Minerals" Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp.

169-181, 1996
Copyright © 1996 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd
Pergamon Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
PIh S0892-6875(96)00002-7 0892--6875/96 $15.00+0.00

ACIDOPHILIC BACTERIA--THEIR POTENTIAL MINING

AND ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS

M.A. JORDAN, S. McGINNESS and C.V. PHILLIPS

Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, Redruth, Cornwall, England

(Received 21 July 1995; accepted 5 October 1995)

ABSTRACT

The increasing acceptance of biological processes for the treatment of refractory gold-
bearing concentrates should be considered as a positive move both in terms of process
flowsheet development and its commitment to the environment. Research and development
is nowfocusing on the application of moderately thermophilic and extremely thermophilic
acidophiles in the treatment of both refractory gold-bearing and base-metal mineral
sulphide concentrates. Current literature on the application ofbiological processes is still
dominated by studies of mesophilic bacteria such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and
Leptospirillum ferrooxidans although literature is becoming more prevalent with respect
to the higher temperature acidophiles.

This current experimental study highlights the problems of arsenic toxicity to certain
strains of moderately thermophilic bacteria when oxidising both refractory gold and base-
metal sulphide concentrates. It also concludes that these bacterial strains were capable
of readily oxidising a chalcopyrite/pyrite concentrate (typical of base-metal sulphide
concentrates).

A mini literature review discusses some of the current and potential applications of
acidophilic bacteria both within the minerals industry and in allied disciplines including
treatment of metalliferous mine wastes, acid mine waters and sulphurous flue gases.
Conclusions are drawn for both the experimental work presented and the literature
reviewed.

Keywords
Biotechnology; bacteria; environmental; biooxidation

INTRODUCTION

The current review indicates that there are opportunities for the technology associated with acidophilic iron-
oxidising bacteria to be applied in a variety of industrial fields, albeit some of them not directly related to
minerals industry. A question still remaining to be answered for a number of these applications is whether
the higher temperature acidophiles have the ability to function under a wide range of very dynamic
conditions. The ability of Thiobacillusferrooxidans to withstand raised concentrations of certain metals has
been demonstrated and it is for this reason that this group of bacteria have generated a niche for themselves
within the minerals industry. Similar data for both the moderate thermophiles and extreme thermophiles
is still not as readily available.

Presented at MineralsEngineering '95. St. Ives, Cornwall, England, June 1995

169
170 M.A. Jordan et aL

Commercial application of bioleaching for the oxidation of refractory gold-bearing mineral sulphide
concentrates has/is establishing itself globally as a viable alternative to both oxidative roasting and pressure
oxidation. A number of large mining companies are now actively investigating the potential application of
this technology at pilot plant scale for an ever increasing variety of precious and base metal mineral
sulphide deposits. However, oxygen mass transfer characteristics within current state-of-the-art mineral
bioreactors limits the solids density (20-25%) which increases both the capital and operating costs. It is
the opinion of the authors that for industry to continue to advance more efficient mineral bioreactors are
required to be developed in combination with the utilisation of moderately thermophilic and extremely
thermophilic bacteria. Historically the extreme thermophiles, such as the genus Sulfolobus, have been
demonstrated to be more sensitive to both increased solids density and metal concentrations (particularly
arsenic).

Current research at the University of Warwick involving the oxidation of chalcopyrite concentrates at
-~ 80°C may present the industry with a potential way forward. If the kinetics of metal dissolution (and
metal extraction) from mineral sulphide concentrates can be significantly increased by leaching at this
higher temperature, correspondingly reducing residence times, this may offset operation at reduced pulp
density and pave the way for the application of such bacteria within the industry.

