Analysis of Traffickers and Pimps in the Era of White Slavery by Julia Laite

‘Traffickers and Pimps in the Era of White Slavery’ by Julia Laite articulates the development of
intermediaries in the commercial sex industry from its socio-cultural phenomenon up until its
evolution as a criminalized activity. The use of Antonio Carvelli and Alexander di Nicotera as
historical actors aids her explanation as it enables the understanding of how systemic factors
influence individuals' backgrounds and contribute to their choice of offending. Throughout her
work, Laite challenges the stereotypes attributed to the characters, and provides a richer
alternative that enables a better understanding of the circumstances through placing them in a
wider context of the socio-political system.
The operationalization of the terms examined is significant in enabling a coherent conversation,
however Laite fails to distinguish between pimping and trafficking. The terms are used
interchangeably suggesting domestic prostitution and human sex trafficking are the same, whilst
they’re both managerial third-party roles - sex trafficking is distinguished by deprivation of
women's sexual liberty1. This lack of understating of key terms hinders the conceptualization of
the issues discussed. The issue is further compounded by generalizing all pimps in the same role,
when in fact they can be placed in three distinct categories: gorilla, Romeo and CEO2.
Distinguishing them is important as each type is known for using unique tactics based on their
diverse backgrounds, consequently Laite's causal or dynamical assumptions do not apply to all
and therefore limits its generalizability. Laite's work does not reflect the role classifications of
the modern time it was written in, furthermore it would have been more effective if the limited
classifications of the past were contrasted to the current developed ones.
Firstly, Laite takes us through the legislative developments regarding the industry which enables
us to notice the paradigm shift of how and when it became radicalized. Legal attitudes provide
valuable insight into changing social attitudes towards intermediaries. For instance, the first act
of legislation passed concerning prostitution in England was the Vagrancy act 1824, which made
no reference to intermediaries, showing that their role was not regarded with much significance.
The legal criminalization of their role began in 1885 with the White Slave Traffic Act and
peaked in 1912 with the Criminal law amendment which marked it as the first non-indictable
crime subject to corporal punishment. This evolution shows that criminalization came in stages
and slowly radicalized, reflecting changing social attitudes.

1
from Journal of Women’s History Vol. 33 No. 4by Johns Hopkins University Press (2022)
Introduction to the issue trafficking, a useless category of historical analysis, issuu. Available at:
https://issuu.com/nreedy1/docs/journal_of_womens_history_33_4/s/16691478 (Accessed: 03
November 2023).

2
Berry Law (2023) Pandering vs. trafficking, Berry Law. Available at:
https://jsberrylaw.com/blog/pandering-vs-trafficking/ (Accessed: 03 November 2023).
Furthermore, Laite explores social attitudes in a global context, mainly how it was
underdeveloped and legally corrupt in other parts of the world and the enabling impact it had.
This issue is further compounded by the industry expanding in parallel to domestic and global
industries, which often overshadows the progresses made within the commercial sex industry.
Most of the literature relating to this emerged between 1880 – 1945, making it difficult to
reliably establish continuity and change, which is further complicated by the transnational
feature of the industry. Its interconnectedness with migration networks and facilitation by the
commercial interest of global employment and entertainment agencies make it a complex
exchange of ideas, capital and people3. The developing commercial sex industry fed into growing
concerns of internationalism which obscured relatively minor characters of pimps and traffickers.
Laite combines these various intertwining factors to explain the lack of historiography on the
matter, as its definitions were fluid and not often comprehensively recorded.
Traditionally, responsibility for the development of the commercial sex industry has been placed
on pimps, however Laite attributes it to the human desire for sex and money, letting the blame
fall proportionally on its driving forces rather than its historic scapegoats. Furthermore, she
uncovers shared background features such as military service and a previous criminal history that
seem to correspond with becoming intermediaries in the sex industry. Identifying initial exposure
to crime and being in an environment that encouraged an illicit, yet regulated sex market
undoubtedly contributed to its normalization. Laite applies positivist endorsed statics linking
previous military service to pimping convictions to the microhistory of the subjects, which
reaffirms assumptions and creates a personalized narrative that building on the evidence in a
compelling manner. However, previous involvement in petty crimes is not as sufficiently
supported by empirical evidence because older official records often lack a comprehensive
criminal background, making it hard to attribute the factor to a wider population of pimps.
Nevertheless, Laite utilizes academic work to fill in the gaps, which support her assumptions in a
well-constructed manner that allows for a reasonable link despite the lack of official evidence.
Additionally, Laite explores the interplay of racial factors in the criminalization of behavior
through providing social and cultural context of the time via racialized literature. Xenophobia is
a prevalent historical issue that created racial tensions resulting in the commercial sex industry
being perceived as a sexual underworld operated by aliens with skewed morals, further
intensifying their villainization. To her credit, Laite argues that this racially charged narrative
ignores the enabling socio-political forces that resulted in the career choice. Marxist explanations
prove useful in explaining how working-class exploitation through low wages and maintenance
as a reserve army of labor placed them at a disadvantaged in the labor market, which combined
with systemic racially profiling resulted in their alienation and led to a career in crime being an
escape and its subculture providing a sense of belonging. Laite's explanation almost takes on an
evolutionary narrative of facing the ultimatum of being exploited or exploiting others, describing
the behavior within its historical context, which enables an increasingly holistic understanding.

3
(2023). 3 January. Available at: https://youtu.be/tDj92xOOT6A?si=K8hF0VRQv8G28efo (Accessed:
03 November 2023).
However, the possible modern-day application of the arguments presented is not properly
explored by Laite. For example, pairing her causal implications with ideas of restorative justice
creates new possibilities in rehabilitation and prevention of crime, such as targeted counselling
and schemes. This emphasizes the advantages of a microhistorical approach as it allows for a
richer understanding of factors and forces that enable the operation of the illicit sex industry.
The profession is characterized by its sexual exploitation of women, but Laite revels their
intimate dynamics as much more nuanced, since the men played a multifaceted role of aggressor
and protector. Underlying the relationship is the relatability of being a minority group exploited
by the dominant power group, which made them reliant on each other for safety and money.
Laite uses this to explain the psychology and emotional drives that result in their intricate bonds.
This historical context explains how and why the basis of the dynamic was formed. Laite's
excellent use of the microhistory of Mr. and Mrs. Carvelli embodies this complexity as they were
accomplices and lovers whilst simultaneously being victim and perpetrator. Feminist politics of
predominantly holding intermediaries accountable and the media perpetuated stereotype of
prostitutes as weak and ‘broken’ women is challenged by highlighting the unspoken reality of
women's involvement as accomplices. The exact nature of these underworld love affairs is hard
to pin down as the variations are endless, a fact Laite articulates well by arguing that abusive and
happy relationships appear the same on paper, therefore she frequently questions the
interpretation of evidence, which promotes a more objective and comprehensive analysis and
increasingly valid conclusions.
In conclusion, Laite maintains a balance in not negating the intermediary's responsibility, but
rather attributes it proportionally to its systemic causes. Despite the lack of historiography Laite
manages to reach convincing conclusions, especially in her descriptions of how different areas of
inequality interact and multiply to create a criminalized group. The historical telling of the
intermediaries' story from a systemically disadvantaged perspective is enhanced by the
microhistory of her chosen historical actors, which shows how such systems affect individuals.