when a body

MoTLON "changes it posthon

Lwith respect to time.
1- Distance - Jhe Jength of the actuab path
travelled by an object dunin motion.
bcalor quantity
does not depend on dire ction.
2 DisplaLement Jhe shortest istan ce between
the initial ¢ final position. of
any objeet duning motion.

Vector quantity
depends On direetion.
3. Jþeed i- Jhe distance travelled by the obj ect
per unit time.

speed = Distance
Time

Avrage, Jhe natio of total distance

sheed +travelled. by the object to
time taken.
Av. Speed = Total distance
total time

93f an object tavels equal

distances wit speeds VL V2
then
Av. sþeed : 2viVe
Vi +V
gne- thind
Sf an object covns first
othen one -
distance with speed
with speed b and
Rast me
+hind
third wth Speed C. Jher,
Av. speed = 3 tbc
ab+ be+ ca

4. Aeceleratier ; velocity m|s²

time
decr ead to,
NOTE Ovelocity of object
acceleratiem is
© Negative acelerationKETARBATION
() Velocity 4 acceleratien need be O
VECTF
 Units Used fon
Small Dit
Lo-2 m
m
Lo3 m
Lo6
" I micron = m

L nano metre m

-L2
"1
Angstren
" 1 femi 45
m
"Lpicometre = 10 m

Uoits Used for

Sistances.
Measig
Longe
9. 4 6 X 1o5m
"1 pnsec = 3-26 LY.
" 1 Astro mi cal m
Unit

Mass
Note i fon anjn
we use Chandr Sekhan Unit.

1 CSU. = 44 olar masses.

Dimensional formulae and SI units

of some physical quantities
Physical Quantity Dimensional Formula SI Units
No. with Formula
1 Velocity = displacement/ LJ/M= (MLT-] m/s
time
2 Acceleration = velocitytime (LT-/= (MT] m/s
3 Force = mass x acceleration [M[LT]= [MLT] kg-m/s²
NewtonN
4 Work = Fscos [MLTI(LJ= [MLT) kg-m²/s²’
joule’J
5
Kinetic energy =mv (MJ[LT-1P =(MLT) joule

6. Potential energy =mgh (MJ[LT) (LJ= (MLT] joule

7 Torque = Frsin 0 (MLT)[LJ = (ML²T) N-m
8. Power = Work/time (ML²T)/0- [ML²T) kg-m² /s
J/s ’ watt’ W
9 Momentum = mass x [MJ[LT-"]= (MLT-'] kg-m/s or N-s
velocity
10. Impulse = FA (MLTI= [MLT'] N-s

11. Angle = arc/radius [4/LJ= MA°T) radian ’ rad

12. AV (J/LJ Dimensionless no units

Strain = AL/L or

13. Frequency = 1/time period 1/)= (M4°T) hertz’ Hz

 When a body
MoTION · changes it posthon
with respect to time.

1 Distance -Jhe lengt of the actual pam

rmotion.
traveled by otject danig
.calan uantity
" does not depend on dire ction.
2 Displacement - Jhe shortest aistance between
the initial 4 final positior of
any object auig motion.
Vector
"dependsquastity
on direction.
3. Speed. i- perJhe unitdistance
time.
travelled by the bject
speed : Distance m]s
Time

Avenage. Jhe atio of total distance

Spee travelled by the object to
time taken.
Av. Speed = Total distance
total time

3f an object ravels equal

distances witth

the
Av. speed = 2v1V
V +V2
ne - thind
first
sf an object
with speed
covens
, othen one -
distance
last me
thind with s þeed b and
hird with speed c. Jhen,
Av. sheed = 3 b c
ab+ be+ ca

4. Aeceleration ; time
velocity ms
decr eas eo,
NOTE :- velocity of object
acceleratin is ative.
W Negative aceleration,KETARBATION
Gi) Velocity 4 acce ler atien need be 0
VECT
 1-D Motion Jhe positior of object
changes with nespect to ime

only one out f three.

Motion.
O Equation fon 1-D
) v = u t at
Note :() Rest ’Motion
() Motion ’ Rest
ii) Uniform metie
Gii) Dhen a body falls, it ovens
distance in odd multiple Cie 1::5:..)

Graph Reletea Motien:

) DisplaLement - Time 9 veleuity- Time Acclerahen -Tine
LASe I : Object is at hest kaSs I: Object estant
a)
e90
is m a

case EE object is min

(ase IE:objtct is m a )
haviny O

Equation of Motion Under Ghravity.

DFor Dþuan d Mofion
LD Motien
* examble of
"Motion of a train
straight tine.

. Motion of freely fallig

i) For Downward Motion, cbjecta

Note "t with

an object
some height
is drepped ventically
and
douald
if anothey object
is projected horigont ally,
Then both objects wiL reach the
around at same time.

*Jhe peaition 4 objeet

two out of three co-ordinate.

only cirula tunn.
.Metien of can n a

oMotion of biliands ball.

## Projectile TMotien i
Coetier bullet shet by,
motion rocket febwng t
The mfrer & be nb dreppd frem aup lane

(parabolic)

gtme of 14ghtT 2vsin e

Height H*sinte,H’@:go

Re u'sin 20. Rmae =45°

Motien 0n a
ACtreula Motion, circuda hak

O Angulr Displacement = one = s

(6) nadivs
 hadian Istee nd
GAnguln velecity
(w) At

ot e peried of civcul an mohion is T, hen

Aveage Angulan on 2 f
velocty (w
" Relation betoeen Linean velecit 4 nga
velocrty -

2
Angulan()Acceleratin ; adin/stend
Relation betweer ineas acc lnation 4 ang a
acceleation

O centripet(a) Aueleratien, y: w'n

Centripetal Force i- Towards CENTRE
F:
m
oR F = mu

centrifugat force i> Aay from CeNTRE

Any actior uhich
*. FoRCE - pull on push.
Force
Unbalaneed - Fnet #0
Force

of forces.

#Snertia: Property of object to nesist in its

state of motien deng straigt
Jine 6 est.

Inertia of rest g Stete of

REST.
Jnertia of motion ;esing state o
MoTION
) Ineria of directien ;neitin stete of
DRECT ION.
Linean Momentum i product of mass
4 velocity

kgms.

acts on
forceshort
Smpulse Aa vey Lage very
bedy fem a
period of time
I : Fx T
newton- second.

Friction ;- t is a opp0sive force which

OppOses nelahve metion.
O Statie friction

Jhene R= mg
ue fricien al coefficie
-nt
Limiting frietion
fuy
G Dynamie fietion
fo, > uR
siiding
is self adusting
Nen- cn servative.
Also call ed NecESSARY EvzL
 NEWTON's LAW of MoTION
I Law; LAw Of Inertia.
Also ca lled. Galileo II Law
" Any cbËect Meains in the state of RES T
Om in Unifor m MoTIoN ntiL it is
combe tle d ch ange State by ofblying
of an externat force.
Application )Jhe passenges in a bus fes backaJand
Jhen t stats f falls fanand
when t sto ps.
) Jhen a canpt o a blan ket is beaten.
ith a stfek, the.
dugt partic les
separate out frem it.

I Law LAJ of FORcE

"Jhe RA TE Of of Mometum
dectAy prep to force
pplied.
mX a
kgm/s or Neuton.
Application - ) A ericketer player movts tis hands
backwnd an catchig feut
CrIcket ball
) Juning atklettes meet, a kigh jumpi
is prwided e ithe a, ushvu
1a heap of Aand
fall upon.

II Law: LAw of AcTrON t

REACTION a fonce m
" Jheneven ene objec t exerts
en ts
ano then objects , he secen d object he
fonce om first
an equal f opþes ite
obje ct.
Application i) Walking of a person
) Recoit of
i) Propulsion, of a boat in forwwd
directien
iv) Rocket propulsion

Machine : ) Load : weight lifted by ma chitne

i) fulowm ; 0n applying effent, which moves a load at another Point
balance Point called fulrwm.
through

iii) Effo nt : fohce to bring desired chang e to he pASitam of load.

’ I Class Ma chuine : LEE I Css mauine iE FL ’M C M-:F EL
e"g plien S, ScsSOHs, see- s as bottle oPenen deors qates,
cla) hammeM ghng nal, clippS, staples, tueezus Ealebal.
u t cracues
al an ce bat, anm to lift

27
Pulley
T

= m, a
Dmg-T
ii) T- n28
a m- m

T=
2mimA
 produtes motion
JoRK - e n forceis sai be done.
4her werk

# Workdone by a Constant Force.

kd.one
by cmgtant Product of Foree
4 displacement.
: tscos
" work is SCALAR
SI unit: Joute
CGs. unit:

) Positive Work '

when

cacting en on obiect het. a, compen en

in the d ivectien f
displacemet.

9Negative Bork
U phen, 0>90
C, foce acting n a object has a compment
ta obþosite drectin of diplatem ent.
ii) Zero Jorki
t, if he object gets displacea alorng
pependitulay
diectien
divectien of atplie fonce.
CONSERVAT IVE. Force is conservative,
Force # penkdent by foyce is
Independent of path followt & by otj et
and depends on ly on he ene oints
e.a GMaditatienal fonce
Electret tic face woRK Done by
Con. Force on
Spming fonce closed path
Masneie foree is 0.