The current shake flask study compares investigates the ability of a range of moderately thermophilic
bacteria to oxidise three mineralogically distinct mineral sulphide concentrates. A mini review of the
literature was also undertaken to assess both current and potential areas of application for acidophilic
bacterial systems across a broad spectrum of industry. Conclusions are drawn from both the experimental
work and the literature review regarding future applications of both moderately thermophilic and extremely
thermophilic bacteria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A range of acidophilic bacterial cultures were utilised in the reported research. A mixed culture, isolated
from the mine waters at Wheal Jane mine, Cornwall, U.K., and designated as the W.Jane culture for this
study, was the sole mesophilic culture investigated. Five moderately thermophilic isolates, designated
YTF1, THWX, ALV, TH1 and TH3, plus a single mixed culture containing all of the aforementioned
isolates were also investigated. Two thermophilic enrichment cultures, Sulfolobus BC and Acidianus
brierelyi, were also investigated. All cultures were grown autrotrophically on a massive chalcopyrite/pyrite
mineral sulphide concentrate sample prior to investigation. All shake flask tests were carried out in
duplicate.

Batch growth of the mesophilic culture was accomplished in 250ml Erlenmeyer conical shake flasks. The
flasks were rotated at 140rpm on a Gallenkamp Orbital Shaker within a warm room controlled to a
temperature of 30___2°C. The nutrient medium, termed Basal Salts, was made up with distilled water and
contained (g/I):KC1 0.5, MgSO4.7H20 5.0, (NH4)2SO4 1.5, Ca(NO3) 0.1, K2HPO 4 0.5. pH was adjusted
daily to p i l l . 7 by addition of dilute sulphuric acid (4.0M).

Batch growth of the moderately thermophilic and thermophilic cultures was in 250ml Erlenmeyer conical
flasks. The flasks were rotated at 170rpm in a GaUenkamp Orbital Incubator at 50+ I°C and 70+1°C,
respectively. The nutrient medium was Basal Salts. Daily pH adjustment to pH 1.6 and pH 1.2 for the
moderate thermophiles and extreme thermophiles respectively was carried out by addition of dilute
sulphuric acid (4.0M).

Mineral sulphide concentrates were used as substrates at a final solids concentration of 3 %w/v. Each flask
was inoculated with a 10%v/v inoculum. The sterile control flasks had a 10%v/v solution of 5% thymol
in methanol added in replacement of the inoculum. Substrates varied in composition and mineralogy as
follows:
 Acidophilic bacteria 171

Massive Chaleopyrite Mineral Sample--MineralogicaUy the sample was composed predominantly of

chalcopyrite, pyrite and pyrrhotite. The assay data for the sample was determined to be 15.2%Cu,
44.8%Fe, 35.4%S;

Geevor Concentrate--Mineralogically the main sulphide minerals identified were chalcopyrite, chalcocite,
bornite, pyrite and arsenopyrite. It was noted that oxidation of both the chalcocite and bornite has occurred
at grain edges/boundaries, most probably due to ageing of the concentrate. The assay data for the
concentrate was determined to be 12.9%Cu, 32.7%Fe, l l.0%As, 30.1%S;

Lonrho Concentrate--A sample of a refractory gold-bearing mineral sulphide concentrate. The main
sulphide minerals were pyrite and arsenopyrite. The following assay data was provided 30.6 % Fe, 6.8 % As,
30.9%S.

1.0ml sample volumes were removed on a daily basis (normally) and centrifuged at 2000rpm for 2 minutes.
0.2ml aliquots of these solutions were then placed in 9.8ml of 5%v/v HCI and stored in air-tight sample
vials at 4°C. Analysis of soluble metals was with a PYE Unicam SP9 Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (AAS).

Measurements of pH were on centrifuged samples and carried out using a Russell CWAWA pH probe and
a Phillips PW9421 pH meter, calibrated between p i l l . 2 and 2.0.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate selected results from the current study. It should be noted that optimisation of
leach conditions was not carried out and hence the metal dissolution figures quoted in Table 1 are not
necessarily the maximum leach rates for the various concentrates and bacterial systems tested. Figure 1
illustrates the effect of arsenopyrite on the dissolution of copper from the Geevor concentrate. It was
evident from our results that the presence of arsenopyrite has a detrimental effect upon the rate of metal

Copper Concentration (g/I)

3.5

2.5

1.5
200 300 400 500 600
Time (hours)

