F.Y.

Bcom (Hons) – Semester I – Cost Accounting [Academic Year 2023-24]

“We become what we think about.”

Module 3: Material Costing

Meaning of Material:
Material refers to all commodities that are consumed in the process of manufacture. It is
defined as “anything that can be stored, stacked or stockpiled”.
Classification of Materials: Materials are classified into direct materials and indirect
materials.
Direct materials are those whose consumption may be identified with specific production
units and which usually become a part of the finished product. It also includes:
a) Component parts used in a product e.g. Tyres and tubes in a car, picture tube in a television.
b) Any material used in production and wholly consumed in the production process. e.g.
fertilizer used in growing plants.
c) Any primary packing material e.g. containers with final product, cans, bottles, etc.
Meaning of Material Control:
Material or inventory control may defined as a systematic control and regulation of purchase,
storage and usage of materials in such a way so as to maintain an even flow of production, at
the same time avoiding excessive investment in inventories. Efficient material control cuts
out losses and wastages of materials that otherwise pass unnoticed.
Objectives of Material or Inventory Control:
1. No under stocking.
2. No over stocking.
3. Economy in purchasing.
4. Proper quality.
5. Minimum wastage.
6. Information about materials.
Essential Requirements or Principles of Inventory Control:
1. Proper Co-ordination between departments.
2. Competent purchase manager (Centralised purchase department).
3. Proper classification and coding of materials.
4. Planned and upto date inventory system.
5. Adequate inventory records.
6. Well planned storage.
7. Parameters should be fixed.
8. Budgetory control of stocks.
9. Efficient internal audit and check.
10.Regular Management reporting.
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“Be not afraid of going slowly, be afraid only of standing still.”

Techniques of Inventory Control

1) ABC Technique: ABC technique is a value based system of material control. In this
technique, materials are analysed according to their value. high value (A), medium value
(B) and low values (C) – so that the costly items and more material items are given greater
attention and care.
Category A: These are ‘high value items’ which may consist of only a small percentage of
the total items handled. On account of their high cost, these materials should be under the
‘tightest control’ and the responsibility of the most experienced personnel.
Category B: These are ‘medium value materials’ which should be under the ‘normal control’
procedures.
Category C: These are ‘low value materials’ which may represent a very large number of
items. These materials should be under ‘simple and economical methods of control’.
The point of classifying stock into A, B and C categories is to ensure that material
management focuses on A items where sophisticated controls should be installed. B items
may be given less attention and C items least attention.
2) Stock levels – Minimum, maximum and re order levels: In order to guard against under
stocking and over stocking, most of the large companies adopt a scientific approach of
fixing stock levels. These levels are:
(i) Maximum level.
(ii) Minimum level.
(iii) Re-order level.
(iv) Re-order quantity.
By adhering to these levels each item of material will automatically be held within
appropriate limits of control. These levels are not permanent and must be changed to suit
changing circumstances.
(i) Re-order level: This is that level of material at which purchase requisition is initiated
for fresh supplies. This level is fixed somewhere above minimum level. In this case,
new supplies will be received just before the minimum level is reached. The formula
is:
Re-order level = Max. Consumption x Maximum re-order period
(ii) Danger Level: Sometimes purchased materials are not received in time and stock level
goes below the minimum level. In order to meet such a situation a danger level is fixed.
The formula is:
Danger = Normal x Max re-order period under
Level consumption emergency conditions
(iii) Average Stock Level
Average Stock Level = (Minimum level + Maximum level) ½
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(iv) Maximum level: This is the level above which stocks should not normally be allowed
to rise. The maximum level may, however, be exceeded in certain cases. E.g. when
unusually favourable purchasing conditions arise. Maximum level is calculated by the
following formula:
Maximum Level = Re-order level (ROL) + Reorder quantity (ROQ) –
{Min. Consumption x Min. Reorder period}
The idea of setting maximum stock level is to ensure that capital is not unnecessarily
blocked in stores and also to avoid loss due to obsolescence and deterioration.
(v) Minimum level: It is that level below which stock should not normally be allowed to
fall. This is essentially a safety stock and is not normally touched.
Minimum level = Re-order level – {Normal consumption x normal re-order period}
Note: Normal consumption means Average consumption.
Average consumption = (Maximum consumption + Minimum consumption) ÷ 2
3) Economic order quantity (EOQ):
Example for understanding Economic order quantity
Annual Consumption = 2,400 units.
Ordering Cost per order = Rs. 10.
Holding Cost = Re. 0.30 per unit
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)
Number of units per Average
Ordering Holding Cost Total
No. of order Inventory
cost = (C) x Re. Cost
Orders (Annual consumption ÷ (In units)
= (A) x Rs. 10 0.30 (D) + ( E)
No. of orders) = (B) ÷ 2
1 2,400 1,200 10 360 370
2 1,200 600 20 180 200
3 800 400 30 120 150
4 600 300 40 90 130
5 480 240 50 72 122
6 400 200 60 60 120
7 343 172 70 52 122
8 300 150 80 45 125
 Re-order quantity is the quantity for which order is placed when stock reaches re-order
level. By fixing this quantity the purchaser doesn’t have to recalculate the quantity to be
purchased each time when he places order for materials.
 Ordering cost is the cost incurred for placing one order.
 Carrying costs are the cost for holding / carrying of inventories in the store such as the
cost of fund invested in inventories, cost of storage, insurance cost, obsolescence etc.
 Economic Order Quantity is also known as Re-order quantity because it is the quantity
which is most economical to order. In other words, EOQ is the level at which the total
cost (ordering cost + carrying cost) is minimum.
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Formula for calculating Economic order quantity is as follows:

