Mercedes Gargallo Sanz de Vicuna

Departamento de Construcción y Tecnología Arquitectónicas
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura
MÉTODO SISTEMÁTICO
A SYSTEMATIC PARA FOR
APPROACH EL DISEÑO DE CURTAIN
UNITIZED MURO CORTINA
WALL
DESIGN
MODULARBASED ON PROJECT
BASADO EN LOS REQUIREMENTS AND INDUSTRY
REQUISITOS DE PROYECTO Y
LIMITATIONS
LIMITACIONES DE LA INDUSTRIA
MÉTODO SISTEMÁTICO PARA EL DISEÑO DE MURO CORTINA

MODULAR BASADO EN LOS REQUISITOS DE PROYECTO Y
TESIS DOCTORAL
Mercedes Gargallo Sanz de Vicuňa
Arquitecto por la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
2021
Departamento de Construcción y Tecnología Arquitectónicas
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura

A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH FOR UNITIZED CURTAIN WALL
DESIGN BASED ON PROJECT REQUIREMENTS AND INDUSTRY
LIMITATIONS

Autor
Mercedes Gargallo Sanz de Vicuňa
Arquitecto por la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
Director
Dr. Alfonso García Santos
Doctor Arquitecto por la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
2021
…the details and the whole are one….
Le Corbusier
La Plus Grande Aventure Du Monde (1956)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
From the Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Madrid, I would like to thank my
supervisor Dr. Alfonso García Santos for giving me the opportunity to carry out this work
and for his encouragement and guidance and to Eva Delgado Canovas for continuously
helping me with procedures and dates.
I would like to thank you my colleagues at Arup and external industry peers who have
supported me with their expertise with a variety of disciplines across the thesis: Sinlido
Fag-Ayan for structures, Krzysztof Wolnicki and Damien Flynn for fire safety, Christoph
Gruenaug for maintenance, Sabine Kleining and Arvind Kumar for fabrication, Renato
Cilento for transportation and installation, and last but not least, to Azza Abdallah,
Brindha Sankari and Kristine Quicosa who helped with the development of the Power BI
script to obtain the relationship diagrams. To Stuart Clarke and Lanre Lawale for backing
me up to complete this work and to Ed Forwood for all his guidance during my time at
Arup.
From Abu Dhabi University I appreciate the time that Mohamed El Amrousi spent
providing valuable support.
I am also thankful to all those individuals who helped me during the development of this
study, in particular to Belen Moreno Santama who guided me through the article
publication and thesis submittal procedures and to Benito Lauret for putting me in contact
with her.
Finally, I owe a special thanks to my extended family, my husband, Tito, my parents, Juan
Manuel and Ana, my children, Pedro, Guillermo and Tomas, and my siblings, Ignacio and
Ana, for their continuing support and patience allowing me to find the time to develop
and conclude this research. This thesis is dedicated to all of them.
Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture

A systematic approach for unitized curtain wall design based on project requirements and industry limitations
i
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I
CONTENTS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- III
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- XI
ABSTRACT (SPANISH) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- XIII
INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 Prologue ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

1.2 Overview of architectural facades --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.3 Glazed curtain wall history ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.4 Issues with glazed curtain walls ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5
HYPOTHESIS, OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY------------------------------------------ 6
2.1 Description of proposed research---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7

2.2 Research hypothesis and main objective ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 7
2.3 Research scope and limitation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
2.3.1 Scope --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
2.3.2 Assumptions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 9
2.3.3 Exclusions and limitations ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
2.4 Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
2.4.1 Research phases ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
2.4.2 Work plan-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
STATE OF THE ART -----------------------------------------------------------------------------14
3.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15

3.2 Curtain wall system and components -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
3.2.1 Overview --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
3.2.2 Curtain wall systems ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 18
3.2.3 Panels ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
3.2.4 Framing ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
3.2.5 Joints -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
3.2.6 Common curtain wall components issues -------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
3.3 Curtain wall requirements ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
3.3.1 Regulations and policies ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
3.3.2 Standards and guidelines ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 29
3.3.3 Structural loading --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
3.3.4 Movement accommodation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
iii
3.3.5 Weathering protection--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
3.3.6 Building physics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 37
3.3.7 Acoustic barrier ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 38
3.3.8 Fire safety ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
3.3.9 Durability requirements ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
3.4 Project brief factors -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
3.4.1 Setting the project brief ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
3.4.2 Project considerations affecting facades design ------------------------------------------------------------ 45
3.5 Overview of curtain wall industry ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
3.5.1 Supply chain ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
3.5.2 Current market and companies --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
3.5.3 Curtain wall market and cost ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
3.5.4 Capital expenditures and operating expenses--------------------------------------------------------------- 49
3.6 Current constraints in construction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
3.6.1 Fabrications constrains -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
3.6.2 Transportation constraints---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57
3.6.3 Installation constraints--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
3.6.4 Maintenance constraints ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 61
3.7 Dependency variable study ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
3.8 Literature review summary ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
DETERMINATION OF VARIABLES ------------------------------------------------------------ 67
4.1 Overview ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68

4.2 Design parameters --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
4.3 Project requirements ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 71
4.3.1 Project brief factors (independent variables) ---------------------------------------------------------------- 71
4.3.2 Curtain wall requirements (intervenient variables) -------------------------------------------------------- 73
4.4 Industry limitations -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
4.4.1 Construction phases (independent variables) --------------------------------------------------------------- 76
4.4.2 Industry constraints (intervenient variables) ---------------------------------------------------------------- 77
4.5 Summary of determination of variables ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77
STRUCTURAL LOADING----------------------------------------------------------------------- 79
5.1 Structural requirements affected by project brief factors ------------------------------------------------------ 80

5.1.1 Wind load -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80
5.1.2 Self weight load ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 81
5.1.3 Thermal load ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82
5.1.4 Seismic load ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
5.1.5 Barrier load------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 85
5.1.6 Impact load------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 86
5.1.7 Blast load -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
5.2 Design parameters based on structural requirements ---------------------------------------------------------- 88
5.2.1 Framing size ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 89
5.2.2 Glazing build-up ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 91
5.2.3 Glass retention ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 92
5.3 Summary of structural loading requirements ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 93

iv
MOVEMENT ACCOMMODATION -----------------------------------------------------------95
6.1 Accommodation of movement affected by project requirements ------------------------------------------- 96

6.1.1 Slab deflection ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 96
6.1.2 Building sway --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 98
6.1.3 Thermal expansion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100
6.2 Design parameters based on movement accommodation requirements--------------------------------- 102
6.2.1 Joint size -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 102
6.2.2 Thermal expansion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103
6.3 Summary of movement accommodation requirements ------------------------------------------------------- 104
WEATHER PROTECTION -------------------------------------------------------------------- 105
7.1 Weathering requirements affected by project brief factors -------------------------------------------------- 106

7.1.1 Air leakage------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 106
7.1.2 Watertightness ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 107
7.2 Design parameters based on weathering requirements ------------------------------------------------------- 109
7.2.1 Joint size -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 109
7.2.2 Equalization and drainage --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 110
7.3 Summary of weathering requirements ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 111
BUILDING PHYSICS -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 113
8.1 Building physics requirements affected by project brief factors -------------------------------------------- 114
8.1.1 Thermal resistance ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 114
8.1.2 Condensation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 116
8.1.3 Solar gains ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 118
8.1.4 Light transmission -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 120
8.2 Design parameters based on building physics -------------------------------------------------------------------- 122
8.2.1 Framing size ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 122
8.2.2 Joint Size -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 124
8.2.3 Glazing build-up ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 125
8.2.4 Glazing cavity -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 127
8.2.5 Glazing coating ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 129
8.2.6 Glazing retention --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 131
8.2.7 Thermal break ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 133
8.2.9 Spandrel panel ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 136
8.3 Summary of building physics requirements ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 137
ACOUSTIC BARRIER-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 139
9.1 Acoustic requirements affected by project factors -------------------------------------------------------------- 140

9.1.1 Airborne sound insulation --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 140
9.1.2 Flanking transmission --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 142
9.2 Design parameters based on acoustic ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 143
9.2.1 Framing size ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 143
9.2.2 Glazing build-up ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 145
9.2.3 Glazing cavity -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 147
9.2.4 Spandrel panel ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 148

v
9.3 Summary of the acoustics requirements --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 149
FIRE SAFETY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 151
10.1 Fire safety requirements------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 152

10.1.1 Compartmentation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 152
10.1.2 Surface spread ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 154
10.2 Design parameters based on fire requirements ------------------------------------------------------------------ 156
10.2.1 Framing size ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 156
10.2.2 Glazing build-up ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 157
10.2.3 Spandrel panel ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 158
10.3 Summary of fire safety requirements ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 160
DURABILITY EXPECTATIONS --------------------------------------------------------------- 161
11.1 Durability requirements affected by project brief factors ----------------------------------------------------- 162

11.1.1 Service life ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 162
11.1.2 Repair ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 164
11.1.3 Replacement --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 165
11.2 Design paraments affected by durability requirements-------------------------------------------------------- 166
11.2.1 Framing size ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 166
11.2.2 Joint size -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 166
11.2.3 Glazing build-up ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 167
11.2.4 Glazing cavity -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 167
11.2.5 Glazing retention --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 168
11.3 Summary of durability requirements -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 169
FABRICATION CONSTRAINS ---------------------------------------------------------------- 171
12.1 Fabrication stages --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 172

12.1.1 Manufacturing constrains ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 172
12.1.2 Processing constraints -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 174
12.1.3 Assembly constrains ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 176
12.2 Design variables affected by fabrication constrains ------------------------------------------------------------- 178
12.2.1 Framing size ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 178
12.2.2 Joint size -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 180
12.2.3 Glazing build-up ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 181
12.2.4 Glazing cavity -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 181
12.2.5 Glass coating --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 182
12.3 Summary of constraints during fabrication ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 183
TRANSPORTATION LIMITS------------------------------------------------------------------ 185
13.1 Transportation stages ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 186

13.1.1 Packaging constraints --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 186
13.1.2 Shipping constraints ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 187
13.2 Design variables affected by transportation constraints------------------------------------------------------- 188
13.2.1 Framing size ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 188
13.2.2 Joints size ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 188
13.3 Summary of constraints during transportation ------------------------------------------------------------------- 189
vi
INSTALLATION CHALLENGES --------------------------------------------------------------- 191
14.1 Installation stages --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 192

14.1.1 Storage constrains ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 192
14.1.2 Lifting constrains --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 193
14.1.3 Placing constraints ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 194
14.2 Design variables affected by installation constraints ----------------------------------------------------------- 195
14.2.1 Framing size ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 195
14.2.2 Joint size -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 196
14.3 Summary of constraints during installation------------------------------------------------------------------------ 198
MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES ---------------------------------------------------------------- 199
15.1 Maintenance stages ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 200

15.1.1 Cleaning constraints ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 200
15.1.2 Repairing constraints ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 201
15.1.3 Replacement constraints ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 202
15.2 Design variables affected by maintenance constraints --------------------------------------------------------- 203
15.2.1 Framing size ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 203
15.2.2 Joint size -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 204
15.2.3 Glass build-up ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 205
15.2.4 Glass cavity ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 206
15.3 Summary of constraints during maintenance --------------------------------------------------------------------- 207
PROPOSED SYSTEMATIC APPROACH ----------------------------------------------------- 208
16.1 Overview --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 209

16.2 Systematic approach diagram------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 210
16.3 Design variables ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 213
16.3.1 Framing size ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 213
16.3.2 Joint size -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 214
16.3.3 Glass build-up ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 215
16.3.4 Glass coating --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 216
16.3.5 Glass cavity ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 217
16.3.6 Glass retention ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 218
16.3.7 Thermal breaks------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 219
16.3.9 Spandrel panel ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 221
16.4 Summary --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 221
CASE STUDY APPLICATION ----------------------------------------------------------------- 222
17.1 Overview --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 223

17.2 Determination of design parameters -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 224
17.3 Examples of variables study -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 225
17.3.1 Example 1: Framing size ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 225
17.3.2 Example 2: Glass retention -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 226

vii
17.4 Summary of case study application ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 227
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS ------------------------------------------ 228
18.1 Overview --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 229

