6 Unit- 4

Wind Energy System

Syllabus
Types of wind turbines- Horizontal axis and Vertical axis
Components of wind turbines, extraction
sections and lift and drag coefficients, relative wind velocity, Power
Aerodynamics of wind turbines: Aerofoil Power Coefficient of a wind
generation curve, Maximum power and Betz coefficient,
the wind energy, Wind power
from the turbine, Design tip speed ratio and solidity
Axial thrustt and torgue developed by
turbine (Cp), or Vertical, Rotor position upwind and downwind of tower, Rotor
parameters: Rotor axis rotation: Horizontal blades, Tower
Design
Type of hub rigid, teetering, hinged blades or gimballed, Number of
RdConstant or variable, time and Levelized
used tor wind turbine components, calculation of life cycle costing, payback
Structure, Materials energy system.
Cost (LEC). Performance evaluation of VWind
Cnerov
payback estimation.
aerodynamics, design parameters and
Mete Numericalon
whole plant.
the complications in designing the
Introduction to Wind Energy 2. Wind energy is intermittent
harnessing of wind power to visual pollution
Wind energy is basically wind is 3. Wind energy causes noise and
kinetic energy of the turbines have some negative
impacts on their
produce electricity. The solar radiation 4. Wind
When
Converted to electrical energy. surrounding environment
different regions of the
enters the earth's atmosphere, 5. Wind Energy is Remote
different degrees because of
atmosphere are heated to
earth curvature.
6.1 Components of Wind Turbines
at the
the equator and lowest
This heating is higher at very
flow from warmer to
cooler components/construction of wind turbine is
poles. Since air tends to these The
call winds, and it is major parts:
regions, this causes what we simple, it consists of following
in windmills and
wind of the wind
airflows that are harnessed Tower : Tower supports all the other parts
1)
supports the turbine but
turbines toproduce power. turbine assembly. It not only blades
development as this power, in sufficient height so that its
Wind power is not a new raises theturbine to tower
windmills -for grinding corn, height during rotation. The
the form of traditional for tips would be at safe
ships - have been used commercial wind power plants
usualy
pumping water, sailing of the turbines in
harnessed to generate
centuries. Now wind power is ranges from 40 meters
to 100meters.
electricity in a larger scale with better technology. box that sitson the tower and
houses
2) Nacelle: It is a big It houses an
Advantages of Wind Energy of a wind turbine.
all the components controller and
free, inexhaustible and
does not gearbox, turbine
1ne wind energy is electrical generator,
need transportation. brakes.
energy into
desirable and economical t blades convert wind
k. Wind mills will be highlv 3) Rotor Blades: The
can be 40
the rural areas which are far from existing
grids. energy. The wind turbine blades
with
mechanical normally
turbine,
used in combination long, In a modern
wind power can be meters to 90 meters central hub using
water level in the are fitted to a
nydroelectric plants. Such that the identical blades
three aligned at 120° to
reservoir can be maintained for longer
periods.
bolts. Each identical blade are
nut distribution of
process makes a better
Disadvantage of Wind energy each other. The
smoother rotation.
system
which makes mass and gives the
1. Wind power is not consistent and steady,
 Wind Energy System
Renewable Energy Technologies 6-2
aerodynamic liff fo
4) Hub- The central solidportion of arotor is called hub. lt Horizontalaxis wind turbines use
same way that .
helps in the attachment of all blades and the to rotate each rotor blade in the
incorporation of pitch angle control mechanism. aeroplane does.
5) Yaw Control System- It is provided to adjust the nacelle In general, the aerodynamic lift force operates once the
exposed to
around the vertical axis so that the rotor blades are upper and lower segments of a blade are
always facing the wind stream. wind.

The pressure difference formed between the top and

-Rotor Blade bottom faces of the blade generates a force in the blade'e
top direction.
Gear Box Through the furling system, HAWT's can be used in any
-Nacelle wind direction. This system rotates the rotor's face so
111
Wind
-Generator that it is perpendicular to the wind's direction. As a
result. the rotor's face can be shifted to face the wind at

Rotor Blade
the fastest possible speed. The Fig. 6.2.1 shows the
Horizontal Axis Wind turbine.

Tower Switchyard Rotor blade

Gearbox
Generator
Rotor
-Nacelle
Transformer diameter

-Tower
Fig. 6.1.1: Wind Turbine
Fig. 6.1.1shows a typical wind turbine that operate on a
simple principle. The blades of the turbine catch the wind
energy. When the wind blows, a pocket of low-pressure air
forms on one side of the blade. The low-pressure air pocket
then pulls the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn.
Fig. 6.2.1 :Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
This iscalled lift. The force of the lift is much stronger than 6.2.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
the wind's force against the front side of the blade, which is
called drag. The combination of lift and drag causes the A vertical axis wind turbine is a type of wind turbine
rotor to spin like a propeller. The rotor is connected to the where the main rotor shaft is set transverse to the wind

main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity. while the main components are located at the base of the
turbine. There are basically the two main types of vertical
6.2 Types of Wind Turbines axis wind turbines:
Wind turbines can be broadly classified in to two types i) Savonius type
according their axis of Rotation. ii) Darrieus type.
1) Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT) The brief description of these VAWT types is given
2) Vertical axis wind turbines below:

6.2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines i) Savonius Wind Turbine

Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) are the common
type of turbine used for power generation.
These turbines use aerofoils (aerodynamic blades) that
are connected to a rotor by positioning them upwind or
downwind. These have tWo or three blades and operate
at high speeds.
The Savonius-type VAWT as shown in Fig. 6.2.2, was
invented by a Finnish engineer S.J. Savonius in 1929. It is
mainly a drag force driven wind turbine with two cups
or half drums fixed in opposing directions to a central
shaft.
Tech Knowledge
Publicatlon s
 Renewable Energy Technologies
6-3
Each cup/drunm catches the wind and turns the shaft, Wind Energy System
bringingtheopposing cup/drum into the wind's flow.
Thisprocess is repeated as long as the wind blows, and
theturning of the shaft is used to power a pump or a
Smallgenerator.
This type of turbine is suitable for low-power
applications and is commonly used for wind speed
instruments.

