer, FR frictional force, A area, ∆x thickness of layer, ν kinematic viscosity,
v velocity difference).

The viscosity is a constant that depends on the material; it is strongly temperature and pressure-
dependent. The dependence on the temperature is described approximately by
η = A eb/T
with material-dependent constants A and b; hence, it decreases with increasing temperature. The
viscosity and its temperature dependence is of particular importance for lubricants. The dynamic
viscosity of gases is much lower than that of liquids (air 1.7 ·10−5 Pa · s, water 1.8 · 10−3 Pa · s for 0 ◦C).
The viscosity of solutions and mixtures of fluids is strongly dependent on the concentration.
Non-Newtonian materials, materials for which the Newtonian viscosity is not valid and/or the
deformation of which is not plastic. Such materials are polymeric materials (liquid plastics) and
dispersions (liquids containing solids or other liquids suspended as small spheres; also denoted
suspension or colloid, depending on their dimension).

Thermodynamics
The sensation of hotness is certainly familiar to all of us. We know from experience that when
two bodies, one hot and the other cold, are placed in an enclosure, the hotter body will cool and the
colder body will heat until the degree of hotness of the two bodies is the same. Clearly something has
been transferred from one body to the other to equalize their hotness. That which has been transferred
from the hot body to the cold body is called heat. Heat may be transformed into work, and therefore it
is a form of energy. Heated water, for example, can turn into steam, which can push a piston. In fact,
heat can be defined as energy being transferred from a hotter body to a colder body.

Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

We often associate the concept of temperature with how hot or cold an object feels when we touch it.
Thus, our senses provide us with a qualitative indication of temperature. However, our senses are
unreliable and often mislead us. For example, if we remove a metal ice tray and a cardboard box of
frozen vegetables from the freezer, the ice tray feels colder than the box even though both are at the
same temperature. The two objects feel different because metal transfers energy by heat at a higher
rate than cardboard does. To understand the concept of temperature, it is useful to define two often-
used phrases: thermal contact and thermal equilibrium.
To grasp the meaning of thermal contact, imagine that two objects are placed in an insulated
container such that they interact with each other but not with the environment. we assume that two
objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy can be exchanged between them by these
processes due to a temperature difference.
Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects would not exchange energy by heat or
electromagnetic radiation if they were placed in thermal contact.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics. If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
object C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
The pressure is zero when the temperature is - 273.15°C! This suggests some special role that
this particular temperature must play. It is used as the basis for the absolute temperature scale, which
sets -273.15°C as its zero point. This temperature is often referred to as absolute zero. The size of a
degree on the absolute temperature scale is chosen to be identical to the size of a degree on the Celsius
scale. Thus, the conversion between these temperatures is
TC = T - 273.15
Celsius Scale
The ice point of water is defined to be 0oC.
The steam point of water is defined to be 100oC.
The length of the column between these two points is divided into 100 increments, called degrees.
Problems with Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
An alcohol thermometer and a mercury thermometer may agree only at the calibration points.
12
The discrepancies between thermometers are especially large when the temperatures being measured
are far from the calibration points.
The thermometers also have a limited range of values that can be measured.
Mercury cannot be used under –39oC
Alcohol cannot be used above 85oC
An Ideal Gas
For gases, the interatomic forces within the gas are very weak.
State variables describe the state of a system.
Variables may include:
Pressure, temperature, volume, internal energy

The state of an isolated system can be specified only if the system is in thermal equilibrium internally.
 For a gas in a container, this means every part of the gas must be at the same pressure and
temperature.
It is useful to know how the volume, pressure, and temperature of the gas of mass m are related.
The equation that interrelates these quantities is called the equation of state.
The ideal gas model can be used to make predictions about the behavior of gases.
The Mole
The amount of gas in a given volume is conveniently expressed in terms of the number of moles, n.
One mole of any substance is that amount of the substance that contains Avogadro’s number of
constituent particles.
 Avogadro’s number is NA= 6.022 x 1023

The constituent particles can be atoms or molecules.