Conserveti
Non- Force is nen-
FORCE CoNSERVATI VE by
-vE,
for tt is debenele
hich bedy
nt on
s.
PATN leng
erample. FoRCE of Faictien
Vis cesity
ENERGY CAPACITY of Dig
wORK.
" Scalan Quantity
" SI unit ’ Joue
Mecharital
NOTE. Kinetic +Patential -
Eny
1 Kinetic : yirt
f its Motien.
KE Lmy

Relation bj K:E MomEN TUM

KE 2mP
Lavt ttrnetie ènt witheut
object can t yice - vos.
" An
me mentum

* JoRK- Eneny Theor an

This states at. he work- dene by a ree
acting on en objet
te
H CHANGE in he Kinectic enegy
Workdene change in kinethc
Enengy
W= K - Ki
Pesseigec by an cbject
ne
by vitue of its pes itim 2
confiqwn atien.

PE = mg
 LAW c Consenvathen of
Acc to thts Lau, engy is neta be cretd
de streye. Jt con h on sfo t med fi em vne form te
Lcthe.
Totol Before 4 After is CONSTANT
Enegy TRANS FORMA TION

LAW of CONSERVATION of MECHANICAL

Eng1
totts Mat. if ony he Con senvative
force ane doing wtrk, then total
Mechanical enengy is constant.
.. KE + PE = constant.

#Powen Rate of doing Work.

Powen = Work
Time
oR P: w= Fvcos
T

S-I unit - watt ( )

4 4 w = 1354
1Horse Towen = 746 watt

Comnereial unit of Energy k wh

object titt.ey
if thty ue phyeicalay cllide
tach othey

he pth of ne obËet is atfeted

foree
by he ohen obtct.

18lastie 2 Non- Elastic

Collision collisien
KINETIC
ENERGy cONSERVED
MOMENTUM’ Conserved
Total
’ Cons oved
INETIEVEL
Enegy
Momentum (e1sERvEt
Total
Enengy Eneg
Forces dluring’ consennd
coltision forces
OR Con servatine
foreeg.
Xhaw of CoNSE RVATI bN
in Collision.
mË 4mg lti vi scitics u

Acc to his law,

Note - 3t ou obiect wth nass itk

heieta l aveg
beunces kackL with sene lory

. Charge in
:mnV
Mementm

Coeffici ent of nestitutin (e)

The aetio of Helative °f pantic les
affn etth.
coefficient of restitution
Relative veleuty f seponaten (aften wllisien)
Relative vdh of pproa (befee oll sin)

Nete:- For a perfectly,e1

elastie collision
for an inelastie
collisien
 wninye
t h e in othey object
Gravi taion. -Eveny2object
is knon a
GRAVITAT ION
with a fonce

Univensal Law of GRAVITATION..

Issac Neuon
0R New ton 's La
Fd product of their mass
hoe is digtance bfw
F d them

caled
costant
univensal gtatienal

eceleranon, Due to Gravty

Wheneen an obje cts falla towands eanth
involved. Jhis act elat
a ce elaratiet
calle acc elan atien dant

Ace due togrie

6400 km
83.8 m)s
#* Variatien, in the
al poles due to shape of tartk.

cente f art

i:) Jhe vd of heht abae the

anface deeveeses,

blow the eat,

sunfate deereases,

* Kepler 's Laws of Planetay

Motion
- Evy planet evolva anound the sun
I Law
in an eliphical path at(orbit)
me of
an d Sun is situateo
the tw foci.

I Law-he aneal veloc ity of planet

aM en d the sun alng Mern auns
CoNSTANT.
= cOnstart,

of time period of nevoluti

1T LAw Jhe s dinect y proportiena
of y
4he cube of semi- majar axis of ellipied orbit

i.e.
T'= Ke3
where, a= length of semi-major axis,
T= time period of the planet
and K= Kepler's constant
Minor axis
Planet
Major axis

Point of
Sun (at the second focus
first focus)
Elliptical path (or orbit)
Sun-Planet System
 Mass Weight
f
Measwne of Prodvct of mass
inerti a. gravity.
. unit = kg unit Newton.
Vanry place to
Universally place.
CONSTANT
Wught
" S calan At poles.
5h minnum
At euater
Vector
Weiht of at Moon,
is
Body
Moon
know, qravity f
As we
Jravity of eart..

K Weigk of Body in Elevator

"Lift. ub wanou act lan ata
1) Lift is ascen ding with an dounwand decelaretie
o descading With

weh ¢ Body - increas ed.

i)) Lift is descending wits a downwan
acrelnation on
dalaration

weght ot Body dereased.

i) When ift is me

acrelnalion aavitaonl atteaati on

fall,
body fels weightles ness.

LTERNAL Restoring Fore

Ý Styess i- TreArea.
SI’ NJR, TAsCAL
ONoRMAL. defonmint
Stress hor mal to surface f body.

yTANGE rY TIAL, defor ming fonce acting per wnt anea

Stres
togentiat to swnface of bochy

:-Ratio inof CANGE into CauÊzURATIN

K Utrain produce oriinalb
onfinatien of Obedy.
UNIT LESS
’ DIMENSIONLESS.

pr unit
)LONGITUDINAL hange in loyth
Strain
OR

(i) VoLUMETRIC dane in vikumevelume

$train oR

a þlane
. Jhe angle through which sunface
F) Shearing of
pe-pendiclayto he fsed wnaey he effect
Strain unned
cubical body gets
# tangeHtiu force

Fixed surtace
 ,Jithin ELASTICc
LIMIT,

Stress o strain
Stress = ExStrain
me dualus of
whene, E
ELasti eity
OR E StresS
Strain

of
Elastieity ' Normal Stress
Lomgitudin ad Strain
(y)
S) BuLK Modulws of Nor mal Stress
Elastiity
(K) Volumetrie strain
Gi) Modulus of tangential stress
Sheaning Straín,
he modulu
of elagticity

Jhe trnety is dlaned 4xLod Epensien

Btretched

*Poissoy'sAn
Ratie Ab the fee .pe wne
Poissen 's Lateral Strain -0R/R
Ratie
()
Nate : Nertine
deuenss.
DIMENSIONLESS 4UNITLESS
"Jheanetical . ciu bju -1 4tV2.
Value
.Pracieal : Lies bj 0 4+
Value

nobject popenditan
te it
2 Pressme > oRE /TRuT N/called Paeat,
Are

3- Atmesþheri Tressune on the kun face due atmoshe.

Tressune
Buremeten - ustd to meosune Atesph enie Presse
y alum-okis

4 pensity lam
mass

Ate:) Sf equak vedumes of Aso d of dnsitiu

dL and d mized
DENSITy of

)3f ue iqua ef masta m and m.dntia

mid tgee,
dnsity f
Migurg
1.*) Liqud e incompressible, density is 4ame
gheut
Relative Den sity f substane
pENSITy
(Specifie rty)
Density of w°e at 4'c
5. Pressue of Liquid = Po 3
bsity

# Laws of kiquid Pressune

D Patsune ins ide Lquak is 4ame at cty peint
plane
i) Presue exttd by bquid is nenmal any face.
t) Pressue inside igud is indejend nt she
sunface an f Agad Aunface

# PASCAL. presune is oppLikd do an, en dos e.

liqud, then ; transmittea ante
Lw entiye iquid withoud being diminished
in magnitude.
’Buoyant force - 4t is an upuand once acting
(Buoy^Ney) on bod y immsed in e ug ut.

weight of liquid immer sed part of

dislaced bodly
’Busyaney Line Jhe
fance
tine of action of buayant
 Pascal's Law External
pressure

Pressure applied on one polnt of liquid

transmits equally in aldirection

Archimedes? Prineiple> bhen a boity i tolaty

iqut immsel in
pantially
al eqt , is subje cted to on upwand fance equal
weiht of displa ced fluide
Note :- Weight of þlostic bay full of aur is same as
empty as up thust is equal To
filled in
is immvsed
* kaws of Floatation Dhen a boay
act om t.

Owustt f body (w, wentially das nusand)

wF, Body will sink.
insiale igu.
bW=F, Body fleas with whole of its velwme
wE, floa <wnface.

K qution of cONTINUITY
Based of CONSE RVATION of ASs.
Jf Jiquid is incom pressible, then

&Öernoulli s Principleoccws joasast

simutanesuly
in the speed of fAuid
derreate t. pre suNe..

Bernoulti's Jheoram -$f siguid

stheambine motim, then al ta k

of its patk,
point
its total enel ef unit velume is Constant.

KE.+ P.E + Prestune

p+

Bernoulll's Principle Example

LIft of an Alrcraft
Direction
of tlight Lift due to pressure difference

High velocity air flow

Low
pressure

Wing

Low velocity air flow High

pressure
 . HEAT Thansjr me body o ongthn
fm of n
S"I unit ’ Joute.
1 calorie

+Specifie Heat : Jhe neunt

tempenatunt L f
to
Hequined
ubs tance to

4Molar Specific H Jhe ambunt of

tempenstue
vol ume is nstant
wher
’Molar Speifie Volome
Heat Raising onpreuns fmele
at Constant
(Cu)

’Malan Specifie Heat pressw e is enstant

mole of
tempeatu
at coNSTANT ressure Raing
(Cp) gat°c.

# Mayer's Law Cp-, -R

whene R i (en stant

7LATENT HEAT -Jhe amount of teat nymno o

Change the state of uit m

CONSTANT Tempuatune

Q= mL
lateet heat of ubstie:
whue L is

unit Jkj
Heq ned.
Latent Heat of, Jhe
to hange
amourt of Atate
heat of t mal
Fusion
of a substance frem

metrj point
i-80 cal| gro
*. for ice -LATENT HEAT f fusiorn
of heat equned to
hatent Heat of Jhe amount wt ma of a
f
nye he
VAPORISATION Aubytante from lijuid to vafoar at
boiling pont
.. For wate- LATENT HEAT of. 536 calltm
VAPORISATION

LATENT HEAT of :
FuszON < VAPORISATION
+ HEAT CAPACITY theor Themd
Qt is defintd
CAPACITY
am Bunt of heat equsd te
its tem peralue throuyh me dagrua
HEAT CAPACZN = Mass X specife het.
S-I. uit - Joule

Jate Eqvivealent tt is de fined

watt 4e unes
of heat a b
he same
fon the same of empratune
bedy

WATER Eyuivlent
S.T.