Straight blade

Supporing arm

Central shaft

Fig. 6.2.4: Straight Blade Darrieus Rotor

- In the small-scale wind turbine market, the simple
straight-bladed Darrieus VAWT, often called giromill or
cyclo-turbine is more attractive for its simple blade
design.
Fig. 6.2.2:Savonius Type VAWT
Part-I: Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine
(0) Darrieus Wind Turbine

- George Jeans Mary Darrieus, a French engineer, 6.3 Aerofoil Sections

invented the modern Darrieus VAWT. In 1931, he
applied for a patent in the United States for the Aerodynamics is the study of moving air and its effects
"Eggbeater" and "straight-bladed" VAWT. Fig. 6.2.3 and on solid bodies placed as obstacles in the flow feld. The
Fig. 6.2.4 shows the sketches of these two variations of majority of fluid dynamics equations apply to
Darrieus VAWT. aerodynamics, including all governing equations.
turbulence, boundary layer theory, and the ideal gas
Darrieus VAWTS are essentially lift force driven wind
turbines. The turbine is made up of two or more assumption.
aerofoil-shaped blades attached to a vertical shaft. Wind The body of an aerofoil is commonly used as a cross
blowing over the aerofoil contours of the blades section of aeroplane wings, wind turbine blades, and so
generates aerodynamic lift and pulls the blades along. on. The nomenclaure of the aerofoil is shown in
Upper hub Fig. 6.3,1,
Angle of attack Chord line
Guy wire
Camber ine
UDoer surtace
Relative wind

Leading edge
Max. thickness
Max. camber Lower surtace
Trailing edge
Rotor blade
Fig. 6.3.1: Nomenclature of Aerofoil
describe aerofoils:
Lower hub Several terms are used to
forward edge of the aerofoil.
Generator
i) Leading Edge :It is the
rear edge ofthe aerofoil.
ii) Trailing Edge :It is the
Gearbox

leading and trailing edge. It

iii) Chord: Line connecting the
aerofoil.
denotes the length of the
Fig. 6.2.3: Eggbeater type Darrieus VAWT PUbtications
 Renewable Energy Technologies 6-4 Wind Energy System
iv) Mean Chamber Line : Line drawn halfway Therefore:
between the
upper and lower surface of the aerofoil. It denotes the 1 (mass flow rate per second)v ...(6.4.2)
Power
amount of curvature of the wing.
v) Point of Maximum Thickness : It is the If = mechanical power in the moving air
thickest part of
the wing expressed as percentage of the chord. = air density, kg/m (at 15 °C
and 1 atmosphere, p= 1.225 kg/m)
6.3.1 Lift & Drag Coefficients A = area swept by the rotor blades, m2
An aerofoilshape body moving through a fluid produces = velocity of the air, m/s
an aerodynamic force. Lift is the Then, the volumetric flow rate is A-V
component of this force
that is perpendicular to the direction of motion, while The mass flow rate of the air in kilograms per second is
drag is the component that is parallel to the direction of p"A-V and the por"er is given as :
motion.
Fig. 6.3.2shows the force diagram of the aerofoil. P = s(pA) xy²
The mathematical equation by which lift and drag is watts ...(6.4.3)
calculated are given as follov:
This is the power in the upstream wind. It varies linearly
Lift: FL
0.5 DAW2 with the density of the air sweeping the blades, and with the
cube of the wind speed. All of the upstream wind power
Fp cannot be extracted by the blades, as some power is left in
Drag: Cp
0.5 PAW2 the downstream air which continues to move with reduced
Where CL and Cp are lift and drag coefficient, FL and Fp speed.
are lift force and drag force respectively, W is the relative 6.5 Power Extracted from the Wind
flowvelocity.
Fn The actual power extracted by the rotor blades is the
difference between the upstream and downstream wind
powers. Using Eq"ation (6.4.2), this is given as
L 1
D Po = (mass flow rate per second) (V-V)
F ...(6.5.1)
Where
Po =
mechanical power extracted by the rotor
V= upstream wind velocity at the entrance of
the rotor blades, and
W Vo =
Fig. 6.3.2: Force Diagram of Aerofoil downstream wind velocity at the exit of
the rotor blades.
Relative Wind Velocity : Relative wind is defined as the The air velocity is discontinuous from V to Vo at
airflow relative to an airfoil. Relative wind is created by the
"plane" of the rotor blades in the macroscopic sense The
movement of an airfoil through the air. mass flow rate of air through the rotating blades is,
6.4 Power Contained in Wind therefore, derived by multiplying the density with the
volume of air flow per second which is eg he product
Power contained in wind is given by the kinetic energy
of the flowing air mass per unit time.
of Turbine Area (A) and
average velocity V+Vo
2 .That is
The kinetic energy in air of mass "m" moving with speed Mass flow rate = pA V+Vo ..(6.5.2)
Vis given by 2
The mechanical power extracted by the
rotor, which
Kinetic Energy = ~mv² Joules ..(6.4.1) drives the electrical generator, is
therefore:
The power in moving air is the flow rate of kinetic V+
energy per second. Po = pAy²-v] ...(6.5.3)
SE TechKnowledge
 Renewable Energy Technologies
6-5
Thepreceding expression is algebraically rearranged in Wind Energy System
The theoretical maximum
thefollowingtorm: called as Betz value of Cn is 0.59 and is
Limit. is often
C
expressed as afunction oT
Po = ~pAV (-9-9) 2 ..(6.5.4)
the rotor
tip-speed ratio (TSR). TSR
speed of the rotor's 0s defined as the
outermost tip to the linear
speed. upstream Wina
The power extracted by the blades is customarily
Betz Limit
expressed as a fraction of the upstream wind power as
In practise, because the air must be able to
follows: from the rotor area, all of the flow away
kinetic energy in the wind
Po = ..(6.5.5) cannot be converted to shaft power.
According to the Betz
criterion, the maximum possible turbine efficiency
Where, (power
coefficient) is 59%. In practise power coefficient of 20 -30
per cent are common.
2 ..(6.5.6)
6.6 Wind Turbine Terminologies
Erom equation (6.4.3) and Equation (6.5.5) we can sav The basic terminologies of small wind turbine are
of the upstream wind power that is
that Cp is the fraction discussed below:
extracted by the rotor blades and fed to the electrical
generator. The remaining power is dissipated in the 1. Swept area (A):
downstream wind. The factor Cp is called the power
coefficient of the rotor.
Definition : The area through which the rotor blades of wind
0.7 turbine spin, whendirectly facing the cerntre of the rotor blades
is known as swept area.
0.6
It is given by,
0.5
A ...(6.6.1)
0.4
Where D is diameter of rotor in meter.
0.3
2. Tip Speed Ratio:
0.2
Definition: Tp speed ratio () is defined as the ratio of biade
0.1 -
tip speed to actual velocity of the wind.