18.2 Analysis and interpretation of results ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 230
18.2.1 Project requirements ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 231
18.2.2 Industry limitations ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 234
18.3 Summary of combined results ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 237
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ------------------------------------------------------- 239
19.1 Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 240

19.2 Future work------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 243
RELEVANT PUBLICATIONS --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 244
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY ----------------------------------------------------------------- 245

viii
NOMENCLATURE
Units
dB Decibil
Hz Hertz
J Joule
K Kelvin
Kg Kilograme
kN Kilonewton
kN/m Kilonewton per meter
kN/m2 Kilonewton per square meter
m Meter
m² Square meter
m3/ hr/m2 Meter cubic per hour per square meter
mm Milimetres
MPa Megapascal
Pa Pascal
Rw Weighted Sound Reduction Index
W/mK Watts per meter per Kelvin
W/(m².K Watts per sqaure meter per Kelvin
ºC Degree Celsious
% Percentage
’ Inch

ix
Abbreviations
AAMA American Architectural Manufacturers Association

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ATTMA Air Tightness Testing and Measurement Association
BS British Standard
BSi British Standard Institute
CE Conformitè Europëenne
CEN Commission for European Normalization
CMHC Canada Mortgage and Housing Council
CTE Código Técnico de la Edificación
CWCT Centre of Window and Cladding Technology
DGU Double Glazed Unit
EN European Norm
EPDM Ethylene propylene diene monomer
GFRP Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer
GSHAP Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program
HOSDB Home Office Scientific Development Branch
IBC International Building Code
IGU Insulating glazing unit
ICC International Code Council
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
Low-E Low Emissivity
PSHA Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessments
PVB Polyvinyl butyral
RIBA Royal Institute of British Architects
SRI Sound Reduction Index
SSG Structural Silicone Glazing
T Temper
TGU Triple Glazed Unit
TN Technical Note
UAE United Arab Emirates
UK United Kingdom
USA United State of America
USD United States dollar
UV Ultra Violet
WBDG Whole Building Design Guide
WWR Window Wall Ratio

x
ABSTRACT (English)
External envelopes are the image of every building creating fundamental component of
the scenario of cities. Façades and roofs, are, in principle, very simple means of creating
shelter. Roofs, however, have miraculously resisted specialisation and retained simplicity
in most of the cases; while facades have developed and become more complex. Curtain
walls are the façade of choice in high-rise buildings and an indispensable element of
architecture for a contemporary city.
Developments in the field of industrialization, energy conservation, environmental

impact, digitalisation and lack of labour are nowadays changing the world of
construction. It might be expected that during the coming decades building technologies
and processes will change drastically. For that reason, there is a strong need to assess
current design process to optimize and agile the work streamlines.
The façade industry may be one of the most advanced disciplines within the building
industry in terms of systemization and proprietary systems. Nevertheless, the percentage
of buildings with identical facades are minimum. The customization is driven by an
aesthetic desire but also due to particular conditions of each project which dictates the
façade requirements and the industry limitations at a particular moment in time and
location.
Possibilities for improvement of technologies and systems are provided by developments

in design, planning tools, computation and mass customization. This research analyses the
design development of curtain wall identifying how the particular conditions of a project
and the current industry limitations affect the end design. The investigation develops and
proposes a systematic approach based on the interdependent relationships to optimise the
processes and assess areas of improvement.
The content itself is divided into three phases: project requirements, industry limitations
and development of the systematic approach. The first two follow same methodology
identifying the relationships between the project factors, the construction stages and the
curtain wall design parameters. The third part interrelates all the relationships to develop
the proposed systematic approached.

xi
ABSTRACT (Spanish)
Las envolventes son la imagen de cada edificio y crean un componente fundamental en el

escenario de las ciudades. La función básica de las fachadas y cubiertas es la protección.
Sin embargo, mientras que las cubiertas se han mantenido relativamente sencillas las
fachadas se han desarrollado convirtiéndose en un elemento complejo. El muro cortina es
el sistema de fachada más empleado en edificios en altura y es un componente
indispensable en la arquitectura contemporánea de nuestras ciudades.
Los desarrollos en los campos de industrialización, conservación energética, impacto

ambiental, digitalización, y a su vez la carencia de mano de obra, están propiciando
muchos cambios en la construcción que se esperan que sean drásticos en las próximas
décadas. Por esa razón, es extremadamente necesario evaluar los procesos de diseño
actuales para optimizar y agilizar las líneas de trabajo. La industria de fachadas es una de
las disciplinas más avanzadas dentro de la construcción y cuenta con un gran número de
sistemas registrados y patentados. Aun así, el número de fachadas idénticas entre edificios
es mínimo. Esto se debe a cada sistema requiere un nivel de adaptación debido al
componente estético y a las condiciones particulares que dictan los requisitos y las
limitaciones de la industria para cada proyecto.
Las posibles mejoras de los sistemas son casi todas relacionados con herramientas de
diseño computacional, de planificación o adaptación masiva. Esta investigación se centra
en el desarrollo de diseño de los muros cortinas identificando las condiciones particulares
de diseño y las limitaciones actuales de la industria que afectan el diseño final. Esta
investigación desarrolla y propone un método sistemático basado en las relaciones entre
los requisitos de proyecto, las variables de diseño y las limitaciones de la industria con la
intención de optimizar y agilizar los procesos de diseño y evaluar las áreas de mejora.
El contenido se divide en tres fases: requisitos de proyecto, limitaciones de la industria y

desarrollo del método sistemático. Las primeras dos fases siguen la misma metodología
identificando las relaciones entre las variables de proyecto e industria. La tercera fase
interrelaciona todas las variables creando el método que se propone.

xiii
INTRODUCTION
Overview of architectural facades and the use of curtain wall. Establish main constraints
with current design and supply of curtain wall systems.

1
1.1 Prologue
External envelopes are the image of every building creating fundamental component of
the scenario of cities. Façades and roofs, are, in principle, very simple means of creating
shelter. Roofs, however, have miraculously resisted specialisation and retained simplicity
in most of the cases; while facades have developed and become more complex. Curtain
walls are the façade of choice in high-rise buildings and an indispensable element of
architecture for a contemporary city.
Developments in the field of industrialization, energy conservation, environmental

impact, digitalisation and lack of labour are nowadays changing the world of
construction. It might be expected that during the coming decades building technologies
and processes will change drastically. For that reason, there is a strong need to assess
current design process to optimize and agile the work streamlines.
The façade industry may be one of the most advanced disciplines within the building
industry in terms of systemization and proprietary systems. Nevertheless, the percentage
of buildings with identical facades are minimum. The customization is driven by an
aesthetic desire but also due to particular conditions of each project which dictates the
façade requirements and the industry limitations at a particular moment in time and
location.
Possibilities for improvement of technologies and systems are provided by developments

in design, planning tools, computation and mass customization. This research analyses the
design development of curtain wall identifying how the particular conditions of a project
and the current industry limitations affect the end design. The aim is to development a
systematic approach based on the interdependent relationships to optimise the processes
and assess areas of improvement.

2
1.2 Overview of architectural facades
Façade materials run from, textiles, timber, stone, brick, concrete, glass, steel, aluminium
and plastics. Every material comes with its own cost-benefit, and with its own
consequences.
Temperature, humidity, light, acoustics, fire, ventilation, energy use, movement are
considerations that have progressively complicate the design of facades. Consequently,
the façade has become one of the costliest parts of buildings. In addition, the glass has
become one of the most important construction materials for building envelopes in the
last century.
The most common façade systems integrating glass are windows and curtain walls.
1.3 Glazed curtain wall history
The architectural trend had a significant shift between from the 19th century to the 20th
century. Whilst theory remained intact, certain aspects and technologies that began life in
the 20th century modified the way building were designed. Curtain wall façade technology
of the 20th century is related to the abandonment of the traditional ‘massive’ load bearing
wall. This led to the search for more structural slenderness and greater transparency as we
know it today resulted in the creation of the ‘curtain wall’. The adoption of the following
doctrines changed the face of building design:
• Material efficiency. Elegance and efficiency were brought into the 20th century as key
design concepts. The best building design used the minimum material to enclose the
maximum space. This rule applied no matter how complex the resulting system was, how
complicated the process of assembly was or how precious the materials used to construct
the building.
• Structure separation. Historically form was the result of building structure. Modern
construction technologies consistently divided buildings into load-bearing-wall and
frame-curtain-wall structures and the frame structures themselves into the skeleton and
the skin.
Nowadays building codes of practice, consider columns and beams, supporting floors and
roof the primary structure and mullions or frame supporting other wall surfaces to be the

3
secondary structure. As a result, primary frames are usually articulated with great clarity
whilst secondary frames are either minimised or designed to make their subordinate role
clear.
A common user of this strategy was Mies van der Rohe who described and articulated
each part of the curtain walling system: ‘the column supports the floor, the mullion that
supports the glass and the frame that holds it’.
• Transparency. As architecture was reduced to skin and bones, it was imperative that the
cover was just transparent. It should have no structural characteristics. Great lengths were
traversed to express the structure. A good example was the Bauhaus building designed by
Walter Gropius. Error! Reference source not found.For many modernists the frame and glass
concept dictates that the skin should be as light and as thin as possible, usually made of
glass.
• Standardisation. As a prerequisite to the development of civilisation. It was amply

demonstrated by Henry Ford and the creation of the moving assembly line in 1913.
Gropius also defined standard in 1935 as ‘A standard may be defined as that simplified
practical exemplar of anything in general use, which embodies a fusion of the best of its
anterior forms. A fusion preceded by the elimination of the personal content of their
designers and all otherwise un-generic or non-essential features’.
Taking the above on bound, to be appropriate for its time, architecture must be
industrialised. To be able to be industrialised its components must be reduced to a limited
number of standard parts. Industrialisation was not just a matter of material, it implied
precision planning and off-site assembly.
Curtain walls clad many buildings today, due to their numerous practical advantages but
also because of their appearance. A curtain wall gives a clean, sophisticated, and unique
appearance, which is now associated with contemporary design. In many areas, curtain
walls are the only type of wall that would be seen against the city skyline (Brown, 2017).
This research focuses on glazed curtain wall, which, as a relatively new product, about 60
to 80 years, proves to be one of the most successful products in the façade industry. The
properties of this type of façade have led to a broad acceptance within the architectural
world.

4
The desire for transparency, feeling of lightness and the conceptual separation of the
façade from the load-bearing structure of the building was and remains to be an aspiration
for architects and designers.
1.4 Issues with glazed curtain walls
Glazed curtain walls are a good example of highly systemized products as a reaction to
the needs of the building market. In principle, its modular nature can be easily adapted to
a rational geometric arrangement offering a relatively freedom of design. However,
despite the systemization, each project requires a degree of customization that sometimes
leads to:
- Cost raise: façade has become one of the costliest parts of buildings.
- Likelihood of failure, such as air loss or water leaks.
- Need of specialization.
The aim of this research is to establish a systematic approach to assist the design process
to reduce the need to specialisation and the likelihood of failure by establishing the
relationships and indirect consequences.

5
HYPOTHESIS, OBJECTIVES AND
METHODOLOGY
This chapter sets the aims and hypothesis of this research thesis including the
methodology established to achieve the results.

6
2.1 Description of proposed research
The proposed research is an investigation to develop and systemise an approach for the
design of unitized curtain wall through:
 The evaluation of project brief factors to determine the expected requirements of

curtain wall systems.
 The assessment of the expected requirements based on recognized standards and
existing guidelines and how affects the design parameters of a curtain wall
system.
 The review of industry limitations by examination of the current fabrication,
supply chain and installation process and how affects the design parameters of a
curtain wall system.
 The evaluation of the system maintenance activities based and how affects the
design parameters of a curtain wall system.
Most of the studies in this research are based on professional experience in the field with
the aim of organizing and optimizing the decision-making process at project design stage.
2.2 Research hypothesis and main objective
It is possible to develop a systematic approach for the design of unitized curtain wall
based on the investigation of the specific project requirements and current industry
limitations.
Project Design Industry

requirements Parameters limitations
Figure 1: Research hypothesis for the systematic approach

The main objective is to create a tool that establishes dependant relationships and
organizes the decision-making process at project design stage as Figure 1.