Control ~z Mixed 0 YTFI ~ - T H W X

Fig. 1 Copper leaching data for three moderately thermophilic cultures from the Geevor concentrate
9:2-B
172 M.A. Jordan et al.

solubilisation from the arsenopyrite-bearing concentrates, copper release from the Geevor concentrate was
delayed by --200 hours. It was interesting to note that the mixed culture did not solubilise copper at
equivalent rates compared to a number of the 'pure' cultures. The concentration of arsenic in solution
following 200 hours of leaching varied between 0.25 and 0.97g As/l. Correspondingly following 500 hours
leaching, during which period copper solubilisation had increased from a rate of 3.36mg/1/hr (before 200
hours) to 5.87mg/l/hr (for YTF1), arsenic concentration was determined to vary between 0.385 and 1.160g
As/l for the illustrated moderately thermophilic cultures. Figure 2 illustrates the same three cultures'
response to the oxidation of the massive chalcopyrite concentrate sample. Rates of metal solubilisation for
both iron and copper (also see Table 1) were increased by a factor > 5 (in comparison to the Geevor
concentrates) varying between 15.64mg Cu/1 to 23.75mg Cu/l. It is the opinion of the authors that the
absence of arsenopyrite in the chalcopyrite concentrate was the rate controlling factor that resulted in the
significant difference observed in metal leaching rates between these two concentrates. Separate studies over
a 5 month period (work unpublished) investigating the toxicity of arsenic to the above moderately
thermophilic cultures (growth on 50mM ferrous iron with arsenic concentrations, added as sodium arsenate
(hydrate), varied between 5 and 50mM) determined that adaptation to arsenic in concentrations exceeding
10-15raM proved unsuccessful. Similar results were observed for the Lonrho concentrate where iron
leaching was again adversely affected (presumably by the presence of arsenopyrite in the concentrate).

Copper Concentration (g/I)

. . . . . . . ~ - ~. . . . . . .+. + +

0 ",Wx

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Time (hours)

)~ Control V Mixed • YTF! +THWX I

I

Fig.2 Copper leaching data for three moderately thermophilic

cultures from the chalcopyrite concentrate

In comparison (see Table 1) the mesophilic mixed culture investigated was determined to solubilise metals
from all concentrate types with the presence of arsenic not significantly influencing these rates. Metal
leaching rates for the different concentrates varied as follows; the rate of iron solubilisation from the
Lonrho concentrate was determined to exceed that of all the moderately thermophilic and extremely
thermophilic cultures investigated by > 3 times. Copper dissolution rates, in comparison to the moderate
thermophiles, were reduced between 40-80% and 7-11% for the Geevor and chalcopyrite concentrates
respectively.

Metal leaching rates for the extreme thermophiles again varied between concentrate type. Iron solubilisation
from the Lonhro concentrate was determined to be of the same order of magnitude as that of the moderate
 Acidophilic bacteria 173

thermophiles. The rate of copper solubilisation from the Geevor concentrate was approximately double
whilst for the chalcopyrite concentrate they were half. This last figure was surprising in view of previous
results obtained by Jordan [1] where the dissolution rate of copper from the same chalcopyrite concentrate
was in the order of 46mg/1/hr (CSTR vessel leach at 5 %w/v pulp density). It should be noted that the
current experimental work was carried out at 3 %w/v and not 5 %w/v i.e. decreased substrate availability.

TABLE 1 Summary Of Metal Leaching Data For All Acidophilic Bacteria Investigated.