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Mathematically it is given by,

vNratio =
oR ..(6.6.2)
Fig.6.5.1 : Rotor efficiency vs. V/N ratio has a single
and
maximum. Where, o is the rotational speed in radians/seconds
Ris radius of rotor in meters,
Rotor efficiency is the fraction of available wind power Vis the actual wind speed in m/s.
most of the wind
extracted by the rotor and fed to the electrical generator. If rotor of wind turbine turns to slowly,
gap between rotor
a given upstream wind speed, Equation 9 clearly will pass undisturbed through the
quickly, blockage can
shows that the value of C depends on the ratio of the blades. Alternatively, if it moves to0
in reduction in power
be created. Both cases result
downstream to the upstream wind speeds (Vo/). Aplot of extraction from system. Hence, wind
turbines are designed
power vs. (Vo/V) shows that Gp is a single-maximum-value with optimal tip speed ratioto
extract as much as power out
function (Fig 6.5.1). It has the maximum value of 0.59
the Vo/V ratio is one third. The maximum power is
when
of the wind as possible.
(Cp) :
3. Power Coefficient
exttracted from the wind at that speed ratio, i.e.,
when the
mechanical power produced by
Definition : /t is the ratio of
downstream
speed. Under this
wind speed equals one third of the upstream
condition (in watts) : wind turbine to the total
wind power flowing into the
turbine

...(6.5.7) blades at specific wind speed. B TeckKnouledge

Pmax OAV 0.59 PubIcatlo0s
 Renewable Energy Technologies
It is a neasure of wind turbine efficiency. The fraction of
power extracted from the power in the wind is given by Cp
The Cp of a particular wind turbine varies with
operating conditions such as wind speed, turbine blade
angle, turbine rotation speed and other
parameters.
Mathematically,
Po
=
6-6
Wind Energy System
From above curve, following observations can be made
At 2 = 0 the rotor does not rotate and hence cannot
extract power from wind.
At very high à (in this case A= 15) the rotor runs so fact
that it seen by the wind as a completely blocked disc
The wind flows around this disc, so there is no mass
transport through the rotor, and hence no possibility to

0.5 pAV3 ..[6.6.3) extract energy from a moving mass.

Where Po is the mechanical power in watt, p is density Somewhere between A = 0and 2 = 15 there will be a
of air kg/m'. optimum value for which the maximum power is
4. Solidity (¡): extracted, This will be the condition in which the
velocity at the rotor disc is 2/3th of the wind speed
Definition is the ratio of total blade area to the swept according to Betz law.
area These Cn - 2 curves are used in wind turbines to
It is expressed ns, determine the rotor power for any combinations of wind
BC speed and rotor speed.
TR ..(6.6.4)
2. Power Curve of Wind Turbine
Where, Bis number of blades, Cis chord in meters and R
is radius of rotor in meters. The power output of a wind turbine varies with the
wind speed and every wind turbine has a characteristics
6.7 Wind Power Generation Curve power performance curve. With such a curve it is possible
to predict the energy production of a wind turbine without
The performance of wind turbine can be divided into considering the technical details of its various components.
rotor performance as well as system performance. Rotor Thus, the power curve of a wind turbine is a graph that
performance can be predicted with the use of Cp - curve indicates how large the electrical power output will be for
and system performance can be predicted with the help of the turbine at different wind speeds. Fig. 6.7.2 shows the
power curve for wind turbine. power curve of wind turbine.
250
1. Cp - curve 13.5 m/s nominal turbine output cut-out wind soeec

Once the blade has been designed for optimum 200

Power
operation at a specific design tip speed ratio, the [kW]
performance of the rotor over all expected tips speed ratios 150
need to be determined. For each tip speed ratio, the
aerodynamic conditions at each blade sections need to be 100

determined. From this, the performance of the total rotor

can be determined. The result is usually presented as a 50

graph of power coefficient C versus the tips speed ratio . -3.5 m/s start-up wind speed
This graph is called a Cp - curve. This curve is shown in 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 6.7.1. wind speed (mis]
0.45
0.40
Fig. 6.7.2: Power Curve
0.3
0.30 The power speed characteristics of a wind turbine can
0.25 be related to three key points:
0.20
0.15
0.10
1. Cut in speed:
0.05
0.00
TSR It is the minimum wind speed at which turbine starts
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 generating useful power below this speed, the operation
of turbine is not efficient. Generally, cut in wind speed
Fig. 6.7.1: C- curve
varies between 3-5 m/s.
TechKnowledge
PubICati0ns
 penewable Energy Technologies
6-7
2. Rated speed: Wind Energy System
It is thhe speed at which the wind turbine reaches rated For a practical machine,
where circumferential force 1s
turbinepower i.e..turbine develops its full power not concentrated at the tip but
length of blade, less shaft torque willspread throughout the
be produced than that
speed:
3. Cut out is given in
equation (6.9.4),
It is maximum safe working speed at which wind
Thus shaft torque is given as
turbine is designed to be
shut down. It is generally
imited by engineering design and safety constrains. Tsh = CT XTM ..(6.9.4)
Where CT is torque coefficient.
6.8 Axial Thrust on Turbine (F) As the product of shaft torque and angular speed
equals
V = upstream wind velocity at the entrance of power developed by the turbine:
Let
the rotor blades, Tsh ) = PT
and Vo = downstream wind velocity at the exit of Or
the rotor blades.
C Ty o = Cp Po
With no energy extraction, Bernoulli's equation for
upstream and doWnstream can be written as. Putting value of Ty from equation (6.9.3),
Cf Po = Gp Po
Po 0
+ gz + +gzo + ...(6.8.1) i.e. ...6.9.4)
As z = ZÍ and variation in air density is negligible
both Cp and Ch are function of TSR. As per Betz criterion
compared to other terms, considering p as average density
maximum value of Cp = 0.593. Hence
the static pressure difference across the turbine can be
Cpmax
written as, CT max ..(6.9.5)