Piniple
Jhe by anch of physics that
of Calorimetry
deals witth measwn ernert
of heat caled caloime
Ace Painciple Provided there is no
Exchange of HeAT
HEAT Gained Heat Lot.
by cold body by ot body.
 Gas laS
b Boye 's ls :At constant temperare, prsune J J
fat nstant T7
pV canstant.

LansA At constent presswne, t censtant pr

emes of venies dinetly
VoT a constant P]
V= KT

Aypiei. batloo!
Buntig f Hyg
VIT = V T 2. Making f chatt
3- Gay- wsAe a;At constant volume,

alyejats tenporne.
PoT at constun . VJ
cons tant

LawUnden similan conditins of temporehee f pressune,

meleculs.
OR.
A given tempenetne f pessune, the wolume ef any gas
dinectty propotimas te he nmber f meles
n . of msles.
k (stan)

5. þalton's las of Pasial Pressunt

Hccording Lo this law, if taso a mone gases , which do not
vsel.
neact chemicallyo ane enclased in a
by s misture is me awm f
the totel pres ne enorte Cmsticuert
pontiel prassunes r t e by
ProTAL pPa ts t"

K.Sdeal Gas - -condions

Jhe gas whiek obeys g Aas, a all
of tenpnen 4prewne.

Hyþothetical
’ Attractive fancs omong the moledes do not
enist. Hr iAns n be anvete
sli.
## Real
H2, O, N, ’ane neb gases.

From Goyle ' 4 chanles' law

Fon 1 mole

for n mele gas- PV nRT

 physics which
JHERMODYNAMIKS Jhe branch
with
of
the study f heat and
dealt
temperatune
agate of an extremety
Thermodynamics
System
st is an
numbe 0f atoms mole les,
boundaHies.
confined with certain
whic e

INTERNAL - Sum of KE 4 P.E Contained by

ENERGY molecules of Substance.
(0)

#LAs of Thermodynamic_
1Zeroth LAw-R:H Fowler - 193|
Jf two jystem A e ane sefayately in thevm al
third yatem C, then A
equ'librium with
Bane in thermal eguili brium with each other.

B C
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic
systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third one, then they
are in thermal equilitbrium with each other.

2. FiRST Jhe amount of heat given

LAw two ways
.Jnere ase in intennal ene)
woMk.
> to do
ezterna
followed.
Note :- Wankdone depends en path

I LA is one form of CONSERVAT ION of

ENERGY..
Nöte:- FoR Isochorie - Aw 0

For Isoth ermal- sU=o, tenp.

onstarrt
nem auns
chonye
in intUn a

For Adiabetic- A =0
Follows Poisson's haw.

&ystem 4 it
-Mole ul an di o1dey of dending
ETRoY is thunmodyn amie funetiov
temporatu of ytem.
endy
AS het abSorbed
absolute
Remains unchanged fuy
Tempen atune adiabetic proce.

3 Secano.
LA
e
to absorb
is impossible fon
he at.
a self actin1 device,
from sounce e coent whole
ammount of it inte w6k

’ HEAT ENGINE: heat

Dece whrck Convents
inte
*CONSISTS Three PARTS
i) Sounce of heat at
highen tenp.
i) workimg sub stance
ii) sink of heat at ouwe temp.

’ Therma Efficiency of Heat

: Net work done per cyete
Total ameunt of heat absorbed
pr cycle

..T’ temp. of sink

T’ femp. f sowrce.

’ Carnot Theorem ? No heat ngine openaing bl tue

given tem penate can be mene
efficient han a Carnst engine.
fon Cannot ycle

whue, ’ heat abs anbed

Topic- 2
)8lectostatic
Electricity i) Cabacitor ’ stone electrostatic enegyulato)
(can change
) Slectric unit : Coloumb * F:1 Capacitance unit : Farad
Change Like -nepl
diff’ attract
Quantise’9=ne Ao
"Net
dhage
- conseved * Combinatim :- i) Senies ’ L
Scalay
Cnet
i) Coulomb's: F:k|.92| ii) Panallel’ Chet = C + Gz
Law
unitAm
4 k =9x1b Nm 2) Electric Cunnent i i e.
iii) Electric fildE= DC
Intensity
i) Properties of start from (te hange dirltim
&lectric field ? end to tvey change
directom. ) Olm's law : Y= R unit : om
(ines
’
Tarngentintuseet
Never
gie
’ not fom close loep,
ular to swnface of ’Resistivity ’ wnit -ohm metre
’ porpendiCon detor onductance : = nho
Resistance
v) Electrie : mho metr
Potential
.Eaupetentil S wnface Same þotential, so wonkdone =0.

i) Combin atien :electrical, Mehaniat

’ (vi) Sevices ’Moto _
Senie:Rnet : RitRat ’ Ammete: meas wne electric eneg
Cuvent electric
Knet
Voltemeter: measue potential Genoratos:Mechanical-
Vaniable Rheostat ’ difrnce
Resistance
Galvanomtr: presence of
’ wheat Stone 's Bride 'electrie cwent
9
R
3) Electromagnetica.
i) Biot- Savant haw dB= idlsin 0
D No Cw1ent in 6.
nrt
of magnetie field 4 Tesla [wb/m]
( Kirchkoff 's hauw ) RuJes -
(0Juntim haw - onsenvation of humb directim of wrent
hand padm nwte - finger - towands point
Chaye direction of field is L to palm
Consevation of Thumb ’ Force
) Loop Law Flemin 's heft hand nules - of
" Fore fingen ’ direction
Mot brS M-F.
Powen = VI S-I Watt ’ Middle fingor cunent
hand nules Thu mb force
flemings Right ’ F:F,’ MF.

e3 generator Middle finger-in

handd rew ue
K) Joule's haw of Hehg Marwell's ighO Tip moves directi on f CuM nt
H= VIE givea direchion of
’notabon of head
magnetie lines of force
 DApp!ication of Bio- Savart w) Magnetie fielt
’ closed CwtVes
’ On centre of
B= MoNI ’ N+S :externally
Cwvert
loop camgig 2R ’ sN : intenally
’ enamet from point
’ Solenoid centre 6= oNI ’ nee intsect

-terminal 6jo iygnete Subs tances iWhen plaed in MF:

+ Snfinite length Diag-magnetie : acwe feeble magnehsm
In opposite dire ctt on
Cuwvtent
on ou cto cakaying ’ fara magnete : acquire feebiedrectt
magnetism
om. Samn e
v) Fonce blw tuo
Parallel ’ feno- magnetic: acgure magnesm in
wnnent canyig
(ondy do
Note : Aboe cortain temp., 3ubstanc es
oce em a Fgvx B) loses its fu omag net'e behaviu
Mgne? Temp called Cuue emp.
"3f particde moves in direction
)Clectromagnetic nduetin :
of MF ’ ho force expuienced
whenever the magnetic fux linked with
Fi) fonce on cnent caryin Con dudor a clos ed ir u t ann induced emf
F= iBLsin produced in that
Cu et tnduee 44 Uruu.
i) Magnet -’ (Fe O4)
Horshoe maynet ’ antifieial self in ducton Mutua! in dwr tt en

induced opþose the

R Len's haw: Jhe direction enf is Suh

Change that Caus e

Consevation of Energy E.M-I.

Trans fonmer : Workg on the princi þle

Step- ub Steb - down

np<ng np ns
Diode
Note: LED Light Emittig
K) P- tyþe semi conducto- ho les mgority hage caieh.
&
emi on dueto
n- e electrorns ae
myority chaye cae.
6-Modern Physics. 3.Radioactiv ity : Henry Becqu er el
lNudear: short- nange (1om) S-I unit : Becquenel cB)
force
’ strongest in Natre Note: Radium- Madam Cuie
’ stabtity to Nudei
’ not a central foce ’K-Rays: Atomic No ’-2
Mass No ’ -4
’ do not depend on chanye field
defle cted in Electric f Hagnetic
2. Nuclean
Enegy " Lonis e
"Less
gaes.
þerating poweM
DFission :0to han ii) Fusion
Nucles Combin es. ’ B-Rays Ato mie No’ tleffe
fstrass man ct
Electrio f Mogm etie Feld
-’ The monuclea Mass No. ’ No
’ Nucleus splits 4eaction
" deflecte d in
Controtled un contolled e Hydrope " ionise gaes (tf-Ra ys)
Chan
Reactim
Nuclea
chaun
Reaction
A tom
Bom b
*penstretaing
"[-Rays : No deflection:
power- 100tines of

-Ray
Reacto Bomb
. Least ionise.
fuel: Utanium
fas t
High penetrating
Modenado:slow down
moving
neutrons 4.Photelectric'Effect
vatiom
: Albort Einstein
Cons of Eney
eg- Hea vy wate
9raphite , deu teniwm "Emissi¡n of electron from metal s wface
the slow
by ight.
Control Rods : captwe ’Minlmm freguney- Thes hold
neutr ons
’ Mini mu
nem ove heat produ
cedl wenk -fun ctim
Coolant : ert kiguud sodiwm elee tron pho to - electrom
’ cwent photo- wient
’ photocel - ight enegy- slecttital Enuyy