7
2.3 Research scope and limitation
2.3.1 Scope
Façade systems are firstly classified by their structural use. Load bearing, such as
traditional masonry wall or insitu concrete walls, have series of requirement that differ
from the non-load bearing wall range of systems that have appeared since the separation
between primary structure and building enclosure.
Figure 2 lists most common façade systems with their typical components and materials
used by the current industry.
Figure 2: Façade system classification by use and components

The range of materials, functions and solution is a wide topic to be covered. Since the
scope of covering all these developments would be significantly vast; this research has
been decided to focus on the glazed unitized curtain wall. The reason is that glass has
been one of the most important construction materials for building envelopes in the last
century. The scope of this research is at curtain wall system level highlighted in red in
Figure 3 focus on unitized curtain wall. An assessment of its use, components and typical

8
materials, cells highlighted in yellow, has been made in this research, but it is limited to
the implications that each has on the system design.
Figure 3: Research scope

The scope of this research covers the following parameters:
1) Use: non-load bearing façade

2) System: Curtain wall with focus on unitized curtain wall. Research is based on
unitized but once the methodology is set it could be extended to stick and semi-
modular system. The main differences among them is the installation sequence
and movement accommodation.
3) Components: All panels, framing and joints have been assessed in relation to the
impact they have on requirements and limitations of the systems.
4) Materials: Limited to glass for panels, aluminium for framing, ethylene propylene
diene monomer (EPDM) for gaskets and silicone for wet sealant application.
2.3.2 Assumptions
The curtain wall characteristics assumed in this study is as follows:
1) Curtain wall for new build project only.

9
2) Opening systems and mechanism have not been included in this study.
3) All graphics and examples are based on unitized system although the
methodology could be applicable to stick curtain wall.
2.3.3 Exclusions and limitations
These facade types have been excluded on this study due to the following reasons:
Table 1: Exclusions and limitations

Excluded from study Limitations
Internal vertical enclosures Some of the requirements covered (i.e. weather resistance) might not be
relevant.
Slope glazing Glazing systems with a slope of less than 75° from the horizontal.
Slope glazing may slope inwards or outwards.
Additional detailed consideration, snow loads, robustness, and other criteria
would be required.
Patent glazing. A self-draining and ventilated system if dry glazing which does not rely
necessarily for its water tightness upon external glazing seals. Patent glazing
does not normally form an airtight building envelope.
It is unlikely to comply with some of the performance criteria and testing
clauses, although others, and some of the materials requirements may be
relevant.
Structural glass assemblies. A method of construction in which glass components transfer loads other
than those acting direly on them. Structural glass application includes:
Suspended glass assemblies.
Fin supported walls.
Additional detailed consideration relating to the structural criteria and
specification of the glazing would be required.
Precast concrete cladding Additional information on materials required, although many of the
performance criteria might be relevant
Rainscreen overcladding Some of the performance requirements might not be relevant.
Doors used for regular Doors are unlikely to comply with some of the performance criteria,
pedestrian access although others, and some of the materials requirements may be relevant.
Roof An element for which the mean slope of the envelope is within 75° of the
horizontal.

10
2.4 Methodology
2.4.1 Research phases
The following measurable tasks have been set up and divided in 3 phases:
1. Determination of variables
a. Establish project brief factors that have an impact on the curtain wall
system performance.
b. Identify curtain wall requirements based on recognized standards for the
system.
c. Assess the design parameters of a unitized curtain wall system.
d. Search for fabrication, transportation and maintenance current limitations
and constraints.
2. Development of approach
a. Establish dependency relationships between the project brief factors, the
requirements, industry limitation and the design parameters.
b. Develop a systematic approach for the design of unitized curtain wall.
c. Verify that design variables can be determined using the systematic
approach.
3. Dissemination of results
a. Apply the proposed approach to a case study.
b. Analyse and interpret the results of the systematic approach.
c. Dissemination of results.
2.4.2 Work plan
To achieve the objectives, the research has involved a series of cross-disciplinary and
multi-scale investigations. These investigations have been focused on a state-of-art
review of the methodology to design curtain wall systems. It involves the study of
numerous variables that have a direct and indirect effect on the final design and how those
variables are interlinked.

11
Independent Intervening Dependent
variables variables variables
Figure 4: Methodoloy based on variable dependency determination

The meaning of the variables shown in Figure 4 have been assumed as:
 Independent variable is a variable that changes or controls and is assumed to have

a direct or indirect effect on the dependent variable.
 Intervening variable is a variable or condition used to explain cause and effect
links between other variables.
 Dependent variable is a variable whose value depends on that of another.
This thesis focuses on the investigation of each variables that affect curtain wall design
and its dependencies. It contains:
 State of the art

Prior art related to the main objectives of the research. It comprises a study of the
curtain wall development, description of main components, overview of the
regulations and the market and the factors that are considered in façade design.
 Determination of variables
The state of art defines the independent, intervenient, dependant and design
variables for each set.
 Project requirements
Focus on main requirements established for curtain wall compliance. It follows
the content structure derived from the state-of-the-art assessment of industry
guidelines and standards. The research reviews the factors that require to be
considered and how each influences the requirements. It also identifies how each
requirement affects the design parameters.
Project brief Project Design

factors requirements Parameters
[Independent [Intervening [Dependent
variables] variables] variables]
Figure 5: Methodoloy to set requirements and design parameters

12
 Industry limitations
An overview of the current industry and set the constrains in the supply chain
stages. It also concludes how those constrains affect the design parameters.
Design Current Construction

Parameters constraints phases
[Dependent [Intervening [Independent
Figure 6: Methodoloy to set limitations and design parameters
 Development of systematic approach

With the relationships identified a combined systematic approach is established
for the entire curtain wall design process highlighting how the requirements and
limitations affect the design parameters of each of its components. It identifies
each design variables and all intervenient and independent variables that affect it.
 Case study application
The systematic approach developed is applied in a particular unitized curtain wall
to demonstrate all the parameters that require to be addressed during design.
 Analysis and interpretation of results
Analysis of the relationships set in the systematic approach to extract findings and
identify patterns. It interpretates the relationships with the aim to identify
recommendations and future work to enhance the curtain wall design.
 Conclusion and recommendations
Conclusion obtained from the systematic approach development, evaluate the
achievement of the hypothesis, and set recommendations for future work and
improvement of the curtain wall design.

13
STATE OF THE ART
Prior art related to the main objectives of the research: project brief factors, curtain wall
requirements, industry phases and current constraints, are reviewed. Fundamental
research carried out on materials and components to determine current deficiencies in the
curtain design and industry.

14
3.1 Introduction
The hypothesis of this research is focused on the design of unitized curtain wall based on
the investigation of the specific project requirements and current industry limitations. As
such the state of art has been organized as follows:
- Analysis unitized curtain wall, assessing systems and components.

- Review of the curtain wall requirements, including regulation, policies and
guidelines.
- Assessment of the project brief factors that affect the curtain wall design.
- Overview of the curtain wall industry
- Outline of current constraints.

15
3.2 Curtain wall system and components
3.2.1 Overview
Curtain wall systems fall under the non-load bearing façade systems. As per Figure 7,
there are three main types of curtain wall system, stick, unitized and semi-modular. It is
worth to mention that semi-modular is hybrid between the stick and unitized.
USE
Non-load bearing
Curtain wall system Opening
SYSTEMS
system
Stick Unitized Semi- Windows Doors

system system modular
COMPONENTS
Panel Framing Joints
MATERIALS
Glass Aluminium EPDM
Aluminium Steel Silicone
Ceramic Timber Other sealants
Stone PVC
GRP
Figure 7: Components and materials of curtain wall systems
The main components of a curtain wall are the framing which hold the system in place,
the panels which fill the space to form the enclosure and the joints between components.
A wide range of materials could be found in a curtain wall system. However, this research
scope is limited to how the materials affect the selected variables.

16
Unlike many other wall assemblies metal curtain walls are assembled from a relatively
short list of components as per Figure 8.
Panel
Joints
Framing
Figure 8: Unitized curtain wall components
The three main components in a unitized curtain wall system are framing, panel and
joints. These components are assembled to very close tolerance into a highly engineered
product.
The most common materials in a unitized system are aluminium and glass, along with
secondary materials such as sealants, rubbers and insulation products.

17
3.2.2 Curtain wall systems
Curtain walls are non-load bearing façade systems that hang from the structure of a
building. They comprise a supporting grid, generally made of metal profiles, and infill
panels, made of glass or other cladding materials. They have been widely used from the
early 1970s due to their lightweight nature, simplification of temporary construction and
strong performance. They are classified into two main types: stick and unitised.
In stick systems, the components are assembled onsite, with individual mullions and rails
forming a supporting grid for curtain wall panels as indicated in Figure 9. The joints
between adjacent units are typically sealed during construction of the curtain wall by on-
site application of wet sealants to seal the gap between units. This requires external access
to the curtain wall and building during construction which reduces the speed of
installation. Further, wet sealants may not provide a consistently high-quality seal as their
application relies upon the standard of on-site work and so may vary.
Gasket
Aluminium frame
(a)
Insulated glass unit

Unit
Aluminium cap
(c)
(b)
Figure 9: Stick curtain wall (a) aluminium supporting grid fixed to the building slab (b) infill panels fixed to the
supporting grid on site (c) schematic cross-section of glass panels fixed to aluminium frame (Cordero, 2015)

18
Unitised curtain walls consist of cladding units where panel and frame are pre-assembled
in factory and then easily transported and fitted to the building as indicted in Figure 10.
The units normally span from floor to floor hanging from pre-fixed brackets along the
edge of the upper floor slab and being horizontally restraint by the units below. The joints
need to accommodate in-plane differential movement between units while providing
weather tightness.
(a) (b)
Gasket
Pressure-equalised cavity
Thermal break
Aluminium frame
Insulated glass unit
(c) Aluminium cap

(d)
Figure 10: Unitised curtain wall (a) factory preassembly of glass panel and frame (b) preassembled units
delivered on site (c) installation of preassembled unit (d) schematic cross-section of connection between two
preassembled units (Cordero, 2015)
This is resolved by introducing open grooves and overlapping gaskets along the perimeter
of the units that form pressure equalised and drained cavities between units once installed.
On-site application of wet sealants to seal the gap between units is thereby avoided. As a
result, external access is not required, higher quality control and speed of installation are
achieved and larger in-plane differential movement between units can be accommodated.
For these reasons, unitised curtain walls are the façade system of choice for high rise
buildings.

19
A semi-modular system would comprise framing similar to the stick curtain which are
installed first on site and glazing panels which already come to site assembled in a
framing. A semi-modular system would commonly use gaskets at joints as unitized
system, but it would also rely on external access means like stick curtain wall.
The construction sequence varies greatly in between the systems. The main difference is
that stick requires external access (e.g scaffolding) while the unitized system can be
assembled from the slab edge. The second is frequently used in high rise with high
repetition of panels and challenging means of access. Unitized curtain walling is often
used, for example, in very tall or large buildings, where the slow speed of constructing
traditional facades would make the project unsustainable, or where scaffolding cannot be
used.
The systematic approach developed on this research is based on unitized curtain wall.

20
3.2.3 Panels
The panels occupy most of the area and will be infill of the framing. The panels will form
the enclosure of the cladding.
It could be argued that brackets should be considered an essential component of a curtain

wall system. The bracket is the bridge between the curtain wall system and the primary
structure. For the purpose of this study, it has been decided to exclude the bracket as it has
been considered additional component as shown in Figure 11.
Bracket
Slab bracket fixed to

floor slab
Mullion
Mullion
Mullion bracket
hooked on slab
bracket
Figure 11: Typical bracket for unitized curtain wall pane (left) and position relative to floor slab (right)
3.2.3.1 Glass panels
The glass formed by the float process, described in 0, is known as annealed glass. It is
main characteristic is that annealed glass breaks into large pieces as per Figure 12. This
provides a relatively good post-fracture behaviour because the large broken pieces can
remain in place; transmitting the loads via the residual strength and alternative load paths
that still exist across the pane.
Annealed glass is usually processed by heat treatment to form heat strengthened in

accordance with European Norm 1863-1 by Commission for European Normalization
(CEN, 2011) or toughened glass as per EN 12150-1 (CEN, 2000). The heat treatment
considerably increases the strength of glass and causes the glass to break into smaller
fragments as shown in Figure 12.