Ap = p-Po =(V- v0 ...(6.8.2) Thus, machine with higher speed have low value of
Maximum value of static pressure difference occurs CT max or low starting torque.
when V, = 0. Thus,
6.10 Design Tip Speed Ratio and Solidity
Apmax = ...(6.8.3)
1. Tip Speed Ratio
function
And maximum thrust on the disk is The power captured (Po) by wind turbine is a
.(6.8.4) of the turbine's swept area, coefficient of performance (Cp),
Fx,max = pA
air density (p) and wind speed (V) which is given by,
Incase of horizontal axis turbine. This thrust acts along
the turbine axis and therefore known as axial thrust. Po = G,pAv³
design
Coefficient of performance is related to turbine
6.9 Torque Developed by Turbine which has a theoretical upper limit
0.593, referred to as
would
Tiaximum conceivable torgue on an ideal turbine Betz Limit.

veur if maximumn circumferential force acts at the tip of the relationship

Definition: The tip speed ratio is defined as the
blade with rotor radius R. wind velocity.
...(6.9.1) between rotor blade velocity and relative
TM = Feir.max XR
design parameter on which
It is the most important
P, ...(6.9.2) dimensions are calculated.
TM =
other optimum rotor
OxR
Also we know that TSR is)= oR
around 6, and a
has tip speed ratio
For a two-blade rotor
Then around 5.
three bladed rotor
Po x 2 ...[6.9.3) Tech Knowledge
Pubcatlo a s
TM = ()
 Renewable Energy Technologies 6-8
Wind Energy System
The usual method of presenting power Low High
the
performance is Tip speed
nondimensional Ch - A curve. The curve for a various ratio
wind machines are shown in Fig.
6.10.1. Eficiency Decreases Insignificant
The tip speed ratio where the power coefficient is a significantly below increases after eight
maximum is called design tip speed ratio. five due to

rotational wake
Selecting a tip speed ratio depends upon efficiency,
torque, mechanical stresses, aerodynamics and noise created by high
(Table 6.10.1) Efficiency of turbine can be increased with torque
higher tip speed ratio. Centrifugal Decreases Increases as a
Higher tip speed reduces the cord width which leads in stress square of rotational
narrow blade profile, which in turn reduces material usage velocity
and lower production cost. Beside that higher Aerodynamic Decreases Increases
tip speed
ratio has some disadvantages as: stress proportionally with
i) If rotor blade tip rotates at high
speed it will be
rotational velocity
subjected to erosion of leading edges and requires Area of Increase, multiple Decreases
special erosion resistance coating. Solidity 20+ blades significantly
ii) Noise generated by the turbine at high TSR is audible to required
non-audible range. Blade profile Large Significantly narrow
ii) Excessive rotor speed will lead to runaway turbine, Aerodynamics Simple Critical
leading to failure.
GpR 2. Solidity and Number of Blades
coefficient
0.7
Solidity is the ratio of the total area of the rotor blade to
ldeal Cp (momentum theory) the swept area of the rotor. The greater the solidity of rotor,
0.62
power
Theoretical power coefficient (infinite number of blades.=) slower it needs to turn to intercept the wind.
Rotor0.5
Table 6.10.2 : Aand Number of blades
three-bladed rotÍr two-bladed rotor
0.4
ohe-bladed rotor B

0.3 1 8-24
Darrieus rotor
2 6-12
0.2

butch windmill 3 3-6

0.1 American wind turtbine
4 3-4
Savonius rotor
2 4 6 10 12 14 16 18 >4 1-3
Tip-speed ratio, à
Fig. 6.10.1:C-Àcurve for various wind machines. If lesser the number of blades, higher will
be the tip
speed ratio. But there are number of structural dynamic
Table 6.10.1 : Tip speed ratio design considerations. problems that must be considered in the hub design.
Tip speed LOW High Part- Il: Design Parameters
ratio
Value Tip speeds of one Tip speeds higher 6.11 Introduction
to twO are than 10 are
considered low considered high. The wind turbines capture the wind's
kinetic energy in
Utilization Traditional wind Mainly single or two the rotor consisting of two or more blades
mills and water
mechanically
bladed prototypes coupled to an electrical generator. The turbine is mounted
pumps on a tall tower to enhance the energy
capture. TwO
Torque Increases Decreases significantly different configuration are available for
turbine design,
Tech Know!leu
Publ|C
 Renewable Energy Technologies 6-9
Wind Energy System
configuration The generator and gearbox can be easily serviced and
HorizontalAxis
1.
Vertical Axisconfiguration repaired thanks to this arrangement. which places them
horizontal axis machine has been the standard in close to the ground. Because VAWTs do not need to be
The
penmarkfrom
the beginning of the wind power industry. aimed at the wind, wind-sensing and orientation

is
often called the Danish wind turbine. mechanisms are not required.
Therefore it
Verticalaxis machine
has shape of eggs better and is
The 6.11.1.1 Design Consideration of Horizontal or
called the Darrieus
rotor after its inventor. It has Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
often because of its specific structure
used in past
been
However, most modern wind turbine use a
There are many things to consider in designing blades,
advantages. but most of them fall into one of two
horizontalaxisdesign.
Categories (1) aerodynamic performance and
rotor, most other components are the
Except for the (2) structural strength. Underlying all of these,
with some differences in their
same in both design, of course, is the need to minimize life cycle cost of
placements. energy, which means that not only should the cost of the
Wind turbine itself be kept low, but that the operation and
Vertical Axis
611.1 Horizontal and maintenance costs should be kept low as wel. There are
Turbines :
other important design considerations as well; they are all
horizontal axis. Propeller summarized inthe following list.
The blade rotates around a aircraft.
rotor like the rotor of an Aerodynamic Performance
type design has a wind. turbine has
axis
Propeller type horizontal Structural Strength
on ahub.
one/two/ three blades mounted Blade Materials
popular all over the
The three blades version is the most Recyclability
to 3 MW.
world for unit ratings fromn 15 kW Blade Manufacturing
medium size, Double
Single blades design for small and Worker Health And Safety
and large sizes.
and triple blades design for medium
Noise Reduction
with common axis,
Wind turbine, gear, generator are
tower. Blade pitch Condition/Health Monitoring
mounted in nacelle installed on a tall
Attachment
pith control controls speed power. Blade Roots And Hub
Rotor Options
dameter Passive Control or Smart Blade
-Rotor blade
Costs.
Gearbox
Turbine Rotor
Generator 6.11.1.2 Design of Wind
Rotor -Nacelle blades of a
diameter Rotor
that operates on the
height There are two forces thrust which
type wind turbine. One is the axial
-Tower Fixed propeller flowing wind
pitch
same direction as that of the
rotor acts in the force acting in the
blade the circumferential
stream, The other is
torque.
direction of wheelrotation that provides the
Generator
(Refer section 6.8)
GearboX Thrust on Turbine Rotor:
6.9)
Vertical axis Rotor: (Refer section
Horizontal axis Torque on Turbine
g 0.11.1: Horizontal and Vertical Axis Wind
Turbine (Refer section 6.10)
Tip Speed Ration:
section 6.10)
Wind Turbine Configuration Solidity (¡) :(Refer
turbine
The main components of a vertical-axis wind
main while the
(VAWT) are at the base of the turbine, TechKaowledge
PubiiCations