The number of moles can be determined from the mass of the substance:
 M is the molar mass of the substance.
Can be obtained from the periodic table
 Is the atomic mass expressed in grams/mole
Example: He has mass of 4.00 u so M = 4.00 g/mol
 m is the mass of the sample.

 n is the number of moles.

Gas Laws
When a gas is kept at a constant temperature, its pressure is inversely proportional to its volume
(Boyle’s law).

When a gas is kept at a constant pressure, its volume is directly proportional to its temperature (Charles
and Gay-Lussac’s law).

13
When the volume of the gas is kept constant, the pressure is directly proportional to the temperature
(Guy-Lussac’slaw).

Ideal Gas Law

The equation of state for an ideal gas combines and summarizes the other gas laws:

PV= nRT
n (or 𝝂 ) is the number of moles.
This is known as the ideal gas law.
R is a constant, called the Universal Gas Constant.
 R= 8.314 J/mol· K = 0.08214 L ·atm/mol·K
From this, you can determine that 1 mole of any gas at atmospheric pressure and at 0oC is 22.4 L.
It is common to call P, V, and T the thermodynamic variables of an ideal gas.

Heat and Internal Energy

Internal energy is all the energy of a system that is associated with its microscopic
components—atoms and molecules—when viewed from a reference frame at rest with respect to the
center of mass of the system.
The last part of this sentence ensures that any bulk kinetic energy of the system due to its motion
through space is not included in internal energy. Internal energy includes kinetic energy of random
translational, rotational, and vibrational motion of molecules, potential energy within molecules, and
potential energy between molecules.
Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to a
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
When you heat a substance, you are transferring energy into it by placing it in contact with
surroundings that have a higher temperature. This is the case, for example, when you place a pan of
cold water on a stove burner—the burner is at a higher temperature than the water, and so the water
gains energy. We shall also use the term heat to represent the amount of energy transferred by this
method.
Unit of Heat
Heat is measured in calories. One calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 g of water by 1 C◦. Actually, because this value depends somewhat on the initial temperature of
the water, the calorie is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from
14.5◦C to 15.5◦C. One calorie is equal to 4.184 J. In the life sciences, heat is commonly measured in
kilocalorie units, abbreviated Cal; 1 Cal is equal to 1000 cal.
1 cal =4.186 J
This equality is known, for purely historical reasons, as the mechanical equivalent of heat.
Tab.1