Electromagnetic Waves

Type of Life sclences

EM wave Production Appications aspect Issues

Radio & Communications Requires controls

TV Acceleraring charges Remote controls
MRI
for band use

Miowaves Accelerating charges & Communications Deep heating Cell phone use
thermal agitation Ovens Radar

Infrared Thermal agitations & Thernal imaging Absorbed by Greenhouse etfect

electronic transitions Heating atmosphere
Thermal agitations & Photosynthesis
VIsible llght electronic ransitlons All pervastve Human vision

Thermal agtations & Sterilization Vitarmin D Ozone depletion

Ultraviolet electronic transitions Cancer Control production Cancer causing
Inner elec°onic Medical
X-rays transitions and fast Medical Security diagnosis Cancer Cancer causing
collisions therapy
Medical
Gamma
Nuclear decay Nuclear diagnosis Cancer
Cancer causing
rays medicineSecurity therapy Radiation damage
 ’ Electromagnetic
’ Trans wense
1.
REFLECTION : Bouncing Back of Light
Laws i- i) Li = L
:) Incident
nay1 ie oN Sm e

Reflected
Notmal
ray plane
’Mirror -
focal leng*h
) Plane Mirror i- ii)i) Powen
Imge ’:-virtual
Errect
iti) Distance from
Mirror
Distan ce
Mirren - cmafe
frem
objec t
Heghe of [m= ]
’Latenally Ihvetey i) Height of object
Left ’ Ryht v) Minimum siye.
nequired for Mirroh =
eg Am bul ance to
full
view
img
vi) Plane MiiroMof rotated
incidlence
by angle
in plane
Meflected notates by 20
mirroM at
vi) Two plane ,

No of Inaje , n if "360 is
+ Mirrons ane payallel ) even
m=36-1
Inage = Infinity. ii) odd ’
3 60

i)Concave Miron - CONVERGENT

Mi
Principal
axis
Aperture
C F
P (Pole)
Focus
Centre of M2
Curvature k-f
-R
Concave or converging mirror
it) Convex Tirron > DIvERGENT
;M;
Aperture
Focus Centre of curvature

(Pole) p F

Principal
M2 axis

R
Convex or diverging mirror

* Sign convention t

Principal axis

(a) Concave mirror

F
Principal axis

f=

(b) Convex mirror

 Formation of Image by Concave Mirror
for Different Positions of Object
Position of Position of Nature and
Object Ray Diagram
image size of image
At infinity At focus or Real, inverted,
A in the focal extremely
plane diminished
At
point size
C P
infinity

Beyond the Between Real, inverted

centre of B focus and and diminished
Curvature but the centre of
at finite Curvature
distance
A A' P

At the centre At the centre Real, inverted

of curvature of curvature and equal to
the object

B'|C

A'

Between focuS Beyond the Real, inverted

and centre of centre of and bigger than
Curvature B Curvature object
A A P

At the focus At infinity Real, inverted

and extrenely
D magnified
B

To
infinity

Between the A Behind the Virtual, erect

pole and focus 4 mirror and magnified

F B'
 Formation of Image by Convex
Mirror for Different Positions of Object
Nature and
Position of Position of
Ray diagram size of
object image image
At infinity At the focus, Virtual, erect
M behind the and extremely
mirror diminished
A

At C
infinity

Between infinity Between the Virtual, erect

focus and the and
and the pole of A pole, behind the diminished
the mirror
(i.e. at finite mirror
distance) B P B' F

Foymule 1.’ f:

3. m = hi
ho
periscoþe,,
’ Kaleidoscope,
Uses i- i) PLan e M. Loking glas
’seanch do ctor^ m.,
I)Concave M.
shavig
vehicles street (amps
ii) Convex M.
 2. REFRACTION-Bending ght due to change In speed.
+ fregency ’ hemainp same
kawg Li-Sne ll's kaw weleagthfchanges
* velocit
NoNmal.
Densen - Rarey: Auway from
sin * Ronen- pensen : Towords t swrface
Pencil appeas bent
Normal
2*sine
incident ngle example - immeSed in water.
when
ie in Jame swelu.
Nomab ’hemon appeans to
sine Refracted nge plane
speed of Light Atmosphenie -
Refractive Indez = "speedvaccu
of kight
Refraction
see the sun 2 nin be
foe
sMise
in mediun e after atu ad
medium and sunset*
deþends
coloun
temperatwre
of ight
Tiin kling of stang.
increasing temp, Note :- On inaneasing angle of inciderxe,
ction increase
J Index incr ease gle of nefracto
Dtactie
fo dia mmd ’ May.
K. Critical Angle : denson
Raren
the angle of incidenoe fon ongle of
Mefraction be comes 9o.

Lens - fozmula L Leng fonmule

kerns
i) Convex kensS 0M Conv er gent
i) Concave heng pivegent keng ho
3: Powen = Ral Tength Cin nctr)

. Combination of keng.
Connected

i) epanated by distance .

P= +P2-P, P
X. Leng- Maken fonmule

fon ain ,

3Natural
i)TIR
Phenomena
Mirage fibre
i) optical
R
ii) aliance of
diamon d
iv) test tube blackened
apþeaxs silvery white
when dipped in water.
Notei- Critical increase in rtaig temp.
angle
i) Dispers ion NewnSplits
of into its Rain bow

Sir Isae
components [VIBGyOR]
deviates most because Refrachive index maxium for this colow of ught.
Note : Violet
deviates Least because minimum foH thS ooud of
Red Refractive index is
’ bisþensive Pow’ unitless , Dimensionless
D- P. of, Flint glass> rown Glass

) seate ig kight farticles of sane

deviated in all
order of wave lenyth ot igh
dire ction
Vrolet 5tetter mast because wavelenth is least.
Red Scatte least because is mast

Danger sig nals ned. C-V: Raman

Jhe sky appeahs blu R oman Effe ct
loudl aapeat whi te
SRy 4 pea black from Space
 Formation of Image by Convex Lens for Different Positions of Object
Position of object Postion of image Size of image Nature Ray diagram

At infinity Extremely diminished Real and inverted

Beyond 2F, Between f and 2 F, Diminished Real and inverted

(at finite distance)

At 2F At 2F Same size Real and inverted

2F

Between and2 F Beyond 2F Magniied Real and inverted

At F
F
At infinity Highly magnified Real and inverted
To infinity
A

Between lens and F On same side of the lens

as an object
Magnified Virtual and erect
B F

Formation of Image by Concave Lens for Different Positions of Object

Position of object Postion of image Size of image Nature of image Ray diagram

At focus on sarne side of lens Highly diminished Virtual and erect

At infinity as an object

At finite distance Belween locus and optical Dirminished Virtual and erect
centre on the sarme side of
lens as an object
4. Human Eye ’ Defects.
1 Cornea ibight ntus the eye. L Myopia : short sighted ness
:convex Lens can't see fat
2: henS cONCAVE LENs
3: Lis " dank muscul diabhrag m
*’ controls sie of
Hole b<w the
Jbuþil. 2- Hyteimetrepi:
can't
sighktedn ess
Log- nean
see
4:Prupil inis. by
cONVE% LENs
5: Reina :Light sensitive swn face, fonmed.
’Reds vision at (ow 3. Presbio þue : old ge people
Cones : vision at high gho me can't Mead deary

GOptic nerve: Transmits v isu al informat m netina- bfin Bi-focAL LENS

; can't ines
focus atonsam2
horijontal
ScLera
12: Giind sþot: no ods ,
JHITE
: outer layer, Cones,
o
of the
image.
eye.
Astigmatia
cLINDRICAL
t
LENS
same time.

8: AqueD us Behind Cor n e a

5. Colow
Humowy ubport the lens. blindnesg: unable to distinguish
132 ciliaNy Muscle : S among few colows.
9: Vitreous : b lw
Homoy
Lens 2 etina Absence of°cone ceLs
6. Cataract n opague, hite mem br ane
1e:. Acomod etion ; Ability of ons to change focal is develot
By Surger y.
n Cornea.
togt 7. Nig ht blindness ; due to
2em to Vit-A.
visYen

Ciliary muscles
Crystalline Sclera
lens
Aqueous Retina
humour
Blind spot
Pupil
Iris Optic nerve
Cornea

Vitreous humour

Human eye
5. Oþtical Instruments
L MicrosLope
magnified imge
i) Simple Micros cope - convex lens
-Short focal
(enyth

A'

A1

-u
BT L

B' B

-d
Simple microscope
i) Comþound M. Objec tiveeye piece
Len s
Apertwe
4foca engh 'focal leng
F:1’ Moo = -Vo Length of , Loiiofe
); mictoscope
of Votue

P' E
P" B

Compound microscope
 () Telescope : Objective lens has
per tue f focal
F:1’ Mo =
2-’
Mp -fo
(e) ,2ftfe
Note Only teles cope in which
Mirrons is used.
DPlane Mirron: Newtonian
Telescope
Concave t
i) Convex Cassegrain
Mirrot Telescope