21
There are some glass standards that assign a value to the characteristic bending strength
of glass (EN 572-1 (CEN, 2012); EN 13474 (CEN, 1999) and EN 16612 (CEN, 2019)).
However, it is known that the strength of glass is very complex to determine and its value
depends on several factors. Nonetheless as heat treated glass is considered stronger than
annealed glass, the glass used in this research is heat strengthened and toughened.
Increasing tensile bending stress
Increasing post-breakage performance
45 MPa 70 MPa 120 MPa
Figure 12: Fracture pattern of; annealed (left), heat strengthened (middle) and toughened (right)
glass and values of characteristic bending strength according to EN 572-1 (CEN, 2012); EN 13474
(CEN, 1999) and EN 16612 (CEN, 2019), image adapted (Matthias Haldimann, 2008)
When a safety breakage, containment and an increase post-breakage performance is

required, two or more panes of either annealed or heat treated glass can be bonded
together by a transparent plasticized interlayer material to form laminated glass in
accordance with EN 12543-1 (CEN, 2011). The most used interlayer is polyvinyl butyral
(PVB). Another type of interlayer which has a higher stiffness and resistance to tear than
PVB is SentryGlas® also known as ionoplast interlayer (Bennison & Stelzer, 2009).

22
3.2.3.2 Glass retention
Vigener lists the following glazing retention methods and their impact on performance
(Vigener, 2016):
 Pressure plate glazing: In this system the glass and infill panels are installed from
the exterior, typically against dry gaskets. The outer layer of gaskets is installed,
and the gaskets are compressed against the glass by the torque applied to fasteners
securing a continuous pressure plate. The plate is later typically covered with a
snap-on mullion cover. This system provides reasonable performance but is
susceptible to leaks at corners or joints in dry gaskets. For improved performance
four-sided gaskets can be fabricated at additional cost or wet sealants can be
installed to provide a concealed interior toe bead or exposed interior cap beads.
Pressure plate glazing allows the easiest method to seal an air barrier from
adjacent construction into the air barrier of curtain wall system.
 Interior dry glazing: In this system the glass and infill panels are installed from the
interior of the building, eliminating the need for substantial scaffolding and saving
money. The frame is fixed, and exterior dry gaskets are installed. Typically, only
the top interior mullion has a removable stop. The glass unit is slid into a deep
glazing pocket on one jamb far enough to allow clearing the opposite jamb and is
then slid back into the opposite glazing pocket and then dropped into the sill
glazing pocket. The removable interior stop is installed and finally an interior
wedge gasket is forced in. Sometimes this method is called "jiggle" or "wiggle"
glazing because of the manipulation necessary to get the glass into place.
Performance is slightly reduced because dry metal to metal joints occur at the
ends of the removable stop at a point that should properly be air and watertight.
Wet sealant heel beads will improve performance and some systems include an
extra gasket to form an air barrier seal. Installation of spandrel panels may need to
be installed from the exterior.
 Structural silicone glazing (SSG): In this system the glass or infill unit is adhered
to the frame with a bead of silicone. Outer silicone weather seals supplement the
structural seal. Unitized systems are frequently structural silicone glazed,
especially if four-side SSG is desired. Two-sided SSG, with pressure plate glazing
or wiggle glazing on the other two sides is acceptable to be field installed.
23
 Butt-glazing: SSG is frequently mistakenly referred to as butt-glazing. True butt-
glazing has no mullion or other back-up member behind the joint and relies solely
on a sealant, typically silicone, between the glass units to provide a perfect barrier
seal.
3.2.3.3 Spandrel panel
Spandrel panels are the area of a curtain wall o located between vision areas of windows,
which conceal structural columns, floor slabs and shear walls. The external infill panel
can be made of glass or other material, such as aluminium or stone.
Insulation
Backing panel
Floor slab
Spandrel panel
Glass panel
Framing
Figure 13: Spandrel panel location at interface with floor slab
In addition to the external infill panel, spandrel panel usually comprises a backing panel
with insulation as shown in Figure 13.

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3.2.4 Framing
3.2.4.1 Profiles
A wide range of cross sections or profiles from framings are usually available from
different manufacturers. Each manufacturer’s profile varies somewhat and incorporates
different features, although common section widths and depths are found with most
suppliers of standard systems (CMHC, 2004).
As with section profiles, each manufacturer produces its own slightly unique profile of
pressure plate. They are typically produced in the same alloys as the main framing
members and are not usually finished. All serve the same basic function of clamping the
glass or panel into the framing grid. Pressure plate profiles are customized to match the
manufacturer’s particular sealing system.
Unitized systems employ a typical pressure plate profile for intermediate rail members;
however, depending on the interlock system, two-part pressure plates may be used at
interlocking vertical and horizontal frame members.
Figure 14: Interlock system two-part pressure plate (CMCH, 2004)
The design of these systems can drain as indicated in Figure 14. Vertically, pressure plates
are typically installed in mullion length segments. Horizontally, pressure plates for the
rails are fit between the mullion pressure plates with an expansion gap at each end.

25
3.2.4.2 Drainage openings
Drainage openings must be sized to allow clear drainage and adequate venting of the
glazing cavity. The recommended opening shape is an elongated horizontal slot as shown
in Figure 15.
Figure 15: Ventilation and drainage opening ( (CMHC, 2004))
3.2.4.3 Framing materials
Aluminium extrusion is the primary framing material for glass and metal curtain wall
systems. The principal aluminium alloys and tempers (T) used in curtain wall applications
are Table 2.
Table 2: Aluminium alloy strenghts (CEN, 2013)

Alloy-Temper Ultimate Strength (MPa) Yield Strength (MPa)
6063 – T5 150 110
6063 – T6 205 170
6061 – T6 260 240
The extrudability of alloy 6063 allows the production of intricate profiles and thin walled
hollow shapes. Alloy 6063 can be anodized and painted and has corrosion resistance to
normal atmospheres. T5 and T6 tempers are most common used. T5 is more common for
closed shapes and T6 is more common for open shapes.
Alloy 6061 is a medium strength structural alloy. It is used in sheet, plate and extruded
form in applications requiring greater strength than 6063. Alloy 6061 section profiles are
less intricate than 6063 profiles due to greater difficulty in extruding.
For most common spans, the standard aluminium extrusions have adequate strength. For
long span applications, it is more efficient to utilize steel as the framing material with an
extruded aluminium glazing adapter or to use steel as reinforcing hidden within an

26
aluminium section. Other materials used for framing can be glass, timber or pultruded
glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP).
Table 3: Typical properties of common façade frame materials (Cordero, 2015)

Glass Steel Aluminium Timber GFRP
Material
properties (Float) (Mild) (Pure) (Oak) (Pultruded)
1 43 250 0.16 0.3-0.4
Thermal
(Transversal to the (Transversal to the
conductivity
direction of the fibres) direction of the
(W/mK)
fibres)
Linear thermal 8 12 24 3 8-14
expansion (In the direction of the (In the direction of
(10-6 /K) fibres) the fibres)
70000 205000 69000 11000 24000 (viscoelastic)
Modulus of
Elasticity (In the direction of the (In the direction of
(MPa) fibres) the fibres)
46.6 350 160 - 240

Typical Limiting (Allowable (bending) (bending) (bending)
stresses (MPa) surface stress of
HS glass)
Visual aspect

27
3.2.5 Joints
Joints would mainly be formed by gaskets which are prefabricated profiles or by a seal
that would be applied on site. Unitized curtain wall systems mostly rely on gaskets.
The role of the gaskets is to cushion the glass edge to prevent metal contact that may lead
to breakage and to seal at the glass perimeter to prevent water penetration and air leakage.
Gaskets rely on their elasticity, hardness, density and composition to maintain a seal by
compression.
Gaskets are available in several different rubber materials. The most common materials
used in curtain walls are neoprene, EPDM and silicone. Silicone-compatible and
thermoplastic rubbers are also used.
The use of sealant on unitized curtain wall has been minimized and it is usually applied
between the glazed units and framing, but it is less common between the framing to
framing joints. Silicone sealants are the most common choice for exposed or moving
joints.
3.2.6 Common curtain wall components issues
Common curtain wall components issues include the following (Vigener, 2016):
 Glazing failures. Glazing problems specific to curtain wall construction include

condensation, material degradation and IGU issues/laminated glass issues.
 Failure of exposed gaskets and sealants from curtain wall movements or
environmental degradation. Repairs require exterior access.
 Failure of internal gaskets and sealants from curtain wall movements (thermal,
structural), prolonged exposure to water (good drainage features reduce this risk),
heat, sun or Ultraviolet (UV) degradation. Repairs, if feasible, require significant
disassembly of curtain wall.
 Aluminium frames are inherently corrosion resistant in many environments if
anodized and properly sealed or painted with baked-on fluoropolymer paint.
Aluminium frames are subject to deterioration of the coating and corrosion of
aluminium in severe (industrial, coastal) environments and galvanic corrosion
from contact with dissimilar metals.

28
3.3 Curtain wall requirements
3.3.1 Regulations and policies
Government regulatory and procurement policies have a strong influence on demand for
construction and play an important part in shaping the direction of technological change.
Regulations on health and safety, land use and rent, planning permits, building standards,
energy use and emissions are of high importance nowadays. However, excessive
regulations or unnecessarily complicated procedures might contribute to high price levels
or restrict customer choice. They might also be used to discriminate against foreign
contractors or serve as a barrier to international trade in construction materials and
services.
EN 13830 (CEN, 2015) is the product standard listing the requirement needed to achieve
the Conformitè Europëenne (CE) mark.
3.3.2 Standards and guidelines
The current standards and best practices guidelines for curtain walling in Europe, United
Kingdom (UK), United States of America (USA) and Canada as listed in Table 4. It is to
be noted that looking at thee publishing dates, initial edition of today’s standards and
guidelines appears in the 1980s and 1990s. Most of them and new other standards appears
in the beginning of 2000s with only two of the standards have being updated recently.
This indicates that from the wide use of aluminium curtain wall in the 1970, there was a
significant push to standardize the product in the subsequent 30 years, but the industry
development has slowed down with little improvement and innovations over the last 20
years.

29
Table 4: Published curtain walling standards and best practice guidelines with edition dates
Standard & Guidelines
1985-1989
1990-1994
1995-1999
2000-2004
2005-2009
2010-2009
2015-2019
Metal Curtain Wall Manual MCWM-1-89 1989 2002
AAMA (AAMA, 1989) Reprinted
USA CWM curtain wall manual (AAMA, 2019
2019)
Standard for Curtain Walling (CWCT, 1993
Standard for curtain walling, 1993)
Guide to good practice for facades 1993
(CWCT, Guide to good practice for
facades, 1993)
CWCT
Test methods for curtain walling (CWCT, 1993
UK Test methods for curtain walling , 1993)
Standard for systemised building 2005
envelopes (CWCT, 2005)
Standard test methods (CWCT, Standard 2005
test methods, 2005)
EN 13830 Curtain walling - Product 2003 2015
EN
standard Reedition
Europe
CE marking (CEN, 2015)
CMHC Glass and Metal Curtain wall. Est practice 2004
Canada guide building technology (CMHC, 2004)
The four main guidelines by American Architectural Manufacturers Association

(AAMA), Canada Mortgage and Housing Council (CMHC), Centre of Window and
Cladding Technology (CWCT) and CEN have been studied and the standard requirements
have been listed in Table 5. Highlighted in grey are those requirements that have been
considered on this research as part of the curtain wall system itself. The cells do not
include are related to additional components, such as opening, or testings.