14
The heat capacity C of a particular sample of a substance is defined as the amount of energy needed
to raise the temperature of that sample by 1°C. From this definition, we see that if energy Q produces a
change ∆T in the temperature of a sample, then
Q =C∆T
The specific heat c of a substance is the heat capacity per unit mass. Thus, if energy Q transfers to a
sample of a substance with mass m and the temperature of the sample changes by ∆T, then the specific
heat of the substance is
𝐐
c=
𝐦∆𝐓
Specific heat is essentially a measure of how thermally insensitive a substance is to the addition of
energy. The greater a material’s specific heat, the more energy must be added to a given mass of the
material to cause a particular temperature change. Table 1 lists representative specific heats.
From this definition, we can relate the energy Q transferred between a sample of mass m of a material
and its surroundings to a temperature change ∆T as
Q =mc ∆T
Conservation of Energy: Calorimetry
One technique for measuring specific heat involves heating a sample to some known
temperature Tx, placing it in a vessel containing water of known mass and temperature Tw < Tx , and
measuring the temperature of the water after equilibrium has been reached. This technique is called
calorimetry, and devices in which this energy transfer occurs are called calorimeters. If the system of
the sample and the water is isolated, the law of the conservation of energy requires that the amount of
energy that leaves the sample (of unknown specific heat) equal the amount of energy that enters
the water. Conservation of energy allows us to write the mathematical representation of this energy
statement as
Qcold = -Qhot
The negative sign in the equation is necessary to maintain consistency with our sign convention for heat.
Latent Heat
A substance often undergoes a change in temperature when energy is transferred between it and its
surroundings. There are situations, however, in which the transfer of energy does not result in a change
in temperature. This is the case whenever the physical characteristics of the substance change from one
form to another; such a change is commonly referred to as a phase change. Two common phase
changes are from solid to liquid (melting) and from liquid to gas (boiling); another is a change in the
crystalline structure of a solid. All such phase changes involve a change in internal energy but no change
in temperature. The increase in internal energy in boiling, for example, is represented by the breaking of
bonds between molecules in the liquid state; this bond breaking allows the molecules to move farther
apart in the gaseous state, with a corresponding increase in intermolecular potential energy. As you
might expect, different substances respond differently to the addition or removal of energy as they
change phase because their internal molecular arrangements vary. Also, the amount of energy
transferred during a phase change depends on the amount of substance involved. (It takes less energy
to melt an ice cube than it does to thaw a frozen lake.) If a quantity Q of energy transfer is required to
change the phase of a mass m of a substance, the ratio L = Q/m characterizes an important thermal
property of that substance. Because this added or removed energy does not result in a temperature
15
change, the quantity L is called the latent heat (literally, the “hidden” heat) of the substance. The value
of L for a substance depends on the nature of the phase change, as well as on the properties of the
substance. From the definition of latent heat, and again choosing heat as our energy transfer
mechanism, we find that the energy required to change the phase of a given mass m of a pure
substance is
Q = ±mL (*)
Latent heat of fusion Lf is the term used when the phase change is from solid to liquid (to fuse means
“to combine by melting”), and latent heat of vaporization Lv is the term used when the phase change is
from liquid to gas (the liquid “vaporizes”).4 The latent heats of various substances vary considerably, as
data in Table 1 show. The positive sign in Equation (*)is used when energy enters a system, causing
melting or vaporization. The negative sign corresponds to energy leaving a system, such that the
system freezes or condenses.
Specific heat capacities
The specific heat capacity may be measured either at constant pressure (volume varies with
temperature), or at constant volume (pressure varies with temperature).
Notation:
cV volume remains constant, pressure varies;
cp pressure remains constant, volume varies.
Analogously, total (CV , Cp) and molar heat capacities (cV mol, cp mol) for constant volume
and constant pressure may be defined.
For a gas with f degrees of freedom, the molar or specific heat capacity at constant volume is:

The difference between the specific heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume,
respectively, is a material-dependent constant, the specific gas constant Rs .

For the molar heat capacity in the ideal gas:

cp mol − cV mol = R.
Specific gas constant, individual gas constant Rs, the material-dependent proportionality
factor used in technical thermodynamics in the equation of state of an ideal gas.
 The quantity of heat supplied is not only used for heating, but is also needed to do work against
the external pressure.

16
  The specific heat capacity at constant pressure is larger than the specific heat capacity at
constant volume.
cp > cV .

First law of thermodynamics

Conserved quantity, a property of state that does not change in the system. A conserved quantity may
be used to characterize the macroscopic state.
 The total energy E of the closed system is a conserved quantity. In physics, the principle of
energy conservation is of fundamental importance.
 All experience confirms the assumption that this principle is correct both for macroscopic
and for microscopic dimensions.
 Besides the work expended or received by a system, one must also take into account the heat
exchanged with the environment.
The quantity of heat supplied at constant pressure, Q, will not only heat the system, but also expand it,
and thus do volume work against the external pressure (atmospheric pressure).
Internal energy, U, the total energy present in the internal degrees of freedom of a gas. In a
closed system, the internal energy is identical to the total energy of the system.
1. Formulation of the first law of thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics:
The total change of energy of a system includes exchange of work and heat.

 The change of the internal energy in any (reversible or irreversible) change of state is given by
the sum of work W and heat Q exchanged with the environment:

• W < 0: work expended by the system,

• W > 0: work done on the system.
 One can also find the inverse definition in the literature.
The work and the heat exchanged with the environment depend on the manner in which the process is
carried out. This is of importance, e.g., in chemical reactions for the concept of the reaction device.
 Work and heat are not total differentials. Therefore, the change is designated here by a for the
sake of clarity.

2. Work for reversible processes

17
➤ In irreversible processes, one may have Wirr = 0.
3. Heat for reversible processes

This holds only for the reversible case.