P'
P p BT

-fo
Telescope
 | Chemical changes.
PhysicaschangeChangeswhich
l- t is a in Lt is a change in which
combositiornfmolec
Tne comþosition of a substance he is
is not affected. |Structure of substan ce
ie mo new substance is affected.
substance
formed. i-e. Formation of new
exampie:Rusting |Corosion
examhle -Sntenconvensior of food
States of matter. Digeston substances
>magnetisation of iror ’ Burning of
’ EvapoMation, isti
llatien, Enplosion
sublimatien , con den satuém mp. Blue copper sulphate
crystallisatien exambles rystals en heating
Lasses itb all watu
o physical changes. moLeuules iing white salt
Jmp. Bwe colown of coppen decomposes int Black
Sulbhate rystal i's abbearCuprie oxide 4 sutphu
when it is heated strongy trioxids on strong heat.
because om he ting
water of cystalision is -5H,0
white
Clack
lost.
2Permanent f Srrevensible
CuSOy.5 H,0 heauso +5H,0 because iden tity of substance
Blue white is Lost

R Jemporany Revensible Enengyi is Absorbed

0M evolwed.
3. Composition of he
Constitv ent of matte
hemains constant. 3mp Sepletior of
Ozone to oygen an
4. Physical changes Me due he pres ence oft UV-hay
to the change in physical enam ple of chemical'
propenties ike density,
volume , state temþo aily. charge
5. No Evoutor of
HEAT

States of Matter.
Solidts I|2-Liquids 3. Gases.
DDefinite shape|) Definite
No Definite Shape
Valume.
) Neither definite shape
Definite volume ho de fin ite Volume.

i)gntemoltw lan 3ntemolecular forces i)ntormoleculon fonces

weak duk to
ane weak de e vey
forces ane very they Can slde
shich Gme which thein positon
anothey. and
n ot fixed
strong aHe
they can mow
freely.
i) Molecules ane iü)Molecules are
closely packed dosely packed with ii) Molecules ane
with intemediate energy wide apart f e
4 packed due motiem. associated withh
minimum
maximum eneg.y
enegy
Note ;Meing point
of a solid
sr ength of
inteumoleular
fonces.
>Jhe melting point
ofinSalid is n
cicatien of
Strengtt of
Fntemolecul ar
foMces of attactiom.

Note ;- ompressibility depends ubon the intermoleulay

mattu.
sþaces bu panticles of
Compressibility o intermole ulan space.
Solid < iquid < ds
 HANGE IN STATE LATENT HEAT.
Jhe convension of a subs tance fom one state to anthe
state at a definite tempenatune Change in state.
heab
Solid heat Gas
cooL
Liquid coou

" Jhe amount of heat enengy nequired by a substances

trem One state to anothen state ’Lotent heat.

Imþortant Terms -
Dnetting point : The temperature at which a sold me lts
become a diqvid at noOm temperalre.

9Freezing point : The temperatune at whieh a Liquid beomes

solid ab room tembnature.

) Boiling point : The tempenatne at which a iqyid stado

’
beilig
t is
ab room temperature.
a bulk phenomena.

’Boiling
boiting of watn increases in presence of
imbwnitiws.
Note :
point increases n in creasimg
Goitigg
pressue upon diuid that's wty
presswne
food
cooker.
coo ks companaliely fuaten
'- Jhe substoances hoawe
fired compositio 4
non- vaias le propenties.
+Jhese can't be sepanated into simpler
by simþler substances.
suastances

e:g- Elements 4 Compounds

1. ¿Lements - An element is a substance which

Can' be split up into two on mohe
Simplen substances.
Mencuny f Bromine-diquid
DMetals :Jhe elements have tendency to form posithve
ions by Loss of electrons.
’ Metals ane wstre, ductitity, malleablaty
conditivity , sonorous.
’ Mercuny enists as liquid
’ Aluminium - the most abUndant metal n
the earth s crust.
ba.sic in natune.
’Oides of metals
tendency to foMm
)Non- metals : Jhe eliments which have electrans.
hegative ions by gain of
’Bromine exists as siqud
non- metal.
’ Jodine - shini aicic im natue.
’ Oxides of non- metals ae

i) Metalloids : Jhey ane the elements whose properties fall

blw those of metals 4non- metads.
Cf Boron, Silicon, Germaium, Arseit, Antimony,
Teuurin , polDnium.
Latin Name Symbo
Eng
Coppe
nome

Cuprum Cu
Aurum Au
Ferru m
gron
Plu mbum Pb
Le.ad
Mercuy .Hydraurgyrum
Potassium. Kaliumn
Silve Arqentum
N&trim
Sodium -Stannum
Sh
Tuno St en Wolfram
 substance made up
Z. Compounds - Acompound is a
chemically
Of to mone elements
Combined in a fixed proportionNH byOHweig
0t Nac, COz ,
example -
XTropeties of Compounds
)A compound can' be sepanated ito its comþonents by
physical method.
i) Jhe properties of a compownd ane entirely different from
those of its consti tuert elements.
iii) Jhe compesition of comþound is f'red.
iv) Compounds have fized mieting substuncs.
4 boili Points.
A compound is & homagenu
-A mixture is a substance which consists
of two or more compounds not chemically
combined teye then.
example :- ai, milk, ink, brine, Line waten, Lass
paints, scil ,focd, kerosene, woo d , et.

LHomogeneous Midore/: itsBhes same compesition throghewt

solufion wmass.
No visible
’ b|w boundanies of seban atuo
vaiou consthitvents.

e; Alioys seluien of sugan in water

mixtwe of alcohsl 4 water , etc.

have a uniform compasition

9t does not ibs
Z Heteregeneous Mitwe :throughot mass.
Visible boundanies of sepanation.
ef Solt ion of Ca co, in waten, se Lutie of eil in
waten etc.

hich boils at a
æ. A2eotrepic Mixture A mituretemperatne f distils
definite
over without any chakge in composition
examble : ethanol- Sater, acetone -bengenes
benzene - chloro form.
Properties ef Migtore
i) A mixture can be sepnated into its compon en ts
filtnatiom, evaponaton,
by physical methods ike
Swblimalin, distillatien , magnet ,ete

I1) A mixture shows the prepenties of al constivents

given out
present in it. Enengy is usuy meithen
moH absor be d the prepanation of miptore.
iii) Jhe comþosition of mizture is vaniable.
iv) A migture does not posses definite melting f bo
point except Azeotropie Migture.
Methods of SEPARATEON
)Crystatisation : This method is based on daiffun ce
in solubiity.
eample. mi of KNO f Naco can be

i) by seponatory: Jhis method is used to aeparate

funnei a mixture of tao immiscible liquids.
example. mixt ure of ol water.
is used to pnification of
) Disti lation : Jhis method boils withous 'decomþosi tio
dig uids which
2 contain non- volatile imþunities. fanulne
tcduene , beng ene
enamn þle. mintne of ether 2 frem ea.
pue wate (arn be obtained
 t Fractional Distillation ?- Jhis is he process wsec to
two OM more
sebarate a miture of
points wtthin he
mistble liyuids which possess heiy boilig
dies el , kerosene
limit of 10 Ro 15K e:g. pe tro L,

5. Di_hllation wnder Hedlwced pressure - Jhis process iS sed fan

belous thi
Those diquids wich decompcsis
boils at
beiling point wnden educed phessere, iguid
Jow temþer atwne. Hence, the temperotune of decompasi tion is ot
vaccum distillatin.
reache. Jhis proc ess iS known
Car sepaHate , used fo the concentraion of

cane juice in Sjar industry.

sga
6. Steom distilatim i-Jt is used fot the sepanaton 4
pnificatien .of iquids which ane ppreciaby
volatile steam from non - volatile comþonents of migore.
eg- 0-nitrophenol f p- nitrophen ol are sepaatedd by this
methoc Aniline is also pwnifi ed by this methodl.

7 vaporation ;- Jt is the process by which souble solid

Can be obtaines from their solution by
the solvint to vaporise .
Salt Can be obtainecd trom salt saltion.
Surface Phenomena.
8.
Sblimation i-Jhengaseous
a solia
So lid to e dinectky from
’Jhis þrocess is used to sepanate such mixtures that
m
heating
contain a sumblimable volaile component from
non- sublimable impurity.
’eg. sepanation of napthalehe, anthracene, ben zeic acid,
cambhon , NH4 e , Jogine, ete
only halogen which sublime.

L Law of Conservation of Mass i- A. Lavoisier in 1o

between the mass es of
Uhis Law establish the Helationshib
chenical neaction.
Jteactants and products dn
’ MATTER Can never be created not be destroyed
or chemical
doring physical
Totat mass of Totab mass of
4eactants products.

R Law of Conservation of Mass in the kight of Modern

Reseench: ALbert Einstein
’ Mass can be convented into ener
*Jhene is some enengy fonmed in each neactior ,
by which mass has been lost.
’ Mass 4 nelated as
Eney
E = me2
where, E= eneg
mass

C: speed of cight = 3X10°m/s

3. Las of
CoNSTANT. Joseh Proust

COMPOSITION
’ Jhis aw states that A semple of a pne chemical compound
n the same
alays consists same elements combined tethen
proportions by mass, hatever be its $owM ce .
99

Tinite

Law of Mottiple Proportion - John Dalton

1. mone than ne compound
’Jt states that An element may be fonm in
othet el em ents come
element. Jhe masses of
Jith another 99
of Small
the atio int eqons.
5. Lew of Reciprocal Proportion. ;-Richter
in L972
proportions os Lanw of
’ ALso known s the law of equivalent
combining weghts combine sebarately
’Jhis law states that When two different elements they do
which
withh the same third element the Aatio in
SO wll be Same or some simgye multiple of the tatio in which

they combine ithh eachh other..

6. Gay hussac 's haw of ombining Velumes Gay- Lussac.

chemical
+Relation
Heachions.
bju votumes of neactants f produet a
+Jhis law states that Unden same conditions of ternperatwe
presse wherevee gaaes neact togethen, the volume of the
Heach jases as well as produtts beans a simple whole nunber
Matio...