Bacterial Strain Metal Leaching Rate (mg/l/hr)

onrho II Oeovor II Ch copy te

Iron II Iron Copper II Iron Copper

Mesophile
Control 0.63 0.21 0.97 1.45 0.45

WJ Mixed Culture 11.22 3.19 2.44 6.83 1.75

Moderate Thermophiles
Control 0.78 1.62 2.10 10.71 1.04

Mixed 2.44 4.33 3.00 25.48 15.64

YTF1 2.51 5.90 5.87 29.03 21.43

TH1 3.20 3.69 5.40 29.30 21.83

ALV 1.85 5.00 4.53 25.97 21.73

THWX 2.15 5.61 5.71 25.42 22.24

TH3 3.39 3.03 5.52 23.45 23.75

Extreme Thermophiles
Control 0.53 1.34 4.62 9.56 1.09

Sulfolobus BC 3.02 3.94 10.28 20.84 15.99

Acidianus brierleyi 2.18 3.73 9.56 18.15 12.40

DISCUSSION

From the current study it is evident that the presence of arsenopyrite in mineral sulphide concentrates has
a detrimental affect on the rates of metal solubilisation using certain moderately thermophilic and extremely
thermophilic bacteria. The arsenic toxicity results of the current study, for the moderate thermophiles,
correlate with previous unpublished data. Based on both the current results and previous data it is evident
that all bacterial types investigated are capable of metal solubilisation, at various rates, from base-metal
sulphide concentrates. The results for the extreme thermophiles deviate from that expected (as noted in the
experimental results section) in so much as the rate of copper solubilisation was not as high as expected.
The reasons for this are not clear although it is probable that the inoculum suffered a degree of inhibition
following inoculation. The general trend for base metal sulphide concentrates is that an increase in leaching
temperature promotes an increase in leaching rate as noted in published data [2].
174 M.A. Jordan et al.

The tolerance of the mesophilic culture to arsenic, as demonstrated again by our results, highlights the
reason why this bacterial strain type has found commercial acceptance within the gold industry. The
commercialisation of higher temperature processes for oxidation of refractory arsenic-bearing gold
concentrates is reliant upon researchers identifying suitably arsenic tolerant bacteria that are also capable
of withstanding the 'engineering pressures' that the commercial bioleaching plants impose upon them i.e.
increased solids concentration, variable feed mineralogy and water quality etc. However, the increased
metal leaching rates coupled with, in some instances, the attractive proposition of working at higher
temperatures (>45°C) may yet create a niche in which these bacterial strain types can function. A
continuation of fundamental baseline research is therefore required to expand the knowledge database.

In summary the current study highlights the potential problems posed to moderately thermophilic and
extremely thermophilic bacteria by arsenopyrite-bearing mineral sulphide concentrates. With a finite
limitation on the size of bioreactors (bioleaching plants) the application of higher temperature strains with
increased kinetics of metal dissolution appears increasingly more favourable. It is distinctly possible
therefore that moderate and extremely thermophilic bacteria will eventually have an important role to play
in the oxidation of mineral sulphide concentrates but only when the current limitations outlined above are
overcome.

R E V I E W OF CURRENT AND POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

OF ACIDOPHILIC BACTERIAL SYSTEMS

The current applications for acidophilic bacterial systems extend beyond simple biooxidation of mineral
sulphide concentrates. The literature regarding such applications is both diverse in its technical content and
the journals in which the data has been published. The purpose of this mini-review is to highlight some of
current and potential applications for acidophilic bacterial systems by reference to both the literature and
authors' comments.

Biooxidation A historical perspective of the development of biohydrometallurgical processes has been

documented [3] and its relationship to geomicrobiological processes has been provided by Erlich [4]. What
is evidently clear is that the development of biohydrometalllurgical processes has been catalysed by the
interest of large mining companies who perceive the application of biological processes as being both
commercially viable and environmentally more acceptable than traditional processes such as oxidative
roasting.

Commercial application of biological processes within the minerals industry was pioneered by Gencor and
is currently one of the few growth areas within the field of extractive metallurgy. The first commercial tank
bioleaching plant [5,6], known as the BIOX ® process, was fully commissioned in March 1992 at Gencor's
Fairview Mine in South Africa and operates at a temperature of =40°C. Since 1992 similar plants have
been commissioned at Ashanti Gold Mine, Ghana [7], Youanmi Mine, Australia [8,9], Sao Bento, Brazil
[10] and Wiluna, Australia [11,12]. All the aforementioned bioleaching plants utilise CSTR bioreactors
operated at atmospheric pressure within a temperature range of 35-50°C. Biological oxidation of the
contained mineral sulphides is potentially oxygen limited due to the inability of process engineers to
increase the rate of mass transfer of oxygen into the aqueous mineral pulp. Hansford and Bailey [13] have
recently reviewed literature surrounding the area of biooxidation of mineral sulphide concentrates.