Economic order quantity = 2AB ÷ CS
Where,
A = Annual consumption in units (Raw Materials)
B = Buying or ordering cost per order
C = Cost per unit
S = Storage or carrying cost as a percentage of inventory.
4) Proper purchase procedure: Purchasing is a function of buying raw materials, general
supplies, tools, office stationery and other items. The essentials of efficient purchasing are
right quantity, right quality, right time, right price, right source and delivery at the right
place.
Just in time (JIT) Purchasing: JIT purchasing is the purchase of materials immediately before
these are required for use in production. The purpose of JIT purchasing is to reduce stock
levels to the minimum through creating closer relationship with suppliers and arranging
frequent deliveries of materials in smaller quantities. An important effect of JIT purchasing
is that with frequent purchasing the issue price is likely to be closer to market prices.
Centralised and Decentralised Purchasing:
Centralised purchasing: It means that all purchases are made by a single purchase
department.
Decentralised purchasing: In Decentralised purchasing, each branch or department makes
its own purchases. E.g. branches located at different places.
Purchase Procedure: The important steps in purchasing and receiving of materials is as
follows:
(i) Purchase Requisition: Purchases of materials are initiated through purchase
requisitions. A purchase requisition is a formal request by the head of a department
or an authorized officer to the purchase manager to purchase the specified materials.
Such requisitions are received from people like store keeper, production manager,
plant engineer, department heads, etc. Purchase requisitions are an important form
of written record of inventory transactions.
(ii) Selection of Suppliers: When the purchasing department receives a duly authorized
purchase requisition, a source of supply has to be selected. A list of suppliers would
generally be available from which the most appropriate one will be selected after
thorough inquiries. In some industries long term contracts are entered into which
provide benefit of economy as well as continuous supply as and when required.
(iii) Purchase Order and follow up: A purchase order has to be prepared once the supplier
has been selected which authorizes the supplier to supply the specific materials at the
price and terms stated therein. It is a legal contract between the parties concerned.
Usually 5 copies of the purchase order are prepared to be provided in various
departments or places.
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(iv) Receipt of Materials: All incoming materials should be received by the Receiving
Department. This department performs the functions of unpacking and verifying the
quantities and conditions of goods. The quantity received is duly verified with the
purchase order and supplier’s advice note. Usually four copies of receipt of materials
is prepared to be sent to purchase dept, storekeeper, accounting department and one
copy is retained with the receiving department.
(v) Inspection and Testing of Materials: Goods received should be inspected for quality
to ensure that they comply with specifications stated on the purchase order. If lab
testing is a pre requisite then the same should have a report of the same. An
inspection report is prepared to show the results of the inspection and is forwarded
to the purchasing department.
(vi) Return of Rejected Materials: Where materials received are damaged o tar not in
accordance with the specifications, these are usually returned to the supplier along
with a Debit Note. When such a claim is accepted by the supplier, he signifies his
acceptance by the issue of a Credit Note.
(vii) Passing Invoices for Payment: When the invoices are received by the purchasing
department, the process of assembling the business papers connected with each
purchase and preparation of voucher begins. Invoices are numbered serially and
entered in the Invoice Register. The following documents are assembled in support of
the invoice:
a) Purchase order.
b) Goods received note.
c) Inspection Report.
d) Debit or Credit Note.
Important Note: Real Material Cost will be arrived at after adjusting the following
items in the purchase price: (a) Quantity discount, (b) Trade discount, (c) Cash
discount, (d) Sales tax and other levies, (e) transport charges, (f) cost of containers.
5) Proper storage of materials: Storekeeping is the function of receiving materials, storing
them and issuing these to departments. The stores department is under the control of a
person known as storekeeper or store superintendent.
Objectives of good Storekeeping:
a) Protection of materials from losses due to fire, evaporation, obsolescence.
b) Avoiding over stocking and under stocking.
c) Economical use of storage space.
d) Upto date stores records.
e) Immediate location of materials required.
f) Facilitating perpetual inventory.
g) Speedy receipts and issues of stores.
h) Minimize storage cost.
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Functions and Duties of Storekeeper:

a) Maintaining materials in a tidy manner.
b) Proper maintenance of material records.
c) Accepting materials into the stores after verifying specifications on the GRN.
d) Issuing materials against authorized Stores.
e) Requisitioning further supplies from purchasing department.
f) Preventing the entry of unauthorized persons in the storeroom.
g) Periodic comparison of bin card balances with physical quantities in the bins.
h) Advising management on obsolete and slow moving stocks.
6) Perpetual inventory system: Periodic inventory system of stock taking is undertaken at the
end of the accounting year. It has certain disadvantages which the perpetual inventory
system overcomes. A perpetual inventory is defined as “the method of recording stores
balance after each receipt and issue to facilitate regular checking and obviate closing down
for stock taking.”
Advantages of Perpetual Inventory System:
a) Avoids long and costly physical checking work at the year end.
b) It avoids dislocation in production.
c) P & L account and B/s can be easily prepared due to availability of information.
d) Acts as a moral check between and within departments.
e) Internal Check remains in operation.
f) Easy detection and rectification of Discrepancies.
g) Helps in maintaining stock within levels which prevents blockage of capital.
h) A detailed check on stores is obtained.
Methods of Pricing Material Issues
1) First in first out (FIFO) Method: This method is base on the assumption that materials
which are purchased first are issued first. It uses the price of the first batch of materials
purchased for all issues until all units from this batch have been issued. Thus, materials are
issued at the oldest cost price listed in the stores ledger account and thus, the materials in
stock are valued at the price of the latest purchases.
Effects of using FIFO method: Three important effects of using FIFO method are:
a) Materials are priced at the actual cost.
b) Charge to production for material cost is at the oldest prices of materials in stock.
c) Closing stock is valued at the latest price paid.
Advantages of FIFO:
a) It is based on a realistic assumption that materials are issued in the order of their
receipts.
b) Materials are issued at actual cost and thus no unrealized profit or loss arises from the
operation of this method.
c) Valuation of closing inventory is at cost as well as at the latest prices paid.
d) This method is easy to understand and simple to operate.
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Disadvantages of FIFO:
a) As materials are charged at old prices, cost of production may lag behind current
economic values.
b) This method does not permit comparability since different materials may be charged at
different period of time
c) When prices fluctuating, this method involves cumbersome record keeping.
2) Last in first out (LIFO) Method – excluded from syllabus
3) Simple Average Method – omitted from syllabus
4) Weighted Average Method (WAM): This method give due weightage to the quantities held
at each price when calculating the average price. The weighted average price is calculated
by dividing the total cost of material in stock, from which the material to be priced could
have been drawn, by the total quantity of material in that stock. The simple formula is
weighted average price at any time is the balance value figure divided by the balance units
figure.
Advantages of WAM:
a) This method smoothens out the effect of fluctuations in purchase price.
b) A new issue price is calculated at the time of each new purchase and not at the time of
each issue.
c) No unrealized profit or loss arises by the use of this method.
Disadvantages of WAM:
a) Issue prices may not be at the current market prices.
b) The method calls for many calculations where purchases are made frequently.
c) To avoid errors, the average price must be calculated to a sufficient number of decimal
points which makes calculations tedious.
d) Excessively high or low prices paid in the past are reflected in the average for a
considerable time after expensive or inexpensive material has been consumed.
******************** ALL IS WELL ********************