Gas Laus

L. Boyle's haw :At constant temperasture, pres une of

wih its volume.
J invensy
onstant T]

pV : Constant.

R Chaneshaw : At constant presswne, at constant pre

dinee tly
Jhe volumetemof a
peraturven mass of 0 vanies
Nith its
V oT [a constant P]
V= KT
= constant.
Applicethon i. Bunsting
Balloo
f Hyage
2. Making f Chappat
3- Gay- kwssac 's baw : At constant volume ,
Jhe presune of e give mass of a is directly to ibs
abyolute tempenane.
P T at ccnstan t VJ
P: kI P constant

4.Avogadro 's law: Unden similan conditions of tembenature t pressure,

equal volome of all gases contain eual number of
molecules.
OR.
At given tempenaune ¢ pnessue, the velme cf anw gas
us directly proportienal to the nmber of moles f gcy.
Vo m, whene n= ho. of moles.
k (constant)
3. Dalton's Las of Partial Presswne
To hi_ Law, if two a
mOHe qases , which do not
Accordi
Meact ngchemicaly, ane enclased in a vessel,
mixtvre is the Swm of
the total presswne enerted by gasepus
portial pressunes enented by constituert jases.

X.Sdeal Gas - Jhe qas which obeys as Aaws,

condions
a l
pressune.
of tempenatie f
’ Obeys
all
Chanles,
condition
Boyie's 4 Avagudo 's Jaw
at

’ Hypothetical
the moleules do not
’ Attractive foces am ong conveted
eist. Hence, iaeat Jgas can't be
inte Liquid solid.
# Keal qases Show ideal behaviout at low pres wne 4
J
high tempoakne.
H2, O2, Ng ’ane neal gas es.

# Jdeat -Gas &quation ' From Boyle 's f chanles' law

PV = congtant = R
For 1 mole
T (as -éyuainm)
Fon n mole

where, R=0-082 1 L atm mol' k

:8-3 (4 x Lo mol"k
1-39 Cal moL" K

X Classiticaion of Chemical Reachion

"nehmic Chemical Reactions in which
heat energy
eactants absorbs the
the to foHn procuct
S w Ounds
Mom the

heat
i)Exothermic
Reaction
- Chemical Reactions in whch
Heaction
neleases
eney auning
Jypes of Chemical Reaction.
Heaction in which
I. Combin ation /Addition Reaction -A moHe sutbstances
Substance.
new
combine to form a
single Ca(oH) t Heat
e Ca0 + Hy O
(Suick (5Laked
Cime
)
(ime
’ Cacos) + He0
chemica fo nmula of
used n
hi
mable is al
Ca(ces)
R. lecomþositi on Keaction i- A neaction in which
Single comþeun d breaks into
two o more simpler Substances.

Simestone used un manufactwre of Cemet

3. Displacement Reaction -A chemical neactiov in which
one mone eactive element
compowne
disþlaces a less Hective elements from ito
eg Fe +CuS0, ’ Fesoy + Cu
Zn t CuSOL Znso + Cu
 Reactiity Series :
Most eactive
Potassium MeTAL
JSodium (Reacts with
ithium
water
Banium
Strontium
Caleium
Magnesium
ALSminium
Manganese
Reacts wth
Chromium
Iron acid
Cadmiumn
Cobalt
Nickel
Tin
head
Hydnogen’ Inelude for CoMPARISON
Antimony
Bismuth
Mercny
Highly
Unreactive
-siver
Gold
wPlatinum LEAST Heactive MeTAL

4. Souble sisplacement A neaction in which

Reaction the exchange of pas itive ions besoeen taso
compounds.
example - Nay $O4 + bacly ’BaSO +2Nacl

K Blancing of
S1. Check the no
Chemicad Eyuati
of atoms of each element present
on LHS.
RHs.
of equatior whether hey d equivalent or not. element.

S-2 4f not, to the corres pohd7

mulliply the element by a no.
eguvalent ro
O3 Continue mulialying until all no. become
orespondin Celement.2Nace +2H,0
the

d Na0 + 2cL (balanced)

wmed
is completeiy cons because
i-Jhe subst ance that
in a Heaction called imiting egnt
it detemines the amo

O he othey Meactant presert in excess is calued, excess neyent.

X. Solution :- A solution is a homegeneous mixtune of

cne. moHe soutes
issolved in a solvent.
+ Solvent :- he substance in which a so lute dissolves.
in solution)
(maximum quantity
*solute :- the Substane that dissolves.
( minimm quantity in olution)
’ Sotunated Soutim i A solution is which ho mo4e solte
can disolved at giuen tempenatue.
’Ungauyatu Solution Not satunated
Capable of dissotving moxe of solute at
Same tempratwne
Supersatnated sol" Asolutien that cwntains mone thar the macimum
amont of solte that is capable of being
disolved ab giver temponatne
Note- On heating, the intexmolelr sþaces bw sol vent moleules
ae inesases.
we can dissolve, moMe solte in Satwrated setin.
 ) uantum Model of Atom
Atomic Structwne 4 Radioactivicy |*Isotepe
Soddy Dual: De Broglie 19 24
) Dalton's PAtomie Model
John
Atomit1890Theony
Dalton- Plum- pudding /
Sam e Natwe
"Matter behaves ike radiation
’ Matte constitutu Ato ms Weter melon +9sobans "Same- A pantiele 4wave
nalles t particles JJ Thomson
’ Smal divided Ruther foyd's : mv
can't be fth $ame - neutro
Heisenbeg ?'s Une entainity . 1927
created no destroyed. d-scattein soe leetrenc it is imbolsi ble to mease bott
" most Space frea
Dnawback: Not expln " negatively changsame. positiom mnomentum.
isobaNS 4 isotopes. eneveluin Note: Hig htes Aufbau's Pnineiple
A Constitution of Atom "ptn ’ nucles isete pe Sub-shelis ane filled witt e
’ ElectonJJ Thomsor stweng fonce in ineasing order of tieir
c
xio -2%
" Magnitude : -l6
Size of nuc l
es a
enegia.
"Mass
:9. to8x 10 ky ato mn
Hatio Ce/m] Planck's quantm Note : n f.e do not follow
ch an Theony: Max Planck
measwted /.1. Thomso
me:RA Miikan Cney nitted
"change
’ Proton : E. Go ldstein.
abs orbed by the
atom in he form PHund 's Rule :
OM1nityde::t673
t-6x of quanta
ing of e in sub-shell
’Neuton : James
xIo
Chaduick E: 4y Che6-626xi6JSI |Pair
starts aften all
avalable.
A+. Model
"Mass : 675 x1 o k PNeils Bohr: Bohr atomi orbitas or sub-shell
planck Lonstnt
A Electro magneie Radiatim. aHe
single fitled.
an atom nevove aound
wave : wavelengt xfreq en yle uin
clews only in cotau b auli- xclusin Principle
in.

velocity No tuo e can hane same.

seleCted páth ’ or bit
wave
Ne
Draw back : dual Natwe
eneg valu
No.
of fown quantum

#Alomic No. Z (H" Moseley) uncertanity principle

no of Proton = no. of
+ no. of n
3-D
effeet -[mo Fild]
Mass No. =A: nep zeem
stak ettet-Cueeticield]
2X’Atom

iv) guantm Ne. (vi) Use of RadioacWie

Radioastivity : 1896
H. becquenel Isotope
’Pnineipab g- No. (n): Bohr
" size of e orbits
" coind by Madam
(Radium )
ie T° Thyroid, Braun, kidney
P enengy of e not affected by Tem , Press. 23 Thyroid
"Max. no of e 2n |" S-I-’ Becquenel Cancen treatment
’ Azimuhal go No. (): (Sommenfeld)Notei n 5 (unstable)
ng momentum
"Also nown
"quantum No,.
: 6table) lc4
deter minah m

G-M wwtu: mea wte blood

" Shape of e orbit meas we
(n-1) Max. ionis ati on
has valus 0 to penetath on -smal

d- 2 p-Rays sth ong neducing gent

+Magnetic -Ne. (m): Lande ham ’ max. penetration.
direction of orientatim ofe
2 distriction vi) Nucleu React.
.fuel -
explain : zeeman effect
uhlenbech
’ Spin g-Ne. (5): Goldsch midt
|-Moduates- graphite
orientation of spin control Boron
rod steel
-y anti clockwise cadinium
"toolont liqud solrum,
clock wise potassium

Periodic classifieati on . #p-bleck Cnstnpl) 'Group wise study :

Dobereine's Trads : group - 13 to 18 IA’ AIkali metals
Li, Na, k, Rb, Cs , Fr
Jhe middle element has $maller atomie
ao mic weight the awnage Madii han s-block. <s
of other two. High electronegativihes Reactivity ’ Li NacK <Rb
e Li, Ne,K clet omppond ITA - AIkaline met als
t Hieh ionizetim
Newland 's Octaves
Jhe properties of eey eght
Hig ’ acidic natwne
oxLdeb
enegy
be, M Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
elements wue simnilar t - block Elements (n-1)ns1-2 TA- B, AL, Ga, In
I me melting t boiling Aloninium- powefu re duin
gent’ Thermiteproces
"Lothar Meya's A + silvo- best, Lead- poon
Periodic funetin Mangement:
isatmie - bleck am phot eie oxide
+ forms
Th allium- stoe undey kerosee,
volume. (n-2)f-l Cn-1) -! ns alyceune , ete.
"Mendelew's P.T: high meling, beiling, eactie
on the basis of atomie Hioactive
ionic comþouund VA- C, S i, Ge,Sn, Pb
weigh )Poiodic Proputies.
"Moden P.T.: ko) Atomic Radii vA- N,P, As, sb, Bi
on the basis of atomic decreasu ’ L-R
numbers. incr ease’T-6
’7 period , L8 gron. catiom ’ s malet VIA- 0,S, Se, Te, Po
S-Bloek Cns12) Anion (aMg
IA- lkali Metal Stored.
ponaffinin vnA F, CI, 6,I,
DIonisatin Potetial-nemove e
TILA - lkaine eatth meta
’malle able ,uctile, 9ood con ducto 9Electren Affinity - add e Affinity oxidising
u, By7 F I
’ low ionis ation potetiel. 9tlectoneg ativity- ajtr act
’ 60{t metal
agent he'shaned pain of| vmA’ Zuo Group elemt.
’ Poweful neduing
compound except LiBe. e He, Ne, Ar, K Xe, Rn
’ form ionic
electropos itie
Highly
 Trends in Periodic Properties
Periodic In aperiod from In a group from
property left to right top to bottom
lonisation energy Increase Decrease
Electron affinity Increase Decrease

Electronegativity Increase Decrease

Non-metallic character Increase Decrease
Oxidising character Increase Decrease
Acidic nature of oxides Increase Decrease
Atomic size Decrease Increase
Electropositivity Decrease Increase
Metallic character Decrease Increase
Basic nature of oxides Decrease Increase

6Chemical Acid, Bases, Salt.