A potential alternative method of improving metal extraction rates from mineral sulphide systems has been
the application of higher temperature bacteria (moderately thermophilic 1 and extremely thermophilic2
species). However, extreme thermophiles, such as Sulfolobus BC [14], have been noted to be more
sensitive to pulp density (when investigated in air lift reactors) compared to commercially operated systems
based on Thiobacillusferrooxidans and Leptospirillumferrooxidans. This reduced solids density makes the
overall process less attractive to industry as both capital and operating costs will be adversely

I Optimumworking temperaturein the region of 50°C

2 Optimumworking temperaturein the region of 70°C
 Acidophilicbacteria 175

affected. Commercial application of moderately thermophilic bacteria has recently been investigated at pilot
plant scale [8,9] and Norris [15] has recently undertaken research into the application of an extreme
thermophile (working temperature = 80°C) which has the capacity to significantly increase rates of copper
dissolution from chalcopyrite based concentrates [16]. Increasing metal dissolution rates will further
promote the application of biological oxidation processes. However, one major problem associated with
operating at increased temperature is that of decreasing oxygen solubility. In a process where oxygen
limitation is already a problem, higher temperatures of reaction could potentially exacerbate the need to
operate at reduced pulp density. The efficiency of oxygen utilisation by both moderately thermophilic and
extremely thermophilic bacteria has received little attention but may prove an influential factor.

Significant efforts have been made to optimise current reactor design technology, especially air sparging
systems, in an attempt to increase the mass transfer of oxygen into the aqueous mineral pulp. van Weert
[17] has reported increased oxygen transfer into aqueous solutions using his DIP bioreactor. Industrial
research also appears to have concentrated research and development on methods of improving the rates
of oxygen mass transfer through optimising the efficiency of air sparging systems.

The trend towards increasing numbers of bioleaching plants will in the opinion of the authors continue for
the foreseeable future. Increasingly stringent environmental regulations and the maintenance of profit
margins will probably force the industry to pursue the development of this technology.

Waste Water Treatment A number of methods for the treatment of waste (contaminated) water are
available with treatment selection determined by the nature of the contaminant. Utilisation of biological
processes in the treatment of organic contaminated waters are commonly used albeit not generally within
the minerals industry but are worthy of a brief mention. The steel industry is an example of an allied
industry which utilises such technology. British Steel's Port Talbot works in South Wales, U.K., scrubs
the flue gases from their coking ovens to reduce the concentration of ammonia and certain volatile organics.
The ammonia is then separated from the aqueous phase via a stream stripping operation resulting in an
effluent that contains certain organics like phenol, as well as some residual ammonia. This effluent is then
subject to biological oxidative degradation whose by-products are essentially CO 2 and water [18]. The
efficiency of the biological degradation plant is in the order of 99.3 %, sufficient to bring the concentration
of residual organics within discharge consent limits.

Acidophilic iron-oxidising bacteria are also responsible for the production of acid mine waters (AMW)
[19,20] which can be a major cause of pollution e.g. Wheal Jane Mine, Cornwall pollution incident in 1992
[21]. The acidified mine waters contain potentially toxic concentrations of a variety of metals (Fe, As, Cd,
Zn, Cu) and the treatment of such waters is both costly and a long term problem.