Representation in terms of the heat capacity CV at constant volume holds only for the reversible case

While the formulas for the partial contributions above are valid only for reversible processes, the first
law of thermodynamics always holds.
Equivalent formulations of the first law of thermodynamics
Selection of various formulations of the first law of thermodynamics, which are all equivalent:
When a system undergoes a change from one state to another, the change in its internal energy is
∆Eint = Q + W
where Q is the energy transferred into the system by heat and W is the work done on the
system. Although Q and W both depend on the path taken from the initial state to the final state, the
quantity ∆Eint is path-independent.
 In the energy balance of a system, the sum of exchanged work and heat yields the total
change of energy of the system.
This knowledge is due to Robert Mayer (1814–1878) and J.P. Joule (1818–1889), who proved by precise
experiments that heat is a special form of energy.
 The internal energy U of a system is a state function. This means that the total energy content
of a system is always the same no matter what process was used to reach the macrostate.
 There is no perpetuum mobile of the first kind.
The term perpetuum mobile of the first kind denotes a machine that operates in a cycle and generates
energy without extracting it from its environment.
 The change of the internal energy in an arbitrary, infinitesimal change of state is a total
differential.
The change of the internal energy depends only on the initial and final state, not on
the path

18
 In a cyclic process (one that originates and terminates at the same state), ∆Eint = 0 and,
therefore, Q = -W. That is, the energy transferred into the system by heat equals the negative of the
work done on the system during the process.
In an adiabatic process, no energy is transferred by heat between the system and its
surroundings (Q = 0). In this case, the first law gives ∆Eint = W. That is, the internal energy changes as a
consequence of work being done on the system. In the adiabatic free expansion of a gas Q =0 and W = 0,
and so ∆Eint =0. That is, the internal energy of the gas does not change in such a process.
An isobaric process is one that occurs at constant pressure. The work done on a gas in such a
process is W = −∆P(Vf - Vi).
An isovolumetric process is one that occurs at constant volume. No work is done in such a
process, so ∆Eint = Q.
An isothermal process is one that occurs at constant temperature. The work done on an ideal
gas during an isothermal process is
𝑽
W =nRT ln (𝑽 𝒊 )
𝒇
Microscopic aspects of the first law of thermodynamics

Figure 4.23: Change of the mean molecular velocity under compression (b) and expansion (c) of the
system (a).
If neither heat nor work is added to the system, then the mean kinetic energy of the molecules
𝟏
mv2 does not change.
𝟐
If the system is heated through the walls of the cylinder without doing work, the kinetic energy
of the molecules is increased by collisions with the wall (Fig. 4.23 (a)). In the collisions, energy is
transferred from the wall to the particles. The system is heated; the walls are cooled. If the system does
expansion work, i.e., the piston is displaced outward, then the molecules lose kinetic energy by collisions
with the piston moving away. The particles slow down, and the system cools (Fig. 4.23 (c)).
 A camping gas cartridge or can of shaving cream cools during the outflow of the gas. If the
piston moves inward, i.e., compression work is performed on the system, the particles colliding with the
piston get an additional momentum from the motion of the piston, which also increases the kinetic
energy (Fig. 4.23 (b)).

Second law of thermodynamics

All experience confirms that the entropy takes a maximum value in the equilibrium state,
S = Smax in equilibrium.
1. Formulation of the second law of thermodynamics
There are no processes in nature in which the total entropy decreases.
All irreversible processes in a closed system are connected with an increase of entropy.
After a change of state, the system must move again to equilibrium, whereby the entropy increases,
S ≥ 0.
In subsystems, S < 0 may be valid. But this is possible only by input of work. The system delivering this
work correspondingly increases its entropy.
Reversible processes: the entropy remains constant,
dS = 0.
Irreversible processes: the entropy increases,
dS > 0.
2. Equivalent formulations of the second law of thermodynamics
Kelvin–Planck form of the second law of thermodynamics states the following:
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that, operating in a cycle, produces no effect other than the
input of energy by heat from a reservoir and the performance of an equal amount of work.

