The Socio-Economic Organisation

of the Urartian Kingdom

By

Ali Çifçi

LEIDEN | BOSTON
 Culture and History
of the Ancient Near East

Founding Editor

M.H.E. Weippert

Editor-in-Chief

Jonathan Stökl

Editors

Eckart Frahm
W. Randall Garr
Baruch Halpern
Theo P.J. van den Hout
Leslie Anne Warden
Irene J. Winter

VOLUME 89

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/chan

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Çifçi, Ali, author.

Title: The socio-economic organisation of the Urartian Kingdom / by Ali
Çifçi.
Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill, 2017. | Series: Culture and history of
the ancient Near East, ISSN 1566-2055 ; volume 89
Identifiers: LCCN 2017013049 (print) | LCCN 2017016502 (ebook) | ISBN
9789004347595 (E-book) | ISBN 9789004347588 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9789004347595 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Urartu—Economic conditions. | Urartu—Politics and
government. | Urartu—Social conditions. | Urartu—Antiquities. |
Excavations (Archaeology)—Urartu. | Urartu—History.
Classification: LCC DS156.U7 (ebook) | LCC DS156.U7 C54 2017 (print) | DDC
939/.55—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017013049

Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface.

issn 1566-2055
isbn 978-90-04-34758-8 (hardback)
isbn 978-90-04-34759-5 (e-book)

Copyright 2017 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.

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This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.

Contents

Acknowledgments xi
List of Figures xiii
List of Tables xvii
List of Maps xviii
Abbreviations xix

1 A Critical Review of the Material 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Methodology and the Structure of the Book 13
1.3 Topography, Hydrology, Climate and Ecology 20
1.4 The Source Material 23
1.4.1 Archaeological Data 23
1.4.2 Urartian Texts 24
1.4.3 Assyrian Texts 25
1.4.4 Ethnographic Observations 26

2 Control of Capital in Urartu: Economic Resources and Movement of

Commodities 28
2.1 Agricultural Activities 28
2.1.1 Introduction 28
2.1.2 Irrigation 28
2.1.2.1 Geography and Hydrology of the Urartian Territory 28
2.1.2.2 Archaeological Evidence 30
2.1.2.3 Textual Evidence 34
2.1.3 Contemporary Agriculture 45
2.1.4 Agricultural Areas 52
2.1.5 Arable Crops 60
2.1.6 Textual Evidence of Urartian and Assyrian 66
2.1.7 Storage Facilities 73
2.1.7.1 ʼari (Granaries) and Measurement Units of kapi and
BANEŠ 75
2.1.7.2 Storage Facilities with pithoi and Measurement Units of
aqarqi, ṭerusi and LIŠ 80
2.1.8 Conclusion 90
2.2 Animal Husbandry 91
2.2.1 Introduction 91
2.2.2 Contemporary Animal Husbandry 93
viii contents

2.2.3 Urartian and Assyrian Textual Evidence for Animal

Husbandry 98
2.2.4 Archaeological Evidence 105
2.2.5 The Role of Animals in Urartian Religion 113
2.2.6 Conclusion 118
2.3 Metallurgy 119
2.3.1 Introduction 119
2.3.2 Textual Evidence for Ore Deposits of the Urartian Territory 121
2.3.3 Metal Workshops 128
2.3.4 The Role of Metallurgy in Urartu 131
2.3.4.1 Iron 132
2.3.4.2 Bronze 140
2.3.4.3 Silver and Gold 153
2.3.5 Conclusion 156
2.4 Trade 156
2.4.1 Introduction 156
2.4.2 North-South Frontiers and Trade Routes 159
2.4.3 Archaeological Evidence 164
2.4.4 Conclusion 169
2.5 Crafts 169
2.5.1 Introduction 169
2.5.2 Textiles 170
2.5.3 Carpentry 176
2.5.4 Pottery 182
2.5.5 Conclusion 185

3 Economic and Administrative Structure of the Urartian Kingdom 187

3.1 Administrative Divisions 187
3.1.1 Introduction 187
3.1.2 The Capital Ṭušpa 187
3.1.3 Provincial Administration 196
3.1.3.1 LÚEN.NAM (Provincial Governor) 196
3.1.3.2 Provinces or Major Citadels 202
3.1.4 Conclusion 210
3.2 Building Activities of the Monarch 210
3.2.1 Introduction 210
3.2.2 URU (City?) 211
3.2.3 É.GAL (Fortress) 216
3.2.4 Cultic Structures (KÁ / Šeištili, susi and É.BÁRA) 223
contents ix

3.2.5 Other Buildings 230

3.2.6 Conclusion 238
3.3 The Army 240
3.3.1 Introduction 240
3.3.2 Urartian Gods and Their Role in the Army 241
3.3.3 The Division of the Army Units 242
3.3.3.1 GIŠGIGIR MEŠ (Chariotry) 242
3.3.3.2 PITḪALLU MEŠ (Cavalry) 243
3.3.3.3 LÚÉRIN MEŠ (Infantry) 244
3.3.4 The Size and Structure of the Army 245
3.3.5 LÚturtānu (Commander-in-Chief ) 251
3.3.6 The King as a Commander-in-Chief 253
3.3.7 Conclusion 254
3.4 The Spoils of War 255
3.4.1 Introduction 255
3.4.2 Booty 257
3.4.3 Distribution of Booty 261
3.4.4 Aims and Objectives of Deportation 263
3.4.5 Tribute 268
3.4.6 Conclusion 272
3.5 The Monarchy 273
3.5.1 Introduction 273
3.5.2 The Monarch and Ḫaldi 276
3.5.3 The Monarch and the Royal Succession 278
3.5.4 Royal Titles 283
3.5.5 The King’s Officials 289
3.5.5.1 LÚaṣuli 289
3.5.5.2 The Personnel of Rusaḫinili KURQilbanikai 291
3.5.5.3 Other Officials 294
3.5.6 The King as an Administrator 295
3.5.7 Conclusion 297

Conclusion 299

Appendix 1 The Kingship of Rusa Son of Erimena and Rusa Son

of Argišti 305
Appendix 2 Urartian Kings and Chronology 310
Bibliography 311
Index 342