Water treatment systems based around acid-tolerant bacteria have been used to remove iron from drinking
water supplies [22], though this usually concerns removal of very low concentrations of iron from mildly
acidic waters _ p H 6.0. Acid mine waters (AMW) are both more acidic and contain increased
concentrations of dissolved metals, particularly iron. Increased concentrations of iron have a detrimental
affect making the treatment of the AMW more expensive and, therefore, less attractive. The preferred
treatment route is normally by liming but at the Matsuo Mine in Japan a biological treatment system using
ThiobacUlus ferrooxidans has been successfully designed to treat 28m3/min of mine water at pH 2.5,
oxidising > 95 % of the soluble ferrous iron (total concentration of ferrous iron is 2100mg/L)[23]. There
are, in many cases, valuable metals present within AMW which during neutralisation are precipitated into
the sludge. The biological oxidation of the soluble ferrous iron (to ferric iron) may promote selective
precipitation of the ferric iron following controlled neutralisation (ferric iron precipitates at pH 4 [23],
leaving the valuable metals (Zn, Cu, Cd) in an iron deficient solution. The neutralisation of this solution
could result in the production of metal-rich sludge which may have some economical value if the metal
values are high enough or may permit controlled disposal of this sludge to a separate tailings dam.

Wetlands have been promoted as the answer to the AMW problem facing all historically active mining
areas, a walkaway answer to a chronic condition. Recent studies have tended to suggest that will not be
the case [24,25] although the bacteria believed responsible for the final amelioration of the drainage waters
176 M.A. Jordan et al.

within wetland systems may provide a more active solution; especially the acidophilic sulphate-reducing
species which are currently being investigated [26]. Puckett et. al. [24] note from their work that the
stability of the precipitated metals and nutrients is unclear, remobilisation of these compounds could
potentially result from the action of biological, geochemical and/or physical processes. Similarly, Tarutis
and Unz [25] concluded through their decomposition/metal removal model of a constructed wetland that
such systems will require periodic attention to maintain pre-determined performance levels. There is,
however, considerable interest in this treatment route and it is likely to receive increasing attention as a
result of current research, examining the mechanisms underpinning the operation of a natural wetland
system [27] that is currently ameliorating mine waters.

The treatment of H2S-rich flue gases from smelter plants using a ferric sulphate system is commercially
operated [23,28]. This process utilises the acidophile Thiobacillus ferrooxidans to regenerate the ferric
sulphate oxidant in a bioreactor and is summarised by the following equations;

H2S + Fe2(SO4) 3 ----S + 2FeSO 4 + H2SO4 (1)

bacteria
2FeSO 4 4- H2SO 4 + 02 ....... ~ Fe2(SO4)3 + H20 (2)

An alternative potential application of this technology could be the treatment of SO2-rich flue gases from
coal-fired power generation plants within the U.K. Powergen plc have installed flue gas desulphurisation
(FGD) systems at Ratcliffe-on-Soar, Leicestershire, U.K. [29]. The below equations summarise the main
reactions in this desulphurisation system.

SO 2 + CaCO 3 -> CaSO 3 + CO 2 (3)

CaSO 3 + 2H20 + 0.502 --, CaSO.2H20 (4)

2HC1 + CaCO 3 --, CaC12 + H20 + CO 2 (5)

FGD technology utilises lime for the neutralisation reaction producing by-products including a gypsum
slurry and calcium chloride. There is concern that this process, albeit reducing the impact of SO2-rich flue
gases, will accelerate the potential environmental problems caused as a result of limestone quarrying within
the Peak District National Park. Biological processes have the potential to minimise lime consumption and
thus reduce the environmental impact from both the flue gas discharge and the increased demand for
limestone from quarrying operations. The biological option will also reduce the production of gypsum
slurry thus reducing the potential threat of de-stabilising the price of gypsum on the open market.

Treatment of Metal-Contaminated Solids Materials The treatment of metal-contaminated solids

is often a pre-requisite prior to disposal of the material in question. Direct disposal may be more costly
primarily due to the potential contamination that could emanate from incorrect long-term disposal. In this
respect acidophilic systems illustrate both potential and current applications.