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Example 1:
Two materials A and B are used as follows:
Minimum usage 5,000 units per week each
Maximum usage 15,000 units per week each
Normal usage 10,000 units per week each
Re-order quantity A – 60,000 units B – 100,000 units
Delivery period A – 4 to 6 weeks B – 2-4 weeks
Calculate the various stock levels.
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Example 2: Calculate Economic Order Quantity from the following information:
Estimated requirement per annum 60,000 units
Cost per unit Rs. 20
Ordering cost per order Rs. 12
Carrying cost 5% p.a.
Example 3: (Do it yourself)
Two components X and Y are used as follows:
Normal usage 6,000 units per week each
Maximum usage 9,000 units per week each
Minimum usage 3,000 units per week each
Re order quantity X–48,000 units; Y-72,000 units
Re order period X- 4 to 6 weeks; Y – 2 to 4 weeks
Calculate the various stock levels for both materials
Example 4: The annual demand for a raw material is 6,400 units. Inventory carrying cost is Rs. 1.50 per unit
per annum. If the cost of one procurement is Rs. 75, determine:
(a) Economic order quantity. (b) Number of orders per year. (c) Time between two consecutive orders
Example 5: (Do it yourself)
Determine the EOQ from the following information:
Annual consumption 12,000 units
Cost of ordering Rs. 15 per order
Cost of material Rs. 1.25 per unit
Carrying cost 20% p.a.
Example 6: (Do it yourself)
From the following information you are required to calculate for each product:
(a) Re-order level (b) Maximum stock (c) Minimum Stock and (d) Average Stock
Particulars Material X Material Y
Average consumption per week 500 500
Minimum requirement per week 250 250
Maximum usage per week 750 750
EOQ 3,000 5,000
Replacement time 4 to 6 weeks 2 to 4 weeks
Example 7: Shriram enterprises manufactures a special product ZED. The following particulars were
collected for the year 2017:
a) Monthly demand for ZED – 10000 units
b) Cost of placing an order Rs. 1500/-
c) Annual carrying cost per unit Rs. 30/-
Details of Raw Material Consumption:
d) Normal Consumption 500 units per week
e) Minimum Consumption 250 units per week
f) Maximum Consumption 750 units per week
g) Re order period 4-6 weeks
Compute the Re-Order Quantity, Re-order Level, Minimum level, Maximum level and Average Stock level
from the above information assuming 50 weeks for one year.