19
There is no perpetuum mobile of the second kind.
A perpetuum mobile of second kind is a machine that does nothing but performs work by cooling down
a heat reservoir, that is, it would transform heat completely into work. One always needs a second
reservoir to be heated up.
 There is no process that converts energy into exergy.
Heat cannot be converted completely into mechanical work, only the energetic fraction of heat is
convertible into work.
 Any closed macroscopic system tends towards the most probable state.
This is the state characterized by the largest number of microscopic possibilities, i.e., by the highest
entropy (disorder).
Clausius statement3 states:
It is impossible to construct a cyclical machine whose sole effect is to transfer energy continuously by
heat from one object to another object at a higher temperature without the input of energy by work.
In simpler terms, energy does not transfer spontaneously by heat from a cold object to a hot object.

Lecture N4 LIQUIDS AND GASES

Part N2

Soil Water
Most soil is porous with narrow
spaces between the small particles. These
spaces act as capillaries and in part govern
the motion of water through the soil.
When water enters soil, it penetrates the
spaces between the small particles and
FIGURE1Fine-grained soil (a) holds water more tightly than coarse-grained soil (b). adheres to them . If the
water did not adhere to the particles, it would run rapidly through the soil until it reached solid rock.
Plant life would then be severely restricted. Because of adhesion and the resulting capillary action, a
significant fraction of the water that enters the soil is retained by it. For a plant to withdraw this water,
the roots must apply a negative pressure, or suction, to the moist soil. The required negative pressure
may be quite high. For example, if the effective capillary radius of the soil is 10−3 cm, the pressure
required to withdraw the water is 1.46×105 dyn/cm2, or 0.144 atm. The pressure required to withdraw
water from the soil is called the soil moisture tension (SMT). The SMT depends on the grain size of the
soil, its moisture content, and the material composition of the soil. The SMT is an important parameter
in determining the quality of the soil. The higher the SMT, the more difficult it is for the roots to
withdraw the water necessary for plant growth. The dependence of the SMT on the grain size can be
understood from the following considerations. The spaces between the particles of soil increase with
the size of the grains. Because capillary action is inversely proportional to the diameter of the capillary,
finely grained soil will hold water more tightly than soil of similar material with larger grains (see Fig.
7.7). When all the pores of the soil are filled with water, the surface moisture tension is at its lowest
value. In other words, under these conditions the required suction pressure produced by the plant roots
to withdraw the water from the soil is the lowest. Saturated soil, however, is not the best medium for
plant growth. The roots need some air, which is absent when the soil is fully saturated with water. As
the amount of water in the soil decreases, the SMT increases. In loam, for example, with a moisture
content of 20% the SMT is about 0.19 atm. When the moisture content drops to 12%, the SMT increases
to 0.76 atm. The rise in SMT with decreasing moisture content can be explained in part by two effects.
As the soil loses moisture, the remaining water tends to be bound into the narrower capillaries.
Therefore, the withdrawal of water becomes more difficult. In addition, as the moisture content
decreases, sections of water become isolated and tend to form droplets. The size of these droplets may
be very small. If, for example, the radius of a droplet decreases to 10−5 cm, the pressure required to
draw the water out of the droplet is about 14.5 atm. Capillary action also depends on the strength of
adhesion, which in turn depends on the material composition of the capillary surface. For example,
under similar conditions of grain size and moisture content, the SMT in clay may be ten times higher
than in loam. There is a limit to the pressure that roots can produce in order to withdraw water from the
soil. If the SMT increases above 15 atm, wheat, for example, cannot obtain enough water to grow. In hot
dry climates where vegetation requires more water, plants may wilt even at an SMT of 2 atm. The ability

20
of a plant to survive depends not so much on the water content as on the SMT of the soil. A plant may
thrive in loam and yet wilt in a clayey soil with twice the moisture content.