The treatment of metal-contaminated sewage sludge using acidophilic bacterial systems, highlighting the
application of the genus Thiobacillus, prior to its application to agricultural land have been investigated
[30,31]. Typically raised metal concentrations within the sludge preclude both its direct use as an
agricultural amendment and increase the cost of disposal (such materials requiring disposal in contained
landfill sites). One problem associated with metal extraction from sludge is the absence of a suitable
substrate. This has been overcome by seeding the sludge with sulphur and using acidophilic sulphur-
oxidising bacteria to acidify the sludge, through the oxidation of sulphur to sulphuric acid, and leach out
contaminating metals. The de-toxified sludge may then be used as an amendment or safely disposed of. The
solubilised metals can be then precipitated and either recovered or disposed of in a more concentrated form.
Current research has focused upon the genus Thiobacillus (predominantly Thiobacillus ferrooxidans).
 Acidophilicbacteria 177

However, there are several sewage treatment processes which now operate at elevated temperatures
(62-64°C) [32] and there may be some mileage in investigating the potential applications of moderately
thermophilic iron-oxidising3 bacteria.

There exists a similar potential treatment route for metal-contaminated fine silts and muds that are dredged
from water courses throughout the U.K. Because of the associated metal contamination some of the
materials have to be disposed of in lined landfill sites that reduce leachate seepage to the groundwater.
Deposition of metals (as sulphides) within these environments may have occurred as a result of sulphate-
reducing bacteria precipitating and concentrating the soluble metals from solution. Direct disposal of this
material onto land could represent potential sources of acid water through the oxidation (natural and
biological) of the contained metals. The advent of tighter pollution regulations also tends to suggest that
the historic practice of dumping of river dredgings at sea may eventually be forbidden. Consequently
methods of extracting the metals from the silts and muds may well be required. Acidophilic bacteria could
well represent a technology that could be successfully utilised in the treatment of these materials prior to
disposal or utilisation as an amendment.

Similarly, the treatment of metal-contaminated mining wastes through a combination of mineral processing
techniques and biological treatment methods warrants consideration. Separation of the sulphide
contaminants from the bulk of the mining waste by conventional processing techniques followed by
biological treatment of the contaminated fraction has the potential to remediate such materials. In a similar
vain the leaching of metal values from tailings material (current and historic) may reduce the potential for
subsequent pollution of groundwaters following oxidation and/or acid-leaching of tailings by the host
bacterial ecology (acidophilic bacteria within sulphide tailings). Tailings materials from active mining
operations tend to contain metal-bearing mineral sulphides in concentrations uneconomic to processes.
However, they may still be in sufficiently high enough concentrations to cause acid waters and thus
represent a huge potential reservoir of polluting material. Historic tailings may represent a better option
for post-deposition metal extraction using acidophilic bacterial systems. There are studies currently
underway at the Camborne School of Mines investigating the treatment of such tailings using a combination
of chemical and biological systems.

In-situ leaching (solution mining) of low-grade ore-bodies The potential for in-situ leaching of
metals from mineral sulphide deposits is an attractive proposition due to a number of factors which include;
this technique could reduce the requirement for the development of an extensive mine infrastructure, is a
potential treatment route for orebodies deemed uneconomical by conventional underground and/or open-pit
mining methods and would reduce the 'visual' environmental impact of mining operations. In-situ leaching
of copper, gold and uranium has been the focus of attention for both researchers (laboratory and field
testwork has been conducted)) and commercial operations [33-40]. Literature reviewed indicates that a
variety of ore-bodies have been investigated for the potential recovery of the valuable precious metals,
using both acidophilic bacterial systems and chemical lixiviants (such as cyanide [37]). Leaching of metals
from underground stopes has also been investigated for metal recovery [38-39]. Insitu leaching is now
without its own problems as demonstrated by the Hobson Project, North America[33] where only 27% of
the uranium was recovered due to various geological, hydrological and geochemical factors.