30
Table 5: Overview of the table of contents of published standards and guideliness
Institution AAMA CMHC Canada CWCT CEN
Reference MCWM-1-89 Glass and Metal Standard for EN 13830 Curtain
Document Metal Curtain Wall Curtain wall. Est systemised building walling - Product
Manual practice guide building envelopes standard
technology CE marking
Chapter 10.7
Performance and Testing Chapter 4 Performance Chapter 4 Product
requirements (CMHC, 2004) (CWCT, 2005) characteristics
(AAMA, 1989) (CEN, 2015)
Sections Provision for Thermal 4.1 Function of Wall Part 1. Scope, 4.1 Reaction to Fire
Movement terminology, testing
and classification.
Structural Properties 4.2 Structural Integrity Part 2. Loads, fixings 4.2 Fire resistance
and movement
Air Leakage 4.3 Control of Water Part 3. Air, water and 4.3 Fire propagation
Penetration wind resistenance
Water Penetration 4.4 Control of Air Part 4. Operable 4.4 Watertightness
Leakage components
Thermal Performance 4.5 Control of Water Part 5. Thermal, 4.5 Resistance to its own
Vapour Flow mositure and acoustic dead load
performance
Light Transmission 4.6 Control of Heat Part 6. Fire 4.6 Wind load resistance
Flow performance
Sound Transmission 4.7 Condensation Part 7. Robustness, 4.7 Resistance to snow
Resistance durability, tolerances load
and worksmanship
Fire Requirements 4.8 Control of Sound Part 8. Testing 4.8 Impact resistance
Transmission
Field Test for Air 4.9 Control of Fire 4.9 Resistance to live
Leakage (optional) horizontal loads
Field Test for Water 4.10 Performance at 4.10 Seismic resistance
Leakage (optional) Interfaces
4.11 Thermal shock
4.12 Airborne sound
insulation
4.13 Flanking sound
transmission
4.14 Thermal
transmittance
4.15Air permeability
4.16 Water vapour per.

4.17 Radiation
4.18 Equipotential
bonding
4.19 Durability

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3.3.3 Structural loading
The structural design of curtain walls is greatly influenced by the need to limit flexibility
and accommodate movement.
The structural design of curtain wall involves the same principles as any other wall design
although there are certain special and unique aspects to curtain wall design. For example,
most conventional structural designers would not rely on brittle (glass) or elastic
(sealants) materials as load carrying elements. In the structural design of curtain walls the
requirements of stiffness that usually govern design rather than strength. In conjunction
with structural design for stiffness and strength, adequate provision for movement also
forms an important part of structural integrity.
Main structural components of a curtain wall are as follows:
 Mullions: Vertical framing spanning between floors which is similar to both

unitised and stick systems. Mullion design is driven by deflection under wind load
and strength. It also needs to account for lateral torsional buckling and carries
vertical loads in tension. Although it might not be critical, it might sustain and
transfer connection loads when the mullion is only connected to one bracket.
 Transoms: Horizontal framing carrying glass weight and spandrel panel. Torsional
stresses and deflections need to be considered including at connections. Wind
deflections is less critical for transom design.
 Panel: Glass units used as infill panel within the framing. Stresses and deflections
are considered.
The inter-frame connections are usually via screw flutes. The shear strength depends
mainly on direction of load.
Given their vertical orientation, curtain walls do not normally collect sufficient snow, ice
or sand for these factors to be considered a load case. It is to be noted that this type of
loading is heavily dependent on the location. Any protruding element from the wall such
as deep caps, louvers, canopies, shades, parapets, signage or other feature can collect
snow, ice or sand generating specific concentrated loads on the wall. However, since
these protruding components are not considered design variable in this study, the snow,
ice or sand loads have not been included.

32
3.3.4 Movement accommodation
Non-loadbearing building envelopes must be isolated from movement of the supporting

structure so that they do not resist structural movement, as well as moisture and thermal
expansion, which may induce loads in them for which they have not been designed.
Curtain wall systems move more frequently and faster than most traditional wall
assemblies. This is due to the lightweight and relatively flexible nature of glass and metal
and the use of highly thermally conductive materials leading to an active assembly.
Movements generally imposed on the wall system are short and long-term displacements
of the primary structure due to creep, wind and seismic forces. There are also movements
within the wall assembly due to solar loading leading to thermal expansion and
contraction of the materials throughout the year. It is important to note is that the way
how primary structure movement is accommodated in curtain wall differs between stick
and unitized systems. Inadequate provision for movement results in increased material
stress and possibly failure, it also results in noise, fatigue failure, and weather seal failure.
The following table summarizes potential movements and consequences.
Table 6: Movement generator (CMHC, 2004)

Cause Movement Consequence
Structure Slab deflection Closing of mullion stack joint, loading of
anchors
Column shortening Closing of mullion stack joint, loading of
anchors
Wind Building sway or lateral drift Racking of framed opening, release of
edge seals
Flex of mullion Contact with suspended ceilings, noise
Flex of metal backpans Tension on smokeseals, noise on snap-
through
Seismic Building sway or Lateral drift Racking of framed opening, release of
infill edges, binding on infill corners
Solar loading Expansion of panels Bowing of panel, creep from pockets,
noise
Expansion of caps Bowing of caps, disengagement
Expansion of mullions Movement at backpan seals
The accommodation of the reverse movement has an impact on the design of the curtain
wall. The reverse movements are generated by:
 Live and dead loads: slab deflection. Opening and closing of the stack transom
joints.

33
 Solar & heat: thermal expansion. Opening and closing of the split mullions and
transoms.
 Seismic and wind sway. Building drift or horizontal racking in a unitized system
may be accommodated at joints.
3.3.5 Weathering protection
The building sector is considered as the biggest single contributor to world energy
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, a good understanding of the
nature and structure of energy use in buildings is crucial for establishing the adequate
future energy and climate change policies (Allouhi & al., 2015).
Most of the local or national regulations have a chapter about energy in buildings with the
aim to reduce the consumption. It can be performance parameters limiting solar gains or
air leakage through the envelope or it can a reference to a notional building that should be
considered as a benchmark.
Curtain walls have the primary purpose of keeping air and water out of the building,
essentially acting as both a buffer and an insulator.
Air leakage is the uncontrolled flow of air through gaps and cracks in the fabric of a
building (sometimes referred to as infiltration or draughts). Air leakage is not to be
confused with ventilation, which is the controlled flow of air into and out of the building
through purpose-built ventilators that is required for the comfort and safety of the
occupants.
High air leakage rate leads to unnecessary heat loss and discomfort to the occupants from
cold draughts. The increasing need for higher energy efficiency in buildings and the need
in future to demonstrate compliance with more stringent regulations targets means that
airtightness has become a major performance issue. The industry aim should be to ‘Build
tight and ventilate right’. Taking this approach means that buildings should not be
excessively airtight, however it is essential to ensure appropriate ventilation rates are
achieve through purpose built ventilation openings as per Air Tightness Testing and
Measurement Association (ATTMA, 2010).

34
Table 7: Best and normal practice standards depending on building use (ATTMA, 2010)
Type Air permeability m3/ hr/m2 at 50 Pa
Best practice Normal
Offices: Natural ventilated 3.0 7.0
Office: Mixed mode 2.5 5.0
Office: Air conditioned/low energy 2.0 5.0
Factories/warehouses 2.0 6.0
Superstores 1.0 5.0
Schools 3.0 9.0
Hospitals 5.0 9.0
Museums and archival stores 1.0 1.5
Cold stores 0.2 0.35
PassivHaus Standard - <1.0
The improvements made in the thermal performance of building materials have raised the
importance of designing and constructing less leaky building envelopes. Fabric heat
losses have been driven down over many years in most of the regulations and there is
limited return in reducing them down significantly further. Table 7lists best and normal
practice standards depending on the building use.
Gaps and cracks in the building fabric are often difficult to detect simply by visual
inspection. Air leakage paths through the building fabric can be tortuous; gaps are often
obscured by internal building finishes or external cladding. The only satisfactory way to
show that the building fabric is reasonably airtight is to measure its leakiness by
physically testing the construction.
Preventing water entering the building is a primary consideration when specifying a

curtain wall. If installed correctly, curtain walling should not leak, although careful design
and consideration must be given to junctions between standardised curtain walling
systems and non-standard elements such as floor slabs, roof slabs, internal or structural
walls or columns, windows and doors.
To verify water penetration resistance and air tightness of a system a representative

sample of curtain shall be tested prior to installation. Testing is intended to demonstrate
that the design of the curtain wall can comply with the specified performance criteria.
These specimens are usually subjected to applied load movements to verify the system
can still provide the intended performance once movement has been reversed.

35
It is to be noted that testing does not eliminate unsuitable designs or determinate
longevity, nor can it truly simulate the weather. Passing any of the specified tests is a
good indicator, but not a guarantee, that the curtain wall will perform satisfactorily.
3.3.5.1 Pressure equalization
The principle of pressure-equalisation is to reduce the pressure difference across a wall

and any consequent air flows by creating a pressure on the rear of the joint or opening
that matches, as closely as possible, to the pressure on the outer face. The fundamental
principles of pressure equalisation:
 Protected openings which allow air ingress to a compartmentalised central cavity,

which facilitates pressure equalisation.
 The inner leaf is designed to be air tight.
 The principle of the system is that the air pressure in the cavity changes relatively
with the external wind pressure, thus eliminating the pressure differential across
the external seal which would otherwise tend to draw moisture into the cavity.
The design concepts relied on to control air leakage are interrelated with those to control
water penetration. In the face sealed and rainscreen concepts an impermeable plane is
theoretically achievable to provide a barrier to air flow. Three different concepts have
been and are still used in metal and glass curtain wall system design to control water
penetration as listed in Table 8.
Table 8: Design concepts and features (CMHC, 2004)
Joint Type Fetures
Exterior Face Seal • Common through 1960s, since that time use has decreased.
• Used in four-sided SSG and in retrofit of older systems.
• Relies on integrity of exterior sealant and gaskets.
• Exterior plane is air barrier.
Internal Drainage • Used through 1960s and into 1970s
• Recognizes difficulty in maintaining perfect exterior seal, provides
backup
drainage to exterior
• Intentional openings in air barrier can lead to condensation.
Two-Stage • Most common contemporary design approaches
Weathertightening or • Outer screen, vented air space, air sealed interior barrier
Pressure Equalization • Used since mid-1970s, common on most major buildings since 1980.
• Pressure Equalization employs intentional delineation of specific cavities
with specific properties (size, stiffness, venting).

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In a face sealed design, it is the outer surface of the wall. In a rainscreen wall it is
typically the interior surface of the wall (excluding finishes). In the internal drainage
concept the most air-tight plane is typically the outer surface; however, there are obvious
intentional weepholes. In some designs these weeps are baffled or blocked with open cell
foam to reduce air flow. Aside from directly controlling the passage of air through the
wall, air leakage control also impacts smoke control, sound transmission, insect control
and potential ice build-up on the wall.
Figure 16: Sealant at joint comparison
In the past fully face sealed systems were used. Those systems relayed entirely on the
performance of sealants or gaskets to prevent water penetration. Further series of failure
the use of those systems have fallen due to their unreliability. Instead, most curtain
walling systems in use today make provision for some water ingress through one or more
condensation chambers connected to drainage channels and weep holes as indicated in
Figure 16.
It is important to mention that pressure equalisation design addresses only one component
of water penetration. It does not address other forces such as capillary, kinetic energy,
surface tension, and gravity. Good detail design must address these factors in addition to
the pressure equalisation concept.
3.3.6 Building physics
The facade is the building’s interface with its environment. Building physics parameters
such as heat, humidity, sound and light interact between the building indoors and the
external conditions. All these influences are controlled by the building envelope to ensure
the comfort of the user and the functional performance of the architecture remain.