1&lectrovalent | Ioni O Acid
Arrhenius concept
(i6) Base
’ Trans fr of e.
’|w metals eNon -mental H ionsOH ions
CNa,k, Ca, ba,etc) (o, f, N,s, CU,Br, etc.) bBrons ted - (owrY
. proton donot " protenaccepto
’cryst all ine in Natwne
’ hard, brittle. low vo latile, conjuate
high stable , highdensity |CHco0 H protor acrd
onjuga Protor
+ g0od condu cto ba
Lewis oncept.
soluble in pol ar &olvent "ele cten puwt
non - drectionat "e pat
non -sgid accebtoy donors
2- Covalent-shaing of e bue
’ slihtly soluble in Wat Nete : Conjugte acid of weak
’ bad - condutoY
’ low melting f boiling
is
arong (vtceversa)
Hydraaeid -no ox%en
’Volatile rigid Hu,
Non- netal,. Oxya cid - oxy1 en
3 Co-ordinate 4 Dahive bond
botth e is sh aed þaun
from me otom.
(ome
4.

Intmoleula Intramolecular

* Na, K’ an be ut with a
knife.

Properties of Acids
Acids possess the following general properties
" Acids when react with reactive metals like Zn, Fe, Na
liberates hydrogen.
Zn + 2HCI ’ ZnCl, + H,‘
" Acids when react with carbonates and bicarbonates
produces CO, gas which turns lime water milky.
CaCO, + H,SO4 CaSO,
CarboCIum
Marble Sulphuric acid Calcium sulphate
+ H,0
Water
+ Carbon
CO,‘dioxide
" Acid react with base to give salt and water. It is
known as neutralisation reaction
HCI(aq) +NaOH(aq) ’NaC(aq) +H,O(|)
" Acids also react with metallic oxides to form salt and
water.
Na,O + 2HCI- ’ 2NaCl+ H,0
Salt
Above reaction is similar to neutralisation reaction
(Acid-base reaction). Therefore metallic oxides are also
called basic oxides.
" Aqueous solution of acids conduct electricity.
" A concentrated solution of 3part conc. HCl and1
part conc HNO, is called aqua-regia. All metals
dissolve in it.
 Natural source Acids
Vinegar Acetic acid
Orange/Lemon Citric acid
Tamarind Tartaric acid
Tomato Oxalic acid
Curd/Milk Lactic acid
Nettle sting Methanoic acid (formic acid)
Ant sting Methanoic acid (formic acid)
Apple Maleic acid
Curd Lactic acid

Uses of Some Important Acids

" Nitric acid is used in manufacture of artificial silk, dyes,
drugs, perfumes, explosives (TNT), fertilisers and in
purification of silver and gold.
Sulphuric acid (king of chemicals) is used in manufacture
of hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, fertilisers, explosives,
paints and pigments, coaltar, dyes, lead storage batteries
and as an oxidising and dehydrating agent.
Hydrofluoric acid is used in etching of glass and in
pickling of alloy steel.
" Hydrochloric acid is the main constituent of gastric acid
and is used in manufacture of chlorine, chlorides and in
textile, dyeing and tanning industry.
" Boric acid is used as an antiseptic, for eye wash.
Acetic acid is used in food processing, in the manufacture
of acetone and as a solvent.

Properties of Bases
Bases possess the following general properties
(i) Bases react with metals to form salt with the evolution
of hydrogen gas.
2NaOH +Zn ’ Na,ZnO, + H,‘
Base Sodium zincate (salt)
This reaction is not given by all bases.
(ii) The reaction of bases with acids is known as
neutralisation reaction, which leads to the formation
corresponding salt and water.
(ii) Bases react with non-metallic oxides to form salt and
water.
2NaOH + SO, NaSO, +H,0
Sodium hydroxide Sulphur trioxide(acid) Sodium Water
(Base) sulphate (sale)
Above reaction is similar to neutralisation reaction
(acid-base reaction). Therefore nature of non-metallic
oxides is acidic.
(iv) Bases on dissolving in water give hydroxide ions
(OH ions)
e.g. NaOH (s) water Na (ag) + OH (4q)
Sodium hydroxide
All the bases do not dissolve in water. The bases which
dissolve in water are called alkali e.g. NaOH, KOH,
Ca(OH), NH,OH etc. Hence, all alkalis are bases but all
the bases are not alkalis.
 Uses of Some Important Bases
Sodium hydroxide is used in manufacture of soap
purification of bauxite and manufacture of rayon.
" Potassium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soft
soap. A suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water is
used in medicines as an antacid. (milk of magnesia)

" Calcium hydroxide is used in preparation of sodalime

(mixture of calcium hydroxide and caustic soda), for
white washing buildings and softening of hard water.

Indicator
An indicator is a substance which gives different colours
in an acid and a base. Thus, it is possible to check whether
a given substance is acid or base or neutral with the help
of indicator.
" Litmus, red cabbage leaves, turmeric (haldi) coloured
petals of some flowers such as hydrangea, petunia and
geranium etc. are natural acid-base indicators. Methyl
orange, phenolphthalein etc. are synthetic indicators.
Universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators. It
shows different colours at different concentrations of
hydrogen ions. We can estimate the strength of acids
and bases by using universal indicators.

Some Important Indicators

1. Alizarin It is yellow at pH 5.5 and red at pH 6.8.
2. Cochineal It is yellow in acidic solution, and
deep violet in alkaline solution.
3. Curcumin It is yellow at pH 7.4 and red at
pH 8.6.
4. Turmeric Turmeric solution stays yellow in the
presence of acids and changes to purple brown in
the presence of bases. Dry turmeric paper is
bright yellow and changes to red in the presence
of bases.
5. Phenolphthalein Phenolphthalein is purple in
very basic solutions and colourless in acidic
solutions.
6. Red cabbage Red cabbage juice indicator is red in
acid solution, purple in neutral solutions and
greenish yellow in basic solutions. Cabbage paper
turns green in the presence of bases and pink to
red in the presence of acids.

0 Nm-metad 4thein camþoumda.

10 Henty Cavendih, But name wad gth

hanoish Most abumolaint elemeat
uniense dt conitittu about o9% by
Rarth atust9
 4
dielecte high
onit
bond H make
cule mola
valui pH
mofht bipoe. 12
081 constant dietictic highposseslea
rocket pebrol, sythali manuactNL
of )sesi
hydrcabon 3
maku
cart redu
3
tmsa ditydge towandi 4-halagen Reacivdy
tydide. metal fozund 1e
PrapertiA Chemica 12
1
apeties Physical
fr
H2e
4H20 t st 04 fea Reduetim
stay
k] +4, sfe dtnye Kyoogeh
team
coke fet
at tamoueyed
Dihydsog frefaHatini Methodof
ktm. detium prootiurn SAotopeA
 5 hande due to predeng
cal ciu canbonates

Canbonal

adaleodo.hauk
10
cambefile
Haxdnen de tophesne
lats
Chtores

method Zeolitu NaAL,seor0

10 4"5 ° H-0-H

Hey 493Q t k i oclounley cohes

Bos doun dast mo Aeactiamu

Cabon he I demunt

Canborn

351'a-/ém trd olube all soent

2 Bund at 900C. " Hight thmal onduetiny
Cevalut
diitani
high yractie ndex
4

bund at 93-103 K:to

23SUNDAY

Sp² ygbridia stia

 fullerne dilcowod nd80.
gunal formula Can. whine n30-48
g° 12 pitagon & 20 huragan. spt hybridind
nohea comþonda ot as aupenconcta

roceas convALOn nto coal is

2calls canbonisatil

Note i Peat gngstinsi 4 oihract

Bituninaw CooliA most commen

COt H2t
Watn
Produa ’ mhan
tetnyneotatjas
Prepand Ay th wood n closud
absn
mst racdue form 2020

voume n atmosphs.

eMethada o-prepanatitn
n" NH¢l t NaN0
fhysiat praputi
1 vapswy duny i t:4,
2 w t . 10.,,
A N‘t 2H2.0+ Nace
Coonls tatlun adoleya
none toxieiktu han a,
mttinypomt: 632K,
Aolue n

Chumital prapentila unLctie at andinery n

ntousaudi
N205 hitie acid.

22 28 29 30

Ammonia oofirst isolatad by

"frepard Gmmo ni
uuthe alakd ime
10

"Haben'spross N2 t3H2NHS
11t base
tean
Ntric ac HNO3 manyactud by Ostuall.
Yelo wn catode to dlomfasctioy.
2

Anate (80 NH4NQs + 20 INT).

Soaps
Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of higher fatty acids like, stearic acid, olcic acid, palmitic acid etc. Soaps are obtaincd
by the alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats. Only glycerides of fatty acid give soaps on alkaline hydrolysis.
Raw Materials
The important raw material uscd for the manufacture of soaps are
() Oil or Fat Mustard oil, mohwa oil, coconut oil, cotton sced oil, olive oil or animal fat.
(ü) Fillers The betse dded to increa the weight and volume of soaps, e.g. silicates, powdered pumice,
starch, sodium carbonate.
(ii) Alkali Caustic soda for hard or washing soaps and caustic potash for soft soap is used for saponification.
(iv) Colouring Material
ZnO : White colour
Methylene blue Blue colour
Uranium : Yellow
Eosine : Red
(v) Perfumes Perfumes are used to make soap pleasant smelling, e-g. lemon gras oil.

Types of Soaps
There are following types of soaps
(i) Washing Soaps These are made from cheaper fats
like mohwa oil, resin oil etc.
(ii) Toilet Soaps These are made from best quality
animal or vegetable fats or mixture of both. These
soaps do not injure the skin.
(iin) Medcewu Toilet tsoaps containing some substance
(iv) Metallic Soaps These soaps contains salt of metals
other than sodium and potassium.
(v) Transparent Soaps These are prepared by dissolving
toilet soaps in alcohol and evaporating the filrate.
These contain glycerol.
(vi) Shaving Soaps These toilet soaps contain gum and
glycerol. Their mildness increases by adding
POcssum carbonate. Resin is also added to shaving

(vii) Liquid Soaps These soaps are obtained by the action

of coconut oil and caustic potash and contain about
8% of water.
(vii) Floating Soaps These soaps are obtained by beating
large amount of air into soap while it is in creamy stage.
Detergents
Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts of
long chain carboxylic acids. Although these do not contain
soaps like sodium salts of fatty acids. Hence, these are
known as 'soapless soap'.
These can be used even in acidic solutions and have a
strongest cleansing action.
" These are more soluble in water and can be used with
hard water as these produces no precipitates with
ticpurer. They
used in powder form for domesti
" The liquid form may be used for dish washing, cleaning
of floors etc.
Biological degradation is an important property of good
detergent.
Cleansing Action of Soap or Detergent
The principle of cleaning by soap is surface tension.
Asoap (or detergent) molecule is made up of two parts:
A long hydrocarbon part and a short ionic part
containing-co0- Na' group.
The long hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobie
(water--repelling) so it is insoluble in water but soluble
in oil and grease and the ionic part is hydrophilic
(water-attracting). Thus, soluble in water.
When soap is applied to dirty clothes soaked in water, the
hydrocarbon part of the soap molecules attach themselves
greasy yan particles whereas the ionic part
the soap molecule remain attach water.

GLASS
Glass is an amorphous hard, brittle, super cooled liquid. It
is not a true solid.
Chemically glass is a mixture of number of silicates and
has no definite formula. But the general composition can
be represented as xM,0- yM'O.6SiO, where Mis
monovalent alkali metal like Na, K, etc., M'is a bivalent
metal like Zn, Pb etc., and x, y are whole numbers. Silica is
the major constituent of all glasses.
Glass is a mixture and not a compound.
Glass is chemically inert towards a lot of chemicals.
Glass is known as super cooled liquid with no sharp
melting and boiling point.
" Glass stoppers should not be used in containers of
NaOH or KOH.
Glass is soluble in HF due to formation of H,SiF.
Therefore, HF solution is used for etching of glass.
Raw Material
The important raw material used for the manufacture of
glass are
() Silica (SiO,) and cullet (glass pieces)
(ii) Compounds of alkali metals e.g. NaCO3, NaNO,,
K,CÖ,KNO,, Na,sO, and KSO,.
(ii) Compounds of alkaline earth metals (e-g. CaCO3,
BaCO,, CaO).
(iv) Oxides of heavy metals e.g. PbO, Pb,O4
Colour producing substance and their colour
Substance Used Colour of Glass
Cuprous oxide Red
Cupric oxide Peacock blue

Potassium dichromate Green or greenish yelloW

Ferrous oxide Green
Ferric oxide Brown
Manganese dioxide Light pink, in excess black
Cobalt oxide Blue
Gold chloride Ruby red
Cadmium sulphide Yellow
Carbon Amber colour (brownish black)

Cement

" It was first named by Joseph Aspdin as Portland cement

and was discovered in England.
Approximate Composition of Portland Cement
Calcium oxide (Cao) 62%
Silica (SiO,) 22%
Alumina (AI,O,) 7.5%
" Magnesia (MgO) 2.5%
. Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) 2.5%

Raw Material
The important raw material used for the manufacture of cement
Limestone and clay. Limestone provides CaO while clay
provides SiO, Al,0, and Fe,O,.
In cement almost entire amount of lime is present in the
combined state as calcium silicate (2CaO-SiO,) and
(3CaO-SiO,)and calcium aluminates (CaO- Al,o,4CaO
Al,0,).

" When clay and lime are strongly heated together they
fuse and react to form 'cement clinker'. 2-3% of Psum
(CaSO,-2H,0) is added to slow down the setting
cement so that it becomes sufficiently hard.
Excess of silica (SiO,) decrease the setting time of
cement and alumina (Al,O,)increase the setting time of
cement.
" When cement is mixed with water it becomes hard due
to the formation of a solid jelly. This process is called
setting of cement.

Paints
Paint is a mixture of pigments suspended in a solvent.
Paints are widely used in surface coatings.
" Plasticisers are added during the manufacturing of paint in
order to provide elasticity to the film and minimise its
cracking.
Aluminium paints are heat resistant but cannot be used
for water pipe. Lithopene (BaSO, +ZaS] is a substitute
of white lead.
Chromium oxide is used as an ingredient in paints to
obtain green colour.
Cadmium lithopones (cadmopones) (Cds + BaSO,) is
used as yellow pigment.
"Titanium dioxide (Titanox) is extensively used in the
manufacture of paints and pigments.
Constituents of Paints
Main constituents of paints are as follows
(i) Pigments These substances give colour to another
substance. These have a definite colour.
(ü) Solvents Normally some oil like terpentine oil is
used as a solvent.
(iü) Driers The compounds which are used to dry the
paints. These are cobalt, lead manganese, rosinates
compounds. e.g. MnO, CoO, etc.
(iv) Thinners The substances which are used to reduce
the viscosity of paints. These increase the volume of
paint. e.g. alcohol, kerosene oil etc.
(v) Fillers or extenders The substances are used to
increase the concentration of pigment or paint. These
are low gravity material e.g. BaSO,-(CuSO,)- 2H,O
etc.

Commonly Used Pigments

Pigment Colour Formula
White lead White 2(Pb(OH),2PbCO,]
Chrome yellow Yellow PbCrO4
Chrome red Red PbCrO, -PbO
Basic lead sulphate White 2PbSO, PbO
Red lead or sindhur Red Pb04
Lithopone White BaSO, + ZnS
Malachite Green Cu(OH),-CuCO,
Azurite Green Cu(OH),-2CUCO3
Thenard Blue CoO- Alo,
Smelt Blue KoCoO 3SiO,

Safety Matches
Modern safety match was developed only about two
hundred years ago. A mixture of antimony trisulphide,
potassium chlorate and white phosphorus with some glue
and starch was applied on the head of a match made of
suitable wood. These days the head of the safety match
contains only antimony trisulphide (Sb,S,) and potassium
chlorate (KCIO,) The rubbing surface has powdered glass
and a little red phosphorus (which is less dangerous).
When the match is struck against the rubbing surface, some
red phosphorus get converted into white phosphorus. This
immediately reacts with potassium chlorate in the
matchstick head to produce enough heat to ignite
antimony trisulphide and start the combustion.

Gun Powder
It consists of a fuel (charcoal or sugar) and oxidiser (salt
peter, nitre or potassium nitrate) and sulphur (allows for a
stable reaction and lower ignition temperature).
The granules of modern gun powder (black powder) are
coated with graphite because graphite reduces the
moisture absorbing capacity of the powder. Graphite
also prevents the build-up of electrostatic charge to
prevent accidental ignition.
It is first chemical explosive and during explosion N,
and CO, are evolved in the ratio of 1 : 3.
" Note
" Water is the most common fire extinguisher but it is not
suitable for fires involving oil, petrol and electrical equipment. In
these cases CO, is the best extinguisher.
" Dry powder of chemical like sodium bicarbonate or potassium
bicarbonate are used as a fire extinguisher. Sodium bicarbonate
and sulphuric acid are used in soda acid fire extinguisher and
aluminium sulphate in foam fire extinguisher.

Natural Rubber

The process of heating a natural rubber with 5%

sulphur in the presence of ZnO at 373K in order to
improve their properties is called vulcanisation of
rubber. Carbon black is added to vulcanised rubber for
hardening of tyres.
IMPORTANT POINTS
" Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is used in etching of glas.
" Silicon based chemicals are used in beauty parlours.
" Enzyme lipase easily removes the oily stains (fatty
stains from cloth).
. Silver bromide is used in photography.
" Hydrogen peroxide is used as a bleaching agent.