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Example 8:
In manufacturing its product Z, a company uses two raw materials A and B, in respect of which the following
information is supplied.
One unit of Z requires 10 kgs of A and 4 kgs of B materials. Price per kg of A material is Rs. 10 and that of B is
Rs. 20. Re order quantities of A and B materials are 10,000 kgs and 5,000 kgs. Re order level of A and B
materials are 8,000 kgs and 4,750 kgs respectively. Weekly production varied from 175 units to 225 units
averaging 200 units. Delivery period of A material is 1 to 3 weeks and B material is 3 to 5 weeks.
Compute the various stock levels.
Example 9:
a) The monthly demand of a Product is 5000 units. The company requires 50 kg of raw material for each unit
of the product. The supplier of the said raw material, M/s Shah and Company, sells the said raw material
at a cost of Rs. 250 per unit. The ordering cost paid per order by the company is Rs. 400 and the storage
cost per unit per annum is Rs. 24. You are required to calculate the Economic Order Quantity and number
of orders during the year. (F.Y. B. Com (Honours) – Final Exam – November 2018)
b) A company manufactures 1500 units of product EXE per month at a cost of Rs. 150 per unit. It requires ten
units of raw material to manufacture one unit of EXE. The raw material is supplied to the company at Rs.
12 per unit. The supplier is willing to give a discount of Rs.2 if the company commits to buy at least 1,00,000
units per annum. The cost of procurement for the company is Rs. 50 for every 2 orders. The cost of storage
is 10% p.a. You are required to find the optimum quantity that the company should order to minimize
cost. (F.Y.B. Com (Honours) – Mid Term Exam – November 2019)
Example 10: Find the Annual Inventory Cost for Eg 9 (a) and (b)
Example 11: Maxis Enterprises manufactures a special product MAC. The following particulars were collected
for the year 2021:
a) Monthly demand for MAC – 15000 units
b) Cost of placing an order Rs. 1600/-
c) The Cost per unit of Raw materials is Rs. 200
d) Carrying Cost is 2.5% per quarter
e) Normal Consumption 500 units per week
f) Minimum Consumption 250 units per week
g) Maximum Consumption 750 units per week
h) Re order period 4-6 weeks
Assuming a period of 50 weeks, you are required to calculate all the Material Levels and the Annual
Inventory Cost of the company. Would it be beneficial for the company to order 4000 units per order
instead?
(Note: Do not round off partial orders) (January 2022 – TEE – FYBCom (Honours)
Example 12: Harsha Limited produces a product which has a monthly demand of 4000 units. The product
required a component X which is purchased at a cost of Rs. 20 p.u. For every finished product, one unit of
component X is required. The ordering cost is Rs. 120 per order and the holding cost is 2.5% per quarter. You
are required to calculate:
(i) Economic Order Quantity.
(ii) If the minimum lot size to be supplied is 4000 units, what is the extra cost to be incurred?

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Example 13: The following is the relevant data for one of the components bought by Mazda Limited:
Ordering Cost Rs. 50
Holding Cost 40% p.a.
Cost per component Rs. 100
Annual Demand 1,000 units
The purchase manager placed 5 orders of equal quantity in order to avail the discount of 5% on the cost of
the components. Work out the gain or loss to the organisation due to his ordering policy for the component.
"If you lose faith, you lose all." - Eleanor Roosevelt.
PRACTICAL QUESTIONS – STOCK LEDGER
Example 14: From the following transactions, prepare a stores ledger account using FIFO method :
July 2015 Document
1 Opening stock 5000 units @ Rs. 20 each
4 Purchased GRN 574 4000 units @ Rs. 21 each
6 Issued SR 251 6000 units
8 Purchased GRN 578 8000 units @ Rs. @24
9 Issued SR 258 5000 units
13 Issued SR 262 3000 units
24 Purchased GRN 584 5000 units @ Rs. 25 each
28 Issued SR 269 4000 units
GRN = Goods received note and SR = Stores requisition.