37
Important is to consider that the external conditions are in constant change from day to
night and throughout the year. The indoors conditions usually are in a steadier process but
can also be subject to change. The building envelope shall maintain the perform despite
the weather changes throughout the year.
There are four main requirements that are fundamental in the design of curtain walling
with relation to the expected building physics performance. The requirements are paired.
The thermal transmittance and condensation are linked based in temperature differential
and heat flow. Solar gain and light transmission are related to the solar spectrum.
3.3.7 Acoustic barrier
The performance of a wall must be considered in terms of the external, internal and the
adjacent spaces. The aim is to provide a building envelope that can ensure the required
sound pressure levels within a room or other internal space. The noise level within a room
will depend on the amount of sound energy transmitted through the wall and the inter-
reflection of sound inside the room. he second parameter is related to the internal
properties of the space, such as finishes, and furniture and it does not depends on the
external envelope system type. Therefore, the second parameter does not affect the
curtain wall design.
The curtain wall design is focused on the first item, the amount of sound transmitted
through the wall, which is mainly assessed according to two components:
 Airborne or direct sound insulation.

 Flanking transmission.
Glazed curtain walls are often a weak link in the sound insulation of a façade, but glass is
a poor insulator. It occurs simply because the mass/unit area of glazing is often much
lower than of the surrounding wall.
3.3.8 Fire safety
Curtain wall systems can be fire rated, but generally they are used at building envelope
areas where fire resistance is not a requirement. However, curtain wall systems need
appropriate detailing to limit the spread of fire and provide compartmentation. The main
requirements for curtain wall systems are:

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 Provision of fire stopping between the external wall and compartment floors and
walls.
 Limitation of combustibility of materials used in the wall.
In some situations, there may also be a requirement to provide fire protection to brackets
supporting the wall.

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3.3.9 Durability requirements
Durability is the ability of a building and its parts to perform its required function over a
period of time and under the influence of agents as per British Standard Institute (BSi,
2015). Requirements for durability vary from project to project and from one asset to
another. Requirements can be related to intended use, to the financing of a project and to
scheduling/carrying out periods of maintenance, repair or replacement of a building or its
parts.
Service life is the period after installation during which a building or its parts meets or
exceed the performance requirements. Service life is the estimated life duration that a
building or parts of a building would be expected to have in a set of specific in-use
conditions, determined from the reference service life data after taking into account any
differences from the reference in-use conditions as International Organization for
Standardization (ISO, 2011).
The service life of curtain wall may be shorter than some adjacent wall claddings such as
stone or brick masonry. Therefore, the design of the curtain wall and perimeter
construction should permit curtain wall removal and replacement without takin out
adjacent wall components. The service life expectancy of curtain wall components should
match the service life expectancy of the system itself. Curtain wall system require durable
flashing materials, non-corroding attachment hardware and fasteners, and moisture
resistant materials.
Figure 17: Six building layers based on service life (Source: (Arup and Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2020)

40
Buildings are made of separate and interlinking layers with different service life (Brand,
1994). Figure 17 shows Brand’s model which includes six layers: Site, Structure, Skin,
Services, Space Plan and Stuff. Buildings in layers means elements with different service
life can be separated and removed, allowing longer-lasting elements to be kept in use
even if those with shorter service life require replacing.
A major disadvantage of curtain walls is the need for regular maintenance and the need to
replace certain components.
Glass retention needs to be designed to allow for replacement in the event of failure over
the service life the curtain wall. Even when the likelihood of breakage is low, the
retention system is designed to allow for replacement. Most common systems would be
by mechanical fixings, toggle into the spacing or structural silicone. Most of the curtain
walls are designed to be re-glazed from the outside as it is considered less disturbance for
the users when building is in operation. Structural silicone might not be recommended to
be applied on site, as bonding might require a controlled environment to ensure optimum
temperature and relative humidity. Systems based on structural silicone bonds can be
designed to allow for carrier frames to be added in the event of glass failure. The carrier
frame would be bonded to the Insulating Glass Unit (IGU) in the factory and will
mechanically fix to the framing.

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3.4 Project brief factors
3.4.1 Setting the project brief
The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) published in 2018 a briefing template
and tracker to support the critical conversation between client and architect that starts
from first point of contact and runs through the initial design stages. It covers several
topics to set up client ambitions, objectives and needs. The aim of the project brief is to
inform the set of requirements that the project would need to achieve as described in
Table 9.
Table 9: Project briefing template (RIBA, 2018)

Objectives Considerations
Client Needs This should include financial, cost and program targets.
Considerations may also include the core goals of the client (organization),
productivity, operational effectiveness or quality of life.
User Experience How will the user experience the building or space? Considerations may
include usability, accessibility and inclusion, safety, comfort and wellbeing,
look and feel, and opportunity for interaction.
Placemaking How will the building or space relate to its surroundings? Considerations
may include the scale and density of its context, surrounding uses,
preferences for public accessibility or privacy, and visual amenity.
Culture and Community What contributions will the project make to the culture of a place and the
lives of people affected by it? Considerations may include the need for local
infrastructure and amenities, the opportunity for citizens to inform and
influence project outcomes, or impact on existing communities and users.
Construction Impact What strategies will help minimize the impact of construction?
Considerations may include, efficient construction methods, embodied
carbon, opportunities for reuse of existing buildings or materials; air, water
or soil pollution and local water drainage and retention during construction.
Considerations may also include human and social impacts, including health
and safety on site, social responsibility, prevention of worker exploitation
and modern slavery.
Energy Performance What will be the energy performance of the building or space in use?
Considerations may include building design and orientation, user behaviour,
available energy sources and environmental regulation.
Operation and Maintenance What will be the key strategies for operating and maintaining the building or
space over its lifetime? Considerations include the total budget for whole life
maintenance costs, construction quality and potential trade-offs between
investment and design and construction stage and costs incurred during the
project life time.
Flexibility and Adaptability What future changes may the building or space need to accommodate?
Considerations may include projected future user needs, business growth,
technological developments, climate change, economic and social trends,
regulatory environment and changing aesthetic preferences. Lifecycle
considerations include end of life and the potential for reuse or recycling of
building materials and components.
Budget To calculate the estimated construction budget available, please refer to the
separate Excel template provided.
Planning Considerations Any site conditions that might impact on planning application and use, such
as existing trees, biodiversity, archaeological finds, or contamination.

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The strategic brief is described as the ‘foundation stone’ of a specific project and the
development of the Functional Brief (Blyth & Worthington, 2010). It is part of the
preparatory phase of developing and testing the feasibility of a project or programme. It
articulates the aspirational goals of a client’s strategy business case for a project into a
deliverable development strategy.
The strategic brief describes project scope and site constraints; outline breakdown of
accommodation requirements, primary adjacencies and user needs; project governance
and outline of probable implementation route. Blyth and Worthington state that the
strategic brief will inform the function brief which aims to express in building terms what
the organisation wishes to achieve, making specific the project needs and goals set out in
the strategic brief. Producing the functional brief is part of an iterative design process.
The output is both drawings and text-based document articulating the requirements that
the completed building must meet.
The Designing Building Limited organization (Designing Building Ltd, 2019) provides
recommendations for initial meetings with clients to establish the project objectives and
needs. In accordance with their recommendation the strategic brief may include contents
listed in Table 10.
Table 10: Content of a strategic brief (Designing Building Ltd, 2019)

Strategic brief contents
The client's mission, objectives and vision.
Internal environmental conditions.
Spaces that require separation.
Departmental structure.
The overall context for the project.
The triggers for change and requirements for future proofing.
Other stakeholders needs.
The qualities that will be required from the project, and their relative priority, including any design
quality indicators.
Any comparable facilities that set the standard.
Functional requirements.
Overall sizes, adjacencies of spaces, ceiling heights and other known spatial requirements.
Information about the site if it has been selected, or potential sites that may need to be assessed.
Information about existing facilities.
Internal environmental conditions.
Spaces that require separation.
Departmental structure.
Technical requirements described in sufficient detail to allow feasibility studies to be carried out.
Assumptions about the procurement strategy.

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Project procedures, including any existing client procedures, frequency of progress reports, and so on.
Targets for whole-life costs showing; initial costs, periodic costs, annual costs, income and disposal value.
Durability, lifespan and maintenance requirements.
Flexibility and future uses.
Physical and operational constraints, such as site access issues.
Planning constraints (relevant authority, planning conditions or obligations relating to the site).
Health and safety issues.
Environmental standards, including requirement for formal assessment of the project, such as BREEAM or
LEED.
Project programme, key milestones and any phasing requirements.
The project budget.
Inclusions and exclusions.
Previous studies.
Access for people with disabilities.
Transport and parking strategy.
Security policy.
Conditions imposed by funding bodies.
Targets for post-occupancy evaluation.
Budget for building design and construction projects. A budget is a statement of the
amount of money that is available to spend over a period of time, or on a specific project,
such as a building. It may include an outline plan for how that money will be spent, and a
breakdown of the items it will be spent on.
A budget usually consists of a financial and quantitative statement, prepared during the
briefing period to help determining what is affordable. Budgets should be set as early as
possible and should be based on evidence and be realistic.

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3.4.2 Project considerations affecting facades design
Many of the considerations set in the project or strategic brief have an influence on the
design and selection of a curtain wall system (CMHC, 2004) as indicated in Figure 18.
These factors range from whim to practical reality, from budget constraints to Code
compliance.
Figure 18: Factors that affects design and selection of curtain wall choice (CMHC, 2004)
All these factors inform the requirements that need to be set to design a curtain wall
system. This research aims to study how each of these factors affect the requirements and
how the requirements impact the system parameters.

45
3.5 Overview of curtain wall industry
3.5.1 Supply chain
The current supply chain of a curtain wall requires several industry players with a range
of roles to be involved. A particular company might perform one or more roles, but it is
important to understand the role of each in the entire picture as per Figure 19:
 Manufacturer: Usually designs and manufactures the system. It comprises, the

framing profiles, the operating hardware, the cleats, the brackets, the gaskets and
seals. A system comprises standard length profiles and components
 Fabricator: Usually cuts and machined the profiles at the factory or at site. Also
produces the construction drawings for use at site. For an unitized curtain wall
system the fabricator will assemble the unit panel. The components of a unitised
curtain wall are assembled in the factory by the façade contractor. The IGU is one
of these components which is a manufactured product by itself and is usually
mounted in separate premises by a glass processor.
 Installer: Usually includes the site operation to install the curtain wall. Including
bracket and fixings on the primary structure and panel units for unitized curtain
wall. The installer might add additional joint gaskets at site.
Figure 19: Curtain wall typical supply chain (Source: University of Bath)

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The components of a unitised curtain wall are assembled in the factory commonly by the
façade contractor. The IGU is one of these components which is a manufactured product
by itself and is usually mounted in separate premises by a glass processor as can be seen
in Figure 20.
Figure 20: Component assembly in curtain walls (Cordero, 2015)
3.5.2 Current market and companies
Curtain wall industrial structure varies from country to country. Many companies use
outdated technology and frequently lack the resources to invest in new equipment. Some
specialize in particular technical areas and a few are innovative and sometimes develop
new technologies. Only a few companies have the capability and resources to differentiate
themselves from their competitors. The demand for large projects is intermittent; with
investment taking place over several years requires specialist technical knowledge,
available only from a small number of firms.
3.5.3 Curtain wall market and cost
Market demand has been shifting slowly from stick-built to unitized structures, which
requires less site workmanship, provide more consistent quality, and are more capable of
offering advanced technological products. The chart Figure 21 illustrates the expected
market segmentation of the global curtain wall industry by system type for the periods
specified.

47
Figure 21: Expected USA glass curtain wall market size, by system type (USD Billions) (Grand View
Research, 2019)
Historically, unitised systems have been selected for large commercial developments,
including high-rise, whereas stick systems are more synonymous with smaller and low-
rise schemes. However, the curtain walling market has evolved over the last ten years and
reached a level of maturity where unitised curtain walling is much more widely available
through an increasing number of sources. The introduction of proprietary unitised curtain
walling systems in the market creates more opportunities for projects to benefit from the
off-site prefabricated approach (Ferres, 2017).
The Grand View Research stated that the global glass curtain wall market size was valued
at United States dollar (USD) 46.1 billion in 2019 and is expected to grow at a
compounded annual growth rate of 7.0% from 2020 to 2027 (Grand View Research,
2019). It is to be noted that the outbreak of COVID-19 halted major operation of the
construction industry. These disruptions have impeded that glass curtain wall market
growth as forecasted as a result of the cancellation of contracts, production delays and
postponement of supplies (Fortune Business Insights, 2021). However, from 2021
onwards, the industry is expected to recover and return to the forecast annual growth.
The need to protect exterior walls coupled with the upsurge in the construction of
commercial buildings in developed and developing economies is anticipated to drive the
demand. The growth can also be ascribed to the increasing demand for enhanced moisture
management and energy-efficient solutions.