Circulation of the Blood

The circulation of
blood through the body is
often compared to a
plumbing system with the
heart as the pump and the
veins, arteries, and
capillaries as the pipes
through which the blood
flows. This analogy is not
entirely correct. Blood is not
a simple fluid; it contains
cells that complicate the
flow, especially when the
passages become narrow.
Furthermore, the veins and
arteries are not rigid pipes
but are elastic and alter their
shape in response to the
forces applied by the fluid.
Still, it is possible to analyze
the circulatory system with
reasonable accuracy using
the concepts developed for
simple fluids flowing in rigid
pipes. Figure 2 is a drawing
of the human circulatory
system. The blood in the
circulatory system brings
oxygen, nutrients, and
various other vital
substances to the cells and
removes the metabolic
waste products from the cells. The blood is pumped through the circulatory system by the heart, and it
leaves the heart through vessels called arteries and returns to it through veins. The mammalian heart
consists of two independent pumps, each made of two chambers called the atrium and the ventricle.
The entrances to and exits from these chambers are controlled by valves that are arranged to maintain
the flow of blood in the proper direction. Blood from all parts of the body except the lungs enters the
right atrium, which contracts and forces the blood into the right ventricle. The ventricle then contracts
and drives the blood through the pulmonary artery into the lungs. In its passage through the lungs, the
blood releases carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen. The blood then flows into the left atrium via the
pulmonary vein. The contraction of the left atrium forces the blood into the left ventricle, which on
contraction drives the oxygen-rich blood through the aorta into the arteries that lead to all parts of the
body except the lungs. Thus, the right side of the heart pumps the blood through the lungs, and the left
side pumps it through the rest of the body. The large artery, called the aorta, which carries the
oxygenated blood away from the left chamber of the heart, branches into smaller arteries, which lead to
the various parts of the body. These in turn branch into still smaller arteries, the smallest of which are
called arterioles. As we will explain later, the arterioles play an important role in regulating the blood
flow to specific regions in the body. The arterioles branch further into narrow capillaries that are often
barely wide enough to allow the passage of single blood cells. The capillaries are so profusely spread
through the tissue that nearly all the cells in the body are close to a capillary. The exchange of gases,
nutrients, and waste products between the blood and the surrounding tissue occurs by
diffusion through the thin capillary walls. The capillaries join into tiny veins called venules, which in turn
merge into larger and larger veins that lead the oxygen-depleted blood back to the right atrium of the
heart.
21
Blood Pressure
The contraction of the
heart chambers is triggered by
electrical pulses that are applied
simultaneously both to the left
and to the right halves of the
heart. First the atria contract,
forcing the blood into the
ventricles; then the ventricles
contract, forcing the blood out
of the heart. Because of the
pumping action of the heart,
blood enters the arteries in
spurts or pulses. The maximum
pressure driving the blood at
the peak of the pulse is called
the systolic pressure. The lowest
FIGURE 2 Blood pressure in a reclining and in an erect person. blood pressure between the pulses is called
the diastolic pressure. In a young healthy individual, the systolic pressure is about 120 torr (mm Hg) and
the diastolic pressure is about 80 torr. Therefore, the average pressure of the pulsating blood at heart
level is 100 torr. As the blood flows through the circulatory system, its initial energy, provided by the
pumping action of the heart, is dissipated by two loss mechanisms: losses associated with the expansion
and contraction of the arterial walls and viscous friction associated with the blood flow. Due to these
energy losses, the initial pressure fluctuations are smoothed out as the blood flows away from the
heart, and the average pressure drops. By the time the blood reaches the capillaries, the flow is smooth
and the blood pressure is only about 30 torr. The pressure drops still lower in the veins and is close to
zero just before returning to the heart. In this final stage of the flow, the movement of blood through
the veins is aided by the contraction of muscles that squeeze the blood toward the heart. One-way flow
is assured by unidirectional valves in the veins. The main arteries in the body have a relatively large
radius. The radius of the aorta, for example, is about 1 cm; therefore, the pressure drop along the
arteries is small. We can estimate this pressure drop using Poiseuille’s law. However, to solve the
equation, we must know the rate of blood flow. The rate of blood flow Q through the body depends on
the level of physical activity. At rest, the total flow rate is about 5 liter/min. During intense activity the
flow rate may rise to about 25 liters/min. At peak flow the pressure drop per centimeter length of the
aorta is only 42.5 dyn/cm2 (3.19×10−2 torr), which is negligible compared to the total blood pressure. Of
course, as the aorta branches, the size of the arteries decreases, resulting in an increased resistance to
flow. Although the blood flow in the narrower arteries is also reduced, the pressure drop is no longer
negligible. The average pressure at the entrance to the arterioles is about 90 torr. Still, this is only a 10%
drop from the average pressure at the heart. The flow through the arterioles is accompanied by a much
larger pressure drop, about 60 torr. As a result, the pressure at the capillaries is only about 30 torr. Since
the pressure drop in the main arteries is small, when the body is horizontal, the average arterial
pressure is approximately constant throughout the body. The arterial blood pressure, which is on the
average 100 torr, can support a column of blood 129 cm high. This means that if a small tube were
introduced into the artery, the blood in it would rise to a height of 129 cm (see Fig. 2). If a person is
standing erect, the blood pressure in the arteries is not uniform in the various parts of the body. The
weight of the blood must be taken into account in calculating the pressure at various locations. For
example, the average pressure in the artery located in the head, 50 cm above the heart is
Phead = Pheart −ρgh = 61 torr.
In the feet, 130 cm below the heart, the arterial pressure is 200 torr.
Control of Blood Flow
The cardiovascular system has various flow-control mechanisms that can compensate for the
large arterial pressure changes that accompany shifts in the position of the body. Still, it may take a few
seconds for the system to compensate. Thus, a person may feel momentarily dizzy as he/she jumps up
from a prone position. This is due to the sudden decrease in the blood pressure of the brain arteries,
which results in a temporary decrease of blood flow to the brain. The same hydrostatic factors operate
also in the veins, and here their effect may be more severe than in the arteries. The blood pressure in
the veins is lower than in the arteries. When a person stands motionless, the blood pressure is barely