"Believe in yourself, and the rest will fall into place”

Example 15: The following is the summary of the receipts and issue of materials in a factory during January:
January Particulars
1 Opening stock 500 units at Rs. 25 per unit
2 Issued 70 units
3 Issued 100 units
8 Issued 80 units
13 Received from suppliers 200 units at Rs. 24.50 per unit
14 Returned to stores 15 units at Rs. 24 per unit
16 Issued 180 units
20 Received from suppliers 240 units at Rs. 24.75
24 Issued 304 units
25 Received from suppliers 320 units at Rs. 24.50 per unit
26 Issued 112 units
27 Returned to stores 12 units out of the issue dated 16th
28 Received from suppliers 100 units Rs. 25 per unit
You are required to prepare the stores ledger on the basis of First in first out. The physical verification
revealed that on the 15th, there was a shortage of five units and another on the 27 th of eight units.
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"Success is the sum of small efforts, repeated day-in and day-out."

Example 16:
The following is the record of receipts and issues of a certain material in the factory during a week:
April 2015 Particulars
1 Opening balance 50 tonnes @ Rs. 10 per tone
Issued 30 tonnes
2 Received 60 tonnes @ Rs. 10.20 per tone
3 Issued 25 tonnes (stock verification reveals loss of 1 tonne)
4 Received back from orders 10 tonnes (Previously issued at Rs. 9.15 per tonne)
5 Issued 40 tonnes
6 Received 22 tonnes @ Rs. 10.30 per tone
7 Issued 38 tonnes
Prepare stores ledger as per FIFO.
Example 17: The following transactions occur in the purchase and issue of a material:
Date Details Units Rate per unit
Jan 2 Purchased 4,000 Rs. 4.00
Jan 20 Purchased 500 Rs. 5.00
Feb 5 Issued 2,000 --
Feb 10 Purchased 6,000 Rs. 6.00
Feb 12 Issued 4,000 --
Mar 2 Issued 1,000 --
Mar 5 Issued 2,000 --
Mar 15 Purchased 4,500 Rs. 5.50
Mar 20 Issued 3,000 --
From the above, prepare the Stores Ledger Account as per FIFO method of charging material issues.
Example 18: From the following details of stores receipts and issues of material X, prepare a Stores Ledger
Account using weighted average price method.
Dec
1 Opening stock 2000 units @ Rs. 5 each
3 Issued 1500 units to production
5 Received 4500 units @ Rs. 6 each
8 Issued 1600 units to production
10 Returned to stores 100 units by production (from issue of Dec. 3)
16 Received 2400 units @ Rs. 6.50
18 Retuned to supplier 200 units (out of receipt on Dec. 5)
20 Received 1000 units @ Rs. 7.00
24 Issued 2100 units to production
28 Received 1200 units @ 7.50 each
30 Issued 2800 units to production
Note: Calculate issue rate upto two decimal points.
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“You need to battle with fear of failure to achieve your goals in life.”
Example 19:
The following were the receipts and issues of material ZED during March 2005.
March Particulars
1 Opening balance – 1100 units Rs. 60 per unit
3 Issue - 140 units
4 Issue - 250 units
8 Issue – 210 units
13 Received from vendor 400 units at Rs. 59 per unit
14 Refund of surplus from a work order 30 units at Rs. 58 p.u.
16 Issue 350 units
20 Received from vendor 480 units at Rs. 62 per unit
24 Issue 608 units
25 Received from vendor 640 units at Rs. 60 per unit
26 Issue 524 units
28 Refund of surplus from a work order 24 units (issued on March 3)
31 Received from vendor 150 units at Rs. 64 per unit
From the above, write the Stores Ledger Account on FIFO and weighted Average Basis.

Example 20:
The EOQ of a particular Company during a particular year was 2100 units. The holding cost comes to 2% p.a.
The cost per unit of the raw material is Rs. 500. Calculate the Annual Ordering Cost for the company for the
given year. (BCom (H) Mid term Examination – November 2022)

“Just when the caterpillar thought the world was ending, he turned into a butterfly.”

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