48
Furthermore, government regulations pertaining to energy consumption remain to be the
key driver for the aluminium curtain wall market. The increasing demand for eco-friendly
infrastructure, owing to stringent regulations and rising awareness regarding
environmental deterioration, is anticipated to favourably impact the demand over the
forecast period. Moreover, rapid urbanization in emerging economies of Asia Pacific,
such as China, India, Japan, and Thailand, is anticipated to spur the construction of
residential and commercial buildings. This is expected to positively influence growth of
the aluminium curtain wall market over the forecast period.
External facades typically account for 15 to 25% of construction building cost (Langdon,
2004) depending on the following variables:
 Wall to floor ratio.

 Materials to be used, such high-performance glass or special cladding material.
 Quantity, small scale vs large scale project.
 Project programme duration.
 Complexity, design, fabrication, and installation.
 Logistics.
 Government or local regulations.
 Market condition, labour, material, shipping, etc.
The breakdown of the curtain wall per phases are listed in Table 11.
Table 11: Curtain wall walling cost breakdown

Breakdown Range Average
Material Costs 25-55% 40%
Fabrication Costs 10-20% 15%
Installation Costs 15-25% 20%
Miscellaneous * 7-25% 15%
Profit 8-15% 10%
Notes:
(*) Including: Design Costs, Management Costs, Transportation Costs, Provision of Mock-ups, Statutory
Submissions, Defect Fixing, Finance Costs, Insurance, etc
Materials, fabrication and installation sumps up to 75% of the construction cost.
3.5.4 Capital expenditures and operating expenses
In construction, capital expenditure and operating expenses can be considered to be

associated with separate, distinct stages, with capital expenditure during acquisition

49
and construction, and then a 'handover' to operational expenditure when the client takes
possession of the completed development (Designing Buildings Ltd, 2021).
Operating expenses or operational cost comprises a range of items such as consumed

energy and water, maintenance repair and replacement. It has been estimated that the
operational cost can be up to 71% of the total cost of ownership in a 40 years life span
with the rest for cost of initial construction, design fees and average financing (Gardner,
2013).

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3.6 Current constraints in construction
3.6.1 Fabrications constrains
The typical fabrication process of a curtain wall requires several stages that it is known as
supply chain. A typical supply chain is shown in Figure 22 indicating the main activities
that occur on each stage. This section is focused on manufacturing, processing and
assembly of a unitized curtain wall.
Figure 22: Typical supply chain for unitized curtain wall panel
It is important to know that there can be several industry players as part of the supply
chain of a curtain wall. Depending on the capacity and skills of each company, more than
one activity might be taken.
Each of the stages have a range of limitations that might affect the design variables. This
section covers those limitations during the fabrication process.

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3.6.1.1 Manufacturing constraints
During manufacturing a range of industry players would produce the components for the
unitized curtain wall system. Main fabrication procedures to obtain the key components
are listed in Table 12:
Table 12: Manufacturing process for typical components of unitized curtain wall systems
Component Material Manufacturing Note

Procedure
Extrusion is the procedure of forcing an aluminium alloy to
Aluminium go through a die with a certain shape and cross section
Frames Extrusion
alloy profile. The aluminium gets shaped when it comes out from
the die.
Bracket can be either be extruded as the profile and then cut
Aluminium in small length or by casting process. Casting is made by
Brackets and Extrusion or
allow or pouring molten metal into a mold cavity. Once metal is
cleats cast
stainless steel cooled down it is extracted from the mold into the desired
shape.
Gaskets are usually formed into shape by molding or by
EPDM, Moulding cutting, which can be carried out by a number of procedures
Gaskets silicone, butyl, Cutting from waterjet or hand cutting.
neoprene, etc Extrusion Extrusion process similar to the aluminium is also common to
obtain pre-formed gaskets.
Extrusion Thermal breaks are usually extruded and inserted in the
Thermal breaks Polyamide extruded profile by rolling process.
Rolling process
Chemical The process is based on the mean of changing one or more
Seals Silicone , etc
process chemical compounds of a given material.
Melted raw materials are mixed in a furnace. The molten mix
Panel Glass Float process is poured into a tin bath forming glass. At the end of the tin
bath the mix is cooled down becoming annealed glass.
Several procedures take place during manufacturing. Certain number of these processes
have constraints that affect the design variables.
The extrusion is a key procedure for the manufacturing of the profile. The accuracy of the
final shape and the availability to create hollow sections profile make the extrusion the
most common fabrication process for framing. The main constraints by the extrusion
process are the profile size and length. Sometimes, extruded profiles are combined with
rolled form or solid profile to enhance the structural strength or to provide a different
materiality.
In the curtain wall fabrication, the casting process can be found for hardware components
mainly and in some cases for brackets. In conventional systems is usually limit to small
components.

52
The selected chemical composition and moulding process to manufacturer gaskets and the
shape taken once completed will dictate the availability of the gaskets to accommodate
the opening and closing of the joints by compression.
Glass is an inorganic fusion of materials of fusion which have been cooled down from its
molten state reaching a rigidly solid state without crystallisation. Glass has an interlocked
amorphous molecular structure which is the base of its brittle nature. Soda lime silicate
glass is the most common type of glass in the construction industry due to the abundance
of raw materials and relatively low cost of production. Although there are other types of
glass, such as borosilicate glass and alumina-silicate glass, this research is focused only
on soda lime silicate glass.
The float process has been the main production process of glass for the construction
industry in the last 50 years.
It commences with the melting of the raw materials: soda (sodium carbonate), silica
(lime, dolomite, and silicon dioxide), alumina (aluminium oxide) and small quantities of
fining agents (sodium sulphate, sodium chloride) in a furnace at 1,550ºC. The molten mix
is poured into a bath of molten tin at 1,000ºC. The bath has an inert atmosphere of
hydrogen and nitrogen to prevent the oxidation of the molten tin. The glass floats on the
tin forming a ribbon with smooth surfaces. The thickness of the glass is adjusted by the
speed of the rollers. At the end of the tin bath the glass is cooled down to 620ºC and
conducted to an annealing lehr where it is slowly cooled down to 250ºC to minimize
residual stresses in the glass. The annealed glass finally goes through an inspection and
cutting process. When the glass gets manufactured through the float process there are two
limitations that present in the design of conventional curtain wall: glass panel sizes and
thickness range extracted from EN 572 (CEN, 2012).

53
3.6.1.2 Processing constraints
The processing is defined as the stage that occurs when a component is being treated prior
to assembly. Typical processing methods are described in Table 13:
Table 13: Processing for typical components of unitized curtain wall systems
Component Material Processing Note

Cutting Machine or manually cutting to the actual measure required.
Aluminium
Frames Painting & Several processes can be applied. The common finishing:
alloy
Finishing powder based coating or anodizing process.
Aluminium Cutting Machine or manually cutting to the actual measure required.
Brackets and
allow or Anodizing process for aluminium brackets. Finishing not
cleats Finishing
stainless steel required for the stainless steel.
Cutting Machine or manually cutting to the actual measure required.
EPDM, silicone,
Gaskets butyl, neoprene,
Vulcanized gaskets are produced by a bonding gaskets piece. It
etc Vulcanizing
usually applies at the corners.
It is the process of spraying metal oxides to form thin layers on
Coating the glass surface to modify the solar transmittance of the glass
when exposed to sun.
Heat treating The glass is heat treated to increase its strength.
The process of bonding two or more glass panels with a
Panel Glass
Laminating transparent adhesive layer. It improves the post-breakage
behavior of the glass.
The process of bonding two or more glass panels with spacer to
IGU leave a cavity in between the panels. The cavity is usually filled
with air or gas.
Several procedures take place during the processing stages. Certain number of these
processes have constraints that affect the design variables are explained below.
The cutting process brings each component into the required length and width prior to the
assembly. The cutting process can be machined or manually. Allowable tolerances are
usually set by standard to set a level across industry. The main constraints generated are
limited extruded and moulded profile sizes and limitation on the glass sizes.
The painting or finishing of the profile can be made by a series of methods. The most
common applications are powder-based paints or chemical baths, known as anodising.
This process creates some constraints in the limitation of the profile length.
During the coating process metal oxides are sprayed to form thin layers on the glass
surface to modify the solar transmittance of the glass when exposed to sun. The number
of layers, selective achieved and the composition of the coating dictate the performance
of the glass.

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The glass process involves a series of activities to bring the large monolithic of glass into
the composition that will be used in the panels, heat treatment, lamination, cavity
compression and insulation. These processes create constrains mainly limiting the glass
sizes.
The process of heat treating float glass to a level of soft pliability, then rapidly cooling it,
will always cause distortion to some degree. This is the case for heat-strengthened and
toughened glass. One common form of distortion is roller wave. This happens during the
heating process, when glass sags between the carrier rolls that transport the glass through
the furnace. Glass thickness and size affect the amount of distortion. Generally, the
thicker the glass is, the less deviation from flatness, while larger glass sizes may also
appear to have more distortion. Another form of distortion in the heat treating process is
the overall bow that occurs by differential cooling of the two sides of the plate.
Figure 23: Tolerance limit for dimension of rectangular panels as per EN 12150-1 (CEN, 2000)
The distortions described above and the usual fabrication deviations for manufacturing
and cutting as covered in the allowable tolerances for toughened glass described in EN
12150-1 (CEN, 2000). The finished glass pane shall not be larger than a prescribed
rectangle resulting from the nominal dimensions increased by the tolerance, t, or smaller
than a prescribed rectangle reduced by the tolerance, t. The sides of the prescribed
rectangles are parallel to one another and these rectangles shall have a common centre
(see Figure 23). The limits of squareness are also the prescribed rectangles. Tolerances are
given in Table 14.

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Table 14: Tolerances on width, B, and length, H as per EN 12150-1 (CEN, 2000)
Nominal dimension of side, Tolerance, t

B or H
Nominal glass thickness, Nominal glass thickness,
(in millimeters)
d ≤12 d >12
≤ 2,000 ±2,5 (horizontal toughening) ±3,0

±3,0 (vertical toughening)
2,000 < B or H ≤ 3,000 ±3,0 ±4,0
< 3,000 ±4,0 ±5,0
3.6.1.3 Assembly constrains
The assembly is known as the process when all components are mounting together to
form the curtain unit. The assembly stage usually takes place in the factory for unitized
curtain to ensure a level of quality and reduce fabrication tolerances. However, the
accuracy of erection should allow for workmanship tolerances as described in the
standard for systemised building envelopes (CWCT, 2005).

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3.6.2 Transportation constraints
Unitized curtain wall is based on the pre-assembly of panels on factory. Sometimes

factory can be located close to site, but in most of the cases, it would be at a certain
distance. Logistics of the panel transportation needs to be studied during the design as it
might impose some limitations.
A major disadvantage of curtain wall is the cost and time required to install them. Curtain
walls utilizing the stick system, for example, require significant time to assemble on site,
and their performance depends on the quality of the installation. Unitized curtain walls
consist of factory-assembled frames which reduces site installation time but incurs greater
costs for shipping and storage.
Usual means of transport for curtain wall panels are either by land or sea. In rare occasion
freight transport would take place. When transport occurs by land, the panels should fit in
the common truck panel dimensions as shown in Figure 24.
Effective
width 2.44m
Effective
height 2.72m
Figure 24: Common truck dimensions
The number of unitized curtain wall panels that would fit in a 20’ or 40’ Tons truck will
depend on dimensions of the panels. The difference between a 20’ or 40’ container is the
length. However, the effective width of 2.44m and height of 2.72m considered as a
constraint. When transport occurs by sea, similarly the panels are to fit in a shipping
container with similar measurements limits.
The height of the panel is usually floor-to floor which in most of the cases is above 3m.
Therefore, in both the transport by sea or by land, a driver constraint is the limited
dimension of 2.44m for the panels width.

57
The time of transport is also an important factor during the procurement of a facades.
However, since it rarely affects the design of a unitized curtain wall, time has not been
considered as a variable in this research.

58
3.6.3 Installation constraints
Unitised curtain walls consist of cladding units where panel and frame are pre-assembled
in factory and then easily transported and fitted to the building. The units normally span
from floor to floor hanging from pre-fixed brackets along the edge of the upper floor slab
and being horizontally restraint by the units below.
The joints need to accommodate in-plane differential movement between units while
providing weather tightness. This is resolved by introducing open grooves and
overlapping gaskets along the perimeter of the units that form pressure equalised and
drained cavities between units once installed. On-site application of wet sealants to seal
the gap between units is thereby avoided. As a result, external access is not required, as
all the installation is carried out from the already built primary structure, commonly from
the slabs. In addition, higher quality control and speed of installation are achieved in
comparison with stick systems. For these reasons, unitised curtain walls are usually the
façade system for high rise buildings.
When unitized curtain wall is used on high-rise building, the panels are brought to site in
large packages and need to be lifted its later installation. Panels can be lifted still as part
of a package or individually as shown in Figure 25. Should the lifting occur as part of a
package, it will unlikely generate a constraint for the design. However, when panels are
lifted individually, different loading might be generated in the panel, usually considered
as ‘temporally loading’ which should be considered while designing.
Figure 25: [left] Panels lifted as a package [right] panels lifted individually

59
When the panel are lifted individually, lifting points are usually introduced in the curtain
wall which might induce different loads and forces than those that will be induced when
installed in place. While not a specific constraint the temporally loading.
Numerous constrains could raise during installation which is heavily depended on the
quality of the equipment and workmanship. Curtain wall manufacturers have reliably
dealt with the issue of panel-to-panel alignment by developing structural alignment clips
that can be slid across the interlocking heads of adjoining panels to maintain horizontal
alignment as per Figure 26, and by refining the designs of their lifting lugs that help to
hold the vertical alignment between panels at their stack conditions as per Figure 27. The
alignment challenges that manufacturers now face are the unique project-specific building
features that interfere with typical panel alignments and must be dealt with on a project-
by-project basis (Louis, 2015).
Figure 26: Unitized curtain wall horizontal alignments clips (Louis, 2015)
Figure 27: Unitized curtain wall vertical alignments clips for stacked unitized frame. (Louis, 2015)

60
3.6.4 Maintenance constraints
Maintenance is the combination of all technical and associated administrative actions

during the service life to retain a building, or its parts, in a state in which it can perform
its required functions (ISO, 2011). The maintenance of a curtain wall is essential to
maintain the functional and aesthetic value over the time. The maintenance can be divided
in three main operations:
 Cleaning, regular access required for cleaning. Frequency of cleaning can be

combined with regular inspections.
 Repairing and resealing, required to extend the service life of components and
curtain wall.
 Replacement of certain components after failure or reaching end of service life.
During the design of a curtain wall, it is important to plan how the maintenance activities
would be carried out and design the system accordingly. Typical systems are cleaned by
cradle, by mobile elevated platforms parked at ground or by rope access, also known as
abseiling.
Building maintenance is defined as the work needed to be undertaken in order to keep,

restore or improve every part of a building, including his services. A maintenance strategy
defines the rules for the sequence of planned maintenance work. It contains general
scheduling information and can therefore be assigned to as any maintenance task lists and
maintenance plans as required.
Typical cleaning time regime for unitized curtain wall might vary depending on the
location and other factors such pollution or proximity to coast. The cleaning frequencies
can be based on manufacture warranty guidelines and the comfort and expectations of
owners and users of the building. A cleaning regime of 3 to 5 cycles per year can be
recommended and split into the curtain wall components sealants and aluminium
typically 2 cleans per year while glass should be minimum 3 cleans per year. While it is
important to determine, the frequency of cleaning is not considered a constraint in this
study.

61
Aluminium frames are generally painted or anodized. Factory applied fluoropolymer
thermoset coatings have good resistance to environmental degradation and require only
periodic cleaning.
The means of access covers the equipment used to reach the curtain wall surfaces for
cleaning. It is important to note that only the outer surface and inner surface is reachable,
unless a component is operable, and as such it depends that cavities are sealed to avoid
dust or dirt to enter. The means of access can also exert impact loads on the curtain wall if
accidentally hit the curtain wall surfaces.
Certain regulations required the means of access to be restraint to the façade at interval
which can vary from 20 to 40 m centre. The aim is to limit the pendulum effect when
means of access is hung from above. Restraint points usually are located at strategic
location of the curtain wall.
Repairing and resealing is required to extend the service life of components and curtain
wall. Most area of the glass and framing are relatively reachable, but gaskets and sealant
are more difficult to reach.
Curtain walls and perimeter sealants require maintenance to maximize the service life of
the curtain walls. Perimeter sealants have a typical service life of 10 to 15 years.
Components that have a service life lower than the predicted life of the curtain wall
should be reachable for repairs. In additional a system that relays on a frequent
maintenance or reparation of the gaskets and seals would require to be designed for that.
After reaching the service life of the gaskets and sealants the system might lose
performance typically air infiltration and water leaks.
The EN 1808 (CEN, 2015) limits the weight of suspended material to 1,000 kg including
replacement equipment to hold the glass. This limits the allowed glass weight for
replacement to approximately 700kg per unit.

62
3.7 Dependency variable study
The independent variable is the variable the experimenter manipulates or changes and is
assumed to influence the dependent variable. Sometimes varying the independent
variables will result in changes in the dependent variables. In this investigation, it was
identified that the independent variables did not have a direct impact on the dependent
variables and as such changes were occurring via intermediate variables as per Figure 28.
Edward Tolman (1886-1959) introduced in 1938 the term of intervening variable. The
distinction between hypothetical constructs and intervening variables was first made
explicit in 1948 by of Kenneth MacCorquodale (1919–1985) and Paul Everett Meehl
(1920–2003) (Oxford Reference, 2021).
Independent Intervening Dependent

variable variable variable
Figure 28: Intervening variable relationship with independent and dependent variable
An intervening variable is a hypothetical variable used to explain causal links between
other variables. Intervening variables cannot be observed in an experiment because they
are hypothetical. It can also be defined as an intervening variable that affects the
relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.

63
3.8 Literature review summary
Several variables that might contribute to the end design of a curtain wall system have
been identified. A review of prior art has been accomplished including the following areas
of knowledge linked to the objectives of the research:
 Project brief factors

 Curtain wall requirements
 Curtain wall systems and components
 Curtain wall industry
Over 100 publications have been reviewed including standards and codes of practice,
books, conference and journal papers and technical data from construction related
companies as illustrated in Figure 29.
Technical data from

manufacturers or Standards, code of
construction… practice or
guidelines
41%
Conferences and
journal papers
11%
Books and
publications
23%
Figure 29: Reviewed publications by type of source

In Figure 30, the source of the reviewed literature is examined for each area of research.
There is a significant number of publications for all the areas of research that have been
explored. However, there is not much information on how these areas influences to each
other. This is covered in this investigation through linking the variables based on each
requirement and limitation. In addition, no publication has been found that addresses
project requirements and industry limitations jointly.

64
60
Reviewed publications
50
40
30
20
10
0
Project factors Curtain wall requirements Curtain wall system and Curtain wall industry and
components construction
Technical data from manufacturers or construction companies

Conferences and journal papers
Books and publications
Standards, code of practice or guidelines
Figure 30: Reviewed publications by area of research

Literature review indicates that there is a good substantial number of publications
covering performance and description of curtain wall system and components. However,
scares publications were related to industry limitations and no publication has been found
that addresses project requirements and industry limitations jointly.
This research validates the need to explore a systematic approach that crosses link for the
project requirements with the industry capabilities.

65
DETERMINATION OF VARIABLES
The literature reviewed during the state of the art has been the base to determine the
variables for each set. The variables will form the starting and ending point of each
relationship.

67
4.1 Overview
This investigation studies the dependency of variables in the design of a unitized curtain
wall. Two set of variables, project requirements and industry limitations, have been
identified as influencers for the design parameter of a unitised curtain wall. Each of these
set of variables are linked to other set of factors or stages that can affect the result,
defining the independent, intervenient, dependant variables.
 Design parameters
Based on the selection of the unitized curtain wall for this investigation and the
review made of its typical components and materials, the design parameters are
our dependent variables for the systematic approach. It is essential to define these
dependent variables to design and engineer a unitized curtain all system.
 Project requirements
Two sets of variables form the project requirements. The project brief factors
which are independent variables and the curtain wall requirements which are
intervening variables. Both inform the design parameters.
Project brief Curtain wall Design

factors requirements Parameters
[Independent [Intervening [Dependent

Figure 31: Project requirements variables and relationships
 Industry limitations
Two sets of variables form the industry limitations. The construction phases which
are independent variables and the industry constraints which are intervening
variables. Both inform the design parameters.
Design Current Construction

Parameters constraints phases
[Dependent [Intervening [Independent

Figure 32: Industry limitation variables and relationships

68
4.2 Design parameters
Based on the selection of the unitized curtain wall for this investigation and the review
made of its typical components and materials, the dependent variables for the systematic
approach has been identified and are listed in Table 15. It is essential to define these
dependent variables to design and engineer a unitized curtain all system.
Table 15: Selected curtain wall design parameters as dependent variables

Framing size Joint size Equalization and drainage
Framing size Joint sizes between unitized Application of equalization
Depth system panles Cavity drainage
Width
Thickness
y
t
Glazing build-up Glazing cavity Glazing coating

Glass type: annealed, heat Cavity width Selectivity coating properties
stregthened, toughned Air or gas filled
Monolithic or laminated
Thickness
Thermal breaks Glazing retention Spandrel panel
Location Capped At floor slab
Materials Clipped
Structural silicone
Each of the requirement and limitation identified in this research focus on the relationship
and impact they have with each of above design parameters.

69
Other design variables that have identified in a curtain wall are brackets, opening and
shading devices. However, have been excluded of this investigation. The brackets have
not been considered as it is a bridge between the curtain wall and the supporting primary
structure. Their design could be parallel but not interrelated with above variables. The
shading devices are an add-on to curtain walls. Shading devices are not indispensable for
the curtain wall system, and therefore has also been excluded for clarity.
Similarly, to shading, any operable components (i.e windows or doors) are additional
components which are not essential in the basic curtain wall system.

70
4.3 Project requirements
4.3.1 Project brief factors (independent variables)
After reviewing current literature and following the RIBA project brief headings, factors
in Table 16 have been chosen as the most relevant to inform the façade requirement.
Table 16: Project brief factors descriptions

Considerations Project brief factors Description
Planning and Site location The actual place where the project will be located.
placemaking Project scale Height and area expected for the project.
The use the project will have when completed, such as
Building use
residential, commercial, education, etc.
User Experience Comfort and wellbeing Project objectives for comfort and wellbeing of the users.
Measures to ensure life safety of the occupants of the project
Life safety
when completed.
Energy consumption Targets for energy consumption during operation.
Energy Selected orientation of the project based on the actual site
Orientation
location.
The amount of money available to spend on the construction of a
Construction budget
project.
Client Needs
The period of time during which the project is expected to work
Design life
within specified parameters.
Construction methods The procedures and techniques used during the building process.
The range of materials that are forecasted to be used in the
Materials selection
Construction Impact project.
The nature of the structure supporting the project, such as
Primary structure
materials, such as concrete, steel, etc.
The amount of money that will be allocated for the maintenance
Operational budget
Operation and of the project while in use.
Maintenance
Maintenance strategy Set of rules for the sequence of planned conservation work.

71
As a summary for Table 16 which includes the project brief factors and definition, the
selected project brief factors for the investigation are included in Figure 33: Selected
project brief factors Figure 33.
Planning and Site location Project scale Life safety
Building use Comfort & wellbeing

User experience
Energy consumption Orientation

Energy
Construction budget Design life

Client needs
Construction Construction methods Material selection Primary structure
Operation and Operational budget Maintenance strategy
Figure 33: Selected project brief factors divided by categories

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4.3.2 Curtain wall requirements (intervenient