22
adequate to force the blood from the feet back to the heart. Thus when a person sits or stands without
muscular movement, blood gathers in the veins of the legs. This increases the pressure in the capillaries
and may cause temporary swelling of the legs.
Control of Blood Flow
The pumping action of the heart (that is, blood pressure, flow volume and rate of heart beat) is
regulated by a variety of hormones. Hormones are molecules, often proteins, that are produced by
organs and tissues in different parts of the body. They are secreted into the blood stream and carry
messages from one part of the body to another. Hormones affecting the heart are produced in
response to stimuli such as need for more oxygen, changes in body temperature, and various types of
emotional stress. The flow of blood to specific parts of the body is controlled by the arterioles.
These small vessels that receive blood from the arteries have an average diameter of about 0.1 mm. The
walls of the arterioles contain smooth muscle fibers that contract when stimulated by nerve impulses
and hormones. The contraction of the arterioles in one part of the body reduces the blood flow to that
region and diverts it to another. Since the radius of the arterioles is small, constriction is an effective
method for controlling blood flow. Poiseuille’s equation shows that if the pressure drop remains
constant, a 20% decrease in the radius reduces the blood flow by more than a factor of 2. A stress-
induced heart condition called stress cardiomyopathy (broken heart syndrome) has only recently been
clearly identified by Western medicine. The syndrome occurs most frequently after a sudden intense
emotional trauma such as death in the family, an experience of violence, or extreme anger. The
symptoms are similar to an acute heart attack, but the coronary arteries are found to be normal and the
heart tissue is not damaged. It has suggested that the condition is triggered by an excessive release of
stress-related hormones called chatecholamines.

Control of Blood Flow

The pumping action of the heart (that is, blood pressure, flow volume and rate of heart beat) is
regulated by a variety of hormones. Hormones are molecules, often proteins, that are produced by
organs and tissues in different parts of the body. They are secreted into the blood stream and carry
messages from one part of the body to another. Hormones affecting the heart are produced in
response to stimuli such as need for more oxygen, changes in body temperature, and various types of
emotional stress. The flow of blood to specific parts of the body is controlled by the arterioles. These
small vessels that receive blood from the arteries have an average diameter of about 0.1 mm. The walls
of the arterioles contain smooth muscle fibers that contract when stimulated by nerve impulses and
hormones. The contraction of the arterioles in one part of the body reduces the blood flow to that
region and diverts it to another. Since the radius of the arterioles is small, constriction is an effective
method for controlling blood flow. Poiseuille’s equation shows that if the pressure drop remains
constant, a 20% decrease in the radius reduces the blood flow by more than a factor of 2. A stress-
induced heart condition called stress cardiomyopathy (broken heart syndrome) has only recently been
clearly identified by Western medicine. The syndrome occurs most frequently after a sudden intense
emotional trauma such as death in the family, an experience of violence, or extreme anger. The
symptoms are similar to an acute heart attack, but the coronary arteries are found to be normal and the
heart tissue is not damaged. It has suggested that the condition is triggered by an excessive release of
stress-related hormones called chatecholamines.