Investigation of metal recovery from sulphide ore-bodies at depth via in-situ leaching techniques should also
be considered. The technology for drilling boreholes to depths 2-2.5km, followed by the stimulation of
existing rock joints at depth to increase permeability of the rock mass, has been developed [41]. However,
there are a number of potential problem areas that still require further research such as; control of reservoir
permeability, bioclogging leading to solution channelling, contamination of surrounding groundwater
(control of lixiviant flow patterns), and the control of biological processes both during metal extraction and
following cessation of mining operations and the implication of local field geology conditions, before
acidophilic bacterial systems could be utilised to solubilise the metals. In a recent paper Hiskey [42]
discusses the potential for solution mining in terms of a number of controlling factors, both physical and
chemical.

3 The workingtemperaturerange of moderatelythermophiliciron-oxidisingbacteria is in the regionof --50+5°C

178 M.A. Jordan et al.

Metal reduction The reduction of metals by acidophilic bacteria was first noted in anaerobic conditions
where iron-oxidising bacteria utilised ferric iron as a terminal electron acceptor when growing on sulphur
[43]. Sugio [44] also demonstrated the reduction of cupric ions by T h i o b a c i l l u s f e r r o o x i d a n s in the presence
of sulphur. Johnson and McGinness [45] subsequently noted that reduction could be accomplished in more
aerobic conditions by acidophilic heterotrophic bacteria. These bacteria had been noted as ubiquitous in
acidophilic environments [46] but until this time had not been thought to have any interactions with metal
components within the environment. They were demonstrated to be capable of reducing iron in micro-
aerophilic environments and of utilising ferric iron as a terminal electron acceptor in anaerobic conditions.
There has since been some evidence to suggest that some strains of acidophilic heterotrophs can be adapted
to reduce cupric to cuprous [47,48], though cuprous ions are less stable than ferrous and so this process
is more difficult to quantify. A potential application for a copper-reducing heterotroph would be in the
reduction of power consumption in electrowinning cells (under ideal conditions deposition of Cu + would
consume half the power necessary to deposit Cu2+). It may be possible therefore to find other acidophilic
species and strains which are capable of reducing further metal species such as chromium and uranium.
This would be of real benefit as most metals tend to be present in acidic waste streams whereas most
established bacterial reduction processes take place at more neutral pH values. Metal reduction is generally
of use in environmental applications where the reduction of a metal species, such as uranium, may result
in a precipitate which is then easily separated from a liquid waste stream. Acidophilic heterotrophs have
also been demonstrated capable of solubilising ferric precipitates, both amorphous and crystalline. This
could be potentially useful in situations in where the build up of ferric precipitates occurs in a physical
inaccessible place. These heterotrophic bacteria would solubilise the precipitates to ferrous iron with the
only requirement being a ready source of organic substrate.

In summary it is apparent that acidophilic bacteria are currently operated in a diverse range of
environments within a number of different industrial fields. There also exists the potential for alternative
applications and the implication of bacterial strains capable of operating at increased temperature ( + 50°C).
In the opinion of the authors acidophilic bacteria represent a valuable resource in which the minerals
industry should continue to invest.

CONCLUSIONS

The experimental data presented have resulted in the following conclusions being drawn;

. The presence of arsenopyrite within mineral sulphide concentrates has been shown to inhibit the
solubilisation of both iron and copper from two mineralogically distinct mineral sulphide
concentrates.

. Metal solubilisation from base metal concentrates was proven feasible by both moderate and
extreme thermophiles which is in agreement with other literature.

. Increasing the temperature of biological oxidation for base metal mineral sulphide concentrates
promotes the rate of metal solubilisation (compared to our mesophilic studies) although no upper
limit was defined by the current study.

The following conclusions have been drawn as a result of our literature review;

. Acidophilic bacterial systems are currently used for a wide application of treatment processes
across a broad spectrum of industries.

2. Certain acidophilic systems have the potential to be used increasingly through industry due to their
tolerant and robust nature.

. The authors' perceive that there should be increased research into the potential applications of
moderate and extremely thermophilic acidophilic bacterial systems since operation at higher
 Acidophilic bacteria 179

temperature may offer potential process advantages.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance received during the experimental phase of the work
from all the analytical staff at CSM and Miss Kieren Smith (Research Assistant). Thankyou also to Lonrho
plc for the supply of the refractory gold concentrate.

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