rotor shaft iis set transverse to the wind.

 Renewable Energy Technologies
6.12 Rotor Positioning : Upwind and
Downwind of Tower
Upwind and downwind: The upwind turbine
operates
dealing with into the wind in front of the tower,
the downwind runs going while
wind after the
through faraway from the
tower.
Working the rotor upwind of the tower produces
higher strength as it eliminates the tower shadow at the
blades. This consequences in decrease noise, lower
blade fatigue, and smoother energy output. A
is that the rotor should
downside
continuously be changed into the
windvia the yaw mechanism.
The heavier yaw mechanism of an upwind turbine calls
for a heavy-responsibility and stiffer rotor as
to a downwind rotor.
compared
The downwind rotor has the wake (wind
colour) of the
tower within the front and loses some strength from the
mild wind drop. Alternatively, it allows using a loose
yaw system.
It also lets in the blades to deflect
faraway from the
tower whilst loaded.
Percent
output
Downwind rotors drawback is that the system may
additionally yaw in the identical route for an extended
time period, that may twist the cables that deliver
present day from the generators.
Each sorts were used in the past with no clean trend.
But, the upwind rotor configuration has recently turn
out to be greater commonplace.
Upwind generators face into the wind; the yaw power
is used to hold the rotor dealing with into the wind
because the wind path modifications.
Downwind turbines do not require a yaw pressure, the
wind blows the rotor downwind.
direction
Wind Wind
direction
Downwind Upwind
Fig. 6.12.1 :Upwind and Downwind turbine
6-10 Wind Energy System
6.13 Rotor Speed : Constant or Variable
The rotor speed must be controlled for three reasone.
To capture more energy, as seen before.
To protect the rotor, generator, and power electronie
equipment from overloading during high-gusty winds.
When the generator is disconnected from the electrical
load, accidentally or for a scheduled event. Under this
condition, the rotor speed may run away, destroying it
mechanically, if it is not controlled.
The speed control requirement of the rotor has five
separate regions as shown in Fig. 6.13.1.
The reduce-in pace at which the turbine begins
producing power. Beneath this velocity, it is not
profitable,nor efficient, to turn the turbine on.
The regular most C area in which the rotor speed varies
with the wind pace version toperform on the consistent
TSR similar to the maximum Ch.
120
100
80
60 Constant Gn Constant power
region output region
40
20
cutiny cut-out
5 10 15 20 25 30
Wind speed m/s
Fig. 6.13.1:Five regions of turbine speed control.
For the duration of high winds, the rotor velocity is
constrained to an higher consistent limit based at the
layout restrict of the gadget additives. In the regular
pace location, the Cp is lower than the maximum Cp, and
the electricity will increase at a decrease fee than that in
the first location.
At nonetheless higher wind speeds, together with for the
duration of agust, the gadget is operated at a controlled
steady energy to guard the generator and power
electronics from overloading. This could be done by
lowering the rotor pace. If the velocity is reduced by
means of increasing the electric load, then the generator
will be overloaded, defeating the cause. To keep away
from generator
RTech Kxowledge
Pubtcatlon s
 Renewable Energy Technologies
6-11
Overloading, a few kind of a brake (eddy modern or Wind Energy System
every other kind) must be installed at the rotor. The effect on
The cutoutspeed, at which the rotor is shut off to defend The design TSRpower coefficient
the blades, the electrical generator, and The means of
components of tthe system past a positive
other
wind velocity. gyroscopic fatigue.limiting yaw rate to reduce the
Compared to the two-blade design, the
Blades
energy output and three-blade
614 Number of device has smoother
a
gyroscopic pressure. There may be no want to balanced
give greater power, however
Greater blades do now not rotor, allowing the usage of a teeter the
they provide greater torque and require heavier 3blades are
simple inflexible hub.
greater not unusual in
Europe, in
production. massive machines up to 3 MW are
which
using the three-blade being constructed
Veu'll extract the strength to be had in the wind with a
small wide variety of blades rotating quick, or a huge
configuration.
the U.S, but, has been to
The exercise within
apply the two-blade design.
variety of blades rotating slowly. Adding the 3 blade will increase the
best via about 5%, thus giving a
strength coefficient
- Afew fast-spinning blades result in an economical diminished charge of
machine. Wind machines have been constructed with return for the 50% extra blade weight and
cost.
the variety of blades starting from 1to forty or greater. The 2-blade rotor is less
complicated to erect, because
Aone-blade gadget, although technically viable, gives a it could be assembled on the floor and
lifted to the shaft
supersonic tip velocity and a quite pulsating torque, without complex maneuvers at some stage in the carry.
inflicting excessive vibrations.
The quantity of blades is regularly considered because
- It's miles, therefore, rarely utilized in large structures. A the blade solidity.
totally high wide variety of blades had been used in
Better solidity ratio offers better beginning torque and
vintage low-TSR rotors for water pumping and grain
leads to low-speed operation. For electric powered
milling, the applications requiring high beginning
torque. energy generation, the turbine have to run at excessive
- Modern-day excessive-TSR rotors for generating electric speeds as the electrical generator weighs much less and
powered energy have or 3 blades, many of them with operates greater efficiently at high speeds.
just two, although the Danish fashionable is 3 blades. That why all huge-scale wind mills have low solidity
The major factors involved in deciding the number of ratio, with just two or 3 blades.
blades are as follows:

6.15 Tower Structure

-Wind

Pitch
change Hub A HeO
Blade Transmission
Pintal and drive Nacelle A
Mountaing Speed increases
structure Driver shaft with
bearing brake clutch
and coupling
Tower
Electrical
B
Generator
-Control and indicators
! Controlbuilding -Foundation

Tower Structure Tech Kaowledge

Fig. 6.15.1: Basic Pubucation s
 Wind Energy System
Renewable Energy Technologies 6-12

Wind turbines can rotate approximately both a

horizontal or a vertical axis, the previous being both
older and more not unusual.
These turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical
generator at the pinnacle of a tower, and ought to be
pointed into the wind. Small mills are pointed by using a
simple wind vane, whilst large mills generally use a
wind sensor coupled with a yaw machine.
The tower of wind turbine serves to raise the rotor
nacelle assembly up into the air. For horizontal axis
system the tower should be at the least excessive
enough to maintain the blade guidelines from touching Fig. 6.16.1 :Typical rigid wind turbine hub.
the ground as they rotate.
6.16.2 Teetering Hub
In practice towers are normally much better than that.
Winds are nearly constantly lots stronger as elevation Teetering hubs are used on nearly all two-bladed wind
above floor boom and they are much less turbulent. turbines. This is because a teetering hub can reduce loads
Desire tower height is based on an economic trade-off of due to aerodynamic imbalances or loads due to dynamic
increase power capture versus elevated charges. effects from rotation of the rotor or yawing of the turbine.
Teetering hubs are considerably more complex than are
6.16 Types of Hub: Rigid, Teetering, rigid hubs.
Blade root adaptor
Hinged or Gimbaled Teeter damper

The hub of the wind turbine is the component that Main shaft Teeter beaings
connects the blades to the main shaft and ultimately to the Hub atachment
rest of the drive train. The hub transmits and must
withstand all the loads generated by the blades. Hubs are
generally made of steel, either welded or cast. Details of
hubs differ considerably depending on the overall design Hub body
philosophy of the turbine.

6.16.1 Rigid Hub Fig. 6.16.2 : Teetering Hub

A inflexible hub is designed to maintain all main parts in
a hard and fast position relative to the primary shaft.
The time period inflexible hub does, but, include those
hubs in which the blade pitch can be various, but
wherein no different blade motion is authorized.
The main frame of a rigid hub is a casting or weldment
to which the blades are connected, and which may be
fixed to the primary shaft. If the blades are to be
preconed relative to the main shaft, provision for this is
made within the hub geometry.
A rigid hub have to be sturdy sufficient to resist all of the
masses which could arise from any aerodynamic
hundreds on the blades, in addition to dynamically
triggered masses, together with those due to rotation
and yawing.
Most teetering hubs were built for fixed-pitch turbines,
but they may be used on variable pitch millsas nicely.
Design of the pitching system is greater complicated
since the pitching mechanism is on the part of the hub
which moves relative to the primary shaft. A pitching
teetering hub is described in greater detail via Van
Bibber and Kelly (1985).
Teetering hubs requiretwo forms of bearing. One type is
a cylindrical, radially loaded bearing; the opposite is a
thrust bearing. There is one bearing of each kind on each
pin.
The cylindrical bearings convey the whole load whilst
the pin axis is horizontal. Whilst the pin axis isn't always
horizontal, there is an axial thing due primarily to the
load of the rotor.
R TechKnowledge
PublCatio0 ns
 RenewableEnergy Technologies
6-13
Oneofthethrust bearings will deliver that part of the Wind Energy System
Joad. Teeter bearings are generally made of unique 6.18 Payback Time
purposeComposites.
To estimate the payback time of an upgrade, we nust
616.3 Hinged Hub or Gimballed first itemize the cost of the elements of the upgrade. The
revenue a wind turbine can generate for an installed
hingedhub is, in some ways, a go among a rigid hub unit depends on the site's power capacity.
A
- anda teetering hub. It is largely arigid hub with 'hinges'
Based on that, the additional energy the contrarotating
forthe blades. The hinge meeting adds afew complexity,
rotor can generate every year is then estimated.
but. The simple payback period is the additional initial
As wiith a teetering hub, there need to be bearings at the
capital cost of the upgrade divided by the additional
hinges. annual revenue of the contrarotating rotor system. This
Teetering hubs have the advantage that the 2 blades is estimated to be 4 to 5 year with 30%
efficiency
tend to stability every other, so lack of centrifugal improvement.
stiffening during low rpm operation isn't a primary costs and
Apayback calculation compares revenue with
trouble. recoup an
determines the length of time required to
There's no such counterbalancing on a hinged blade, years) is
initial investment. The payback period (in
but. So a few mechanism need to be supplied to preserve wind system divided
the blades from flopping over at some point of
low equal to the total capital cost of the
from the energy produced.
rotational velocity. by the average annual return
payback period), it is
In its simplest form (simple
Rigid
Rigid/ Hinged Teetering
expressed in equation form as:
Pitching Co
SP AAR
Wind payback period, C. is the
where SP is the simple return
the average annual
is
installed capital cost, and AAR
and is expressed by:
AAR = E,Pe
Conditions Where,
Fig. 6.16.3 : Hub production (kWh/year), and
E, = annual energy
electricity($/kWh).
Material P=price obtained for
6.17 Wind Turbine period is given by:
last over its Thus, the simple payback
coatings on the wind turbine must Ce
The highly SP = E,Pe
to 25 yr. Because the turbines are
design life of 20
be pleasing in example: C, = $50 000,
Visible on tall towers, they need to Consider the following $0.10/kWh. Then SP = 50
kWh/yr, P. =
appearance for publicacceptance.onshore wind turbine is E = 100 000
years.
coating system on the 000/(100 000_0.10)= 5
A ypical
Analysis
a three-coat system.
epoxy-zinc-rich primer, 100 to 6.18.1 Cost of Energy to
80 um defined as the unit cost
It consists of 50 to m polyurethane The cost of energy, COE, 0s
epoxy mid coat, and 50 to 80 from the wind energy
system.
150m produce energy (in $/kWh)
topcoat. highly corrosive
Protection for offshore wind turbines in
theEN-ISO-12944
That is:
(Total costs)
environments is defined in Cost of energy * (Energy produced)
marine
standard. COE is given by:
different for parts únder water
and ror the simplest calculation of
It is necessarily [(C, x FCR) +C,& M]
the tower parts above water. COE E¡
TechKnouwledg
Pubcati0
 Renewable Energy Technologies
where Co&M is the average annual operation and
maintenance cost and FCR is the fixed charge rate. The fixed
charge rate is aterm that reflects the interest one
pays or
the value of interest received if money
were displaced from
savings. For utilities, FCR is an average annual charge used
to account for debt, equity
costs, taxes, etc.
Using the values from the previous numerical
and assuming that FCR = 10% and example,
Co&M = 2%
C = $1000/yr:
COE = [(50 000 x 0.10) +1000]
100000
= $0:06/kWh
6.19 Life Cycle Cost
Life cycle costing or LCC is an important factor for
comparing the alternatives and deciding on a particular
process for completing a project.
The different components taken into account for
calculating LCC are :
LCC = Capital+ Replacement cost + Maintenance
cost + Energy cost -Salvage
Here, Capital is the present worth. Replacement cost
that may occur at a later years need to converted to
present worth.
Maintenance cost is annual maintenance cost and needs
to be converted to present worth and so is the energy
COst.
Salvage is the money that is obtained while disposing
the machinery at the end of life cycle period.
Even this amount has to be converted to present worth
for calculating LCC.
Once we have the LCC value, we can easily find the
Annual LifeCycle Costing using the following equation :
LCC
ALCC n
Comparison of Alternative Energy Systems using Life
Cycle Cost Analysis
Power is a major secondary electricity carrier and is
predominantly comprised of fossil fuels.
Hard issues of the fossil gasoline based totally energy
generation are depletion of fossil fuels and international
warming due to greenhouse gases (GHG) from the
combustion of fossil fuels.
6-14 Wind Energy System
To reap the aim of environmental Sustainability in the
energy region, a first-rate movement could be to lessen
the excessive reliance on fossil fuels by resorting tn
using easy/renewable resources and green era/use ot
electricity.
With apurpose to don't forget the lengthy-time perid
implications of electricity era, a lifestyles cycle concent
is followed, which is a cradle-to-grave method to
analyses an electricity machine in its complete lifestyles
cycle.
Existence cycle assessment (LCA) is an effective tool to
pin factor the environmental implications.
Existence cycle fee evaluation (LCCA) affords powerful
assessment to pinpoint price powerful options.
LCA and LCCA need to be mixed to discover fee powerful
energy technology opportunity scheme.
6.19.1 The Net Present Value of Cost or
Savings
Net present value of a particular paramter is generally
used as a measure of economic value when comparing
different investment options in a life cycle cost analysis.
Note that it is important to define the NPV clearly, since
various authors have used the term 'net present value to
define a wide variety of life cycle cost analysis parameters.
First, one can define the savings version of net present
value, NPVs, as follows :
N
NPVS =
j=1
where S and Crepresent the yearly gross savings and
costs during a project's lifetime (S - C is the vearly net
saving).
6.19.2 Levelized Energy Cost(LEC)
In its most basic form, the levelized cost of energy, COEL,
is given by the sum of annual levelized costs for awind
energy system divided by the annual energy production.
Thus:
COE,. (Levelized annual cost)
Annual Energy Production
This type of definition is generally used in a utility-based
calculation for cost of energy.
Sometimes, the levelized cost of energy is defined as the
value of energy (units of $/kWh) that, if held constant
over the lifetime of the system, would result in a cost
based net present value.
Tech Kaouledge
Pubtications
 Wind Energy System
Renewable Energy Technologies 6-15
design to
thisbasis, the COEL 0s given by: Gp-á curves can be used in wind turbine
wind
determine the rotor power for any combination of
Using (NPVC) (CRF)
= Annual EnergyProduction immediate informnatíon
COEL and rotor speed. They provide
coefficient and optimurm
on the maximum rotor power
6.20 Performance Evaluation tip speed ratio.
can be found from
The data for such a relationship
(1990) proposed a simplified method for In either case, the
Manwell turbine tests or from modeling.
-
calculating the performance of a horizontal axis wind drag coefficients of the
results depend on the lift and
that is particularly applicable for an a function of the flow
turbine rotor airfoils, which may vary as
unstalled rotor. conditions.

Performance evaluation requires determining the

cost effectiveness of a 6.21 Numericals
expected energy productivity and
based on the wind
narticular wind energy system power (P) in a wind moving
with a
Ex. 6.21.1 : Calculate the of 100 m
resource. on a WT with blades
designed for optimum speed u= 5 m/s incident wind
Once the blade has been the power change if the
tip speed ratio, the diameter (r = 50 m). How does density of air
operation at a specific design tip speed speed iincreases to u = 10 m/s? Assume the
expected
performance of the rotor over all p=1.2 kg/m®
determined.
ratios needs to be
aerodyynamicconditions at P =
For each tip speed ratio, the determined. From these,
each blade section need to be
$x(1.2) (3.142
x x50²)x(5) =0.6 MW
total rotor can be
determined. =
the performance of the 3
presented as a graph of power (10 m/s o (2)
The results are usually as P 5 m/s
ratio, called a CP-A curve,
coefficient versus tip speed increase the power P by a
shown in Fig. 6.20.1. Doubling the wind speed will
factor of 8 (= 25), hence : MW = 4.8 MW
0.5
coefticient
Power would increase to 8 x0.6
The wind power
0.4 three-blades
diameter wind turbine with
Ex. 6.21.2 : A 40-m and the
14 mis
output. The wind speed is
0.3
and 600 kW power
0.2 kg/m
air density (p) is 1.225 operates at
the wind turbine
0.1
Find the rpm of the rotor if
0.0
12 14 16 a TSR of 4.0
4 6 10
2 rotor
Tip speed ratio b. Find the tip speed of the
Speed to
needed to match the rotor
Coefficient Vstip speed (Cp-) C. What gear ratio is turn at
Fig. 6.20.1: Sample Power the generator must
the generator speed if
given by the power
divided by
The Power Coefficient is 1800 rpm?
passing through an area defined by wind turbine under these
the power in the wind
d What is the efficiency of the
rotor, 2RH :
the projected areaof the conditions?
P
Cp = Soln. :
Sp RHV3 the rotor if it operates at a TSR
a) Calculation of the rpm of
P = Power of 4.0
Where,
7 (rpm) (nD)
=air density, TSR 60 v
IR = rotor radius, Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) 60v
= Height of rotor and rpm TTD
V = wind speed. 4.0 60 sec/ min. 14 m/s = 26.7 rev/min
=
rpm T 40 m / rev
Teck Knowledgo
pubiLCatIons
 Wind Energy System
6-16
Renewable Energy Technologies
2TR - 2TR XMrpm
60
We can also express this as seconds per revolution. Vtip
26.7 rev/min 2 (40) 15)-62.8 m/s
rpm 60sec. / min 60
= 0.445 rev/sec or 2.24 sec / rev Vnp.
b) Rotor tip speed: TSR = =Vmean wind _speed
TSR
(rpm) (D) 62.8 = 7.85
60v

average power output (P) of a WT

Rotor tip speed = TSRv
rpm x TD Ex. 6.21.4 : Calculate the
(D)operating in wind with a
Rotor tip speed 60 sec/min with blades of 85 m diameter
speed, the rotor power
mean speed of 7 m/s. At this
Rotor tip speed = (rev/sec) x rD output power is
coefficient C, is 0.45. The rated rotor
Rotor tip speed = 0.445 rev/secX n 40 m/rev greater than 13m/s. What is
1.5 MW when the wind speed is
speed of 13 m/s?
the power coefficient C,, at a wind
= 55.92 m/s
c) Gear ratio:
Generator RPM 1800 Assume the density of air is 1.2 kg/m,
Gear Ratio =67.4
Rotor RPM 26.7 Soln. :
d) Efficiency of the complete wind turbine (blades, gear
Gp = 1
box, generator) under these conditions: SPu×A
Overallwind turbine efficiency: P
=0.45
Pw = }DAV =$(1225) ( 40°)143
= 2112 kW
Hence,
= 526 kW = 0.526 MVW
Ideal WT Power =p Av' P
1.5 x 106
= 0.2
ActualWT Power = npAV Cp |1
20x(12)Ex 8s²)x(13)
The actual WT power is given in the problem statement
as 600 kW
P= 526 kW =0.526 MW
Actual WT power 600 kW 1.5 x 106
= |=112 kW Z8.4 % = 0.2
ideal WT power
-(12) 8s²) (13)
Ex. 6.21.3 : A wind turbine (WT) with three blades is In this example, the power coefficient (C) at the rated
operating in a mean wind speed of 8 m/s. The turbine rotates
wind speed(i.e., 13 m/s) is just below half its value (from
at 15 rpm. Each blade is 40 m long. Estimate Vrin and
0.45 to 0.2) at the mean wind speed (i.e., 7 m/s).
tip-speed ratio (2)
Ex. 6.21.5 : A 40 m diameter, three bladed wind turbine
Soln. :
produces 700 kW at a wind speed (hub height) of 14 m/s.
The timet (in seconds) for one revolution of the tip of a The air density is 1.225 kg/m. Find:
bade of length Ris: a) The rotational speed (rpm) of the rotor at a tip-speed
Distance 2R
ratio of 5.0.
Velocity Vip
The number of revolutons per minutes, nrpm can be
b) What is the tip-speed (m/s)?
calculated as follows: If the generator turns at 1800 rpm, what gear ratio is
needed to match the rotor speed to the generator
60
TIrpm speed.
d) What is the efficiency. of the wind turbine system
The tip speed and tip-speed ratio (TSR) can be
calculated as follows: (including blades, transmission, shafts and generator)
under these conditions?

Tech Kaowledge
PubiIcations
 RenewableEnergy Technologies 6-17 Wind Energy System

Soln.:
Advantages of Wind Energy
a) "The wind energy is free, inexhaustible and does not
a)d=5
OR need transportation.
V
b) Wind mills will be highly desirable and economical
2V 5x 14 tothe rural areas which are far from existing grids.
R 20 combination with
c) Wind power can be used in
= 3.5 rad/sec or 33.42 rpm hydroelectric plants. Such that the water level in the
R= 3.5 x 20 reservoir can be maintained for longer periods.
h)Vrin = OX
Vtip = 70m/s Disadvantage of Wind energy :
1800 rpm; Nrotor = 33.42 rpm a) Wind power is not
consistent and steady, which
) Ngen= makes the complications in designing
the whole
Ngen 1800
Gear ratio
* Nrotor33.42 plant.
Gear ratio = 53.86 b) Wind energy is intermittent
visual pollution
c) Wind energy causes noise and
negative impacts on their
Po = d) Wind turbines have some
d) surrounding environment
Po
e) Wind Energy is Remote
Components of Wind Turbines:
700000 b) Nacelle
a) Tower
0.593 x 143
0.5 × 1.225 x T x 20x c) Rotor Blades d) Hub

= 0.56 ) Yaw Control System

classified in to two types
wind turbine rotor (diameter in Wind turbines can be broadly
Ex. 6.21.6 : Find the size of a
electrical power in a steady according their axis of Rotation.
m) that will generate 100 kW of (HAWT)
Wind Turbines
wind (hub height) of 7.5 m/s. 1) Horizontal Axis
1.225 kg/m, Cp = 0.593 2) Vertical axis wind turbines
(VAWT)
Assume that the air density is p =
and n = 1. Lift & Drag:
FL
Soln. : Lift: CL
0.5 pAW²
P = 100 kW
FD
V = 7.5 m/s, Drag : CD
= 1.225 kg/m 0.5 pAW
drag coefticient, FL and FD
Cp = 0.593 Where CL and CD re lift and
n = 1
Power in Wind:=pAV` watts
Po =Cp PA V³ Power Extracted from the Wind: PO
=pAV Ch
Po value of C, is
Betz Limit : The theoretical maximum
2
R =
Limit.
0.59 and is called as Betz
defined as the
2 100000 Tip Speed Ratio:Tip speed ratio (1) is
of the wind.
x 0.593x1x7.5 ratio of blade tip speed to actual velocity
0.5 x 1.225 x
oR
R = 14.41 m = V

D = 28.8 m
Power Coefficient (C,) : It is the ratio of mechanical
Summary power produced by wind turbine to the total wind
Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to power flowing into the turbine blades at specific wind
speed.
produce electricity. The kinetic energy of the wind iS
converted to electrical energy. Tech Kaowledge
pubHCatIons