Heat and Life

The degree of hotness, or temperature, is one of
the most important environmental factors in the
functioning of living organisms. The rates of
themetabolic processes necessary for life, such as
cell divisions and enzyme reactions, depend on
temperature. Generally, the rates increase with
temperature. A 10 degree change in temperature
may alter the rate by a factor of 2. Because liquid
water is an essential component of living
organisms as we know them, the metabolic
processes function only within a relatively narrow
◦ ◦
range of temperatures, from about 2 C to 120 C. Only the simplest of living organisms can function near
the extremes of this range.1 Large-scale living systems are restricted to a much narrower range of
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temperatures. The functioning of most living systems, plants and animals, is severely limited by seasonal
variations in temperature. The life processes in reptiles, for example, slowdown in cold weather to a
point where they essentially cease to function. On hot sunny days these animals must find shaded
shelter to keep their body temperatures down. For a given animal, there is usually an optimum rate for
the various metabolic processes. Warm-blooded animals (mammals and birds) have evolved methods
for maintaining their internal body temperatures at near constant levels. As a result, warm-blooded
animals are able to function at an optimum level over a wide range of external temperatures. Although
this temperature regulation requires additional expenditures of energy, the adaptability achieved is well
worth this expenditure. In this chapter, we will examine energy consumption, heat flow, and
temperature control in animals. Although most of our examples will be specific to people, the principles
are generally applicable to all animals.
The Second Law
We have stressed earlier that work must be done to create and maintain the highly ordered
local state of life. We now turn to the question; what else is needed for such local ordering to occur?
Perhaps we can get an insight into this issue from a simple everyday experience. In the course of time,
our apartment becomes disordered. Books, which had been placed neatly, in alphabetical order, on a
shelf in the living room, are now strewn on the table and some are even under the bed. Dishes that
were clean and neatly stacked in the cupboard, are now dirty with half-eaten food and are on the living
room table. We decide to clean up, and in 15 minutes or so the apartment is back in order. The books
are neatly shelved, and the dishes are clean and stacked in the kitchen. The apartment is clean. Two
factors were necessary for this process to occur. First, as was already stated, energy was required to do
the work of gathering and stacking the books and cleaning and ordering the dishes. Second, and just as
important, information was required to direct the work in the appropriate direction. We had to
know where to place the books and how to clean the dishes and stack them just so. The concept of
information is of central importance here. In the 1940s, Claude Shannon developed a quantitative
formulation for the amount of information available in a given system. Shannon’s formula for
information content is shown to be equivalent to the formula for entropy—the measure of disorder—
except, with a negative sign. This mathematical insight formally shows that if energy and information
are available, the entropy in a given locality can be decreased by the amount of information available to
engage in the process of ordering. In other words, as in our example of the messy living room, order can
be created in a disordered system by work that is directed by appropriate information. The second law,
of course, remains valid: the overall entropy of the universe increases. The work required to perform the
ordering, one way or another, causes a greater disorder in the surroundings than the order that was
created in the system itself. It is the availability of information and energy that allows living systems to
replicate, grow, and maintain their structures. The chain of life begins with plants that possess
information in their genetic material on how to utilize the energy from the sun to make highly ordered
complex structures from the simple molecules available to them: principally water, carbon dioxide, and
an assortment of minerals. The process is, in essence, similar in human beings and other animals. All the
information required for the function of the organism is contained in the intricate structure of DNA. The
human DNA consists of about a billion molecular units in a well-determined sequence. Utilizing the
energy obtained from the food that is consumed by the organism, the information in the DNA guides the
assembly of the various proteins and enzymes required for the functioning of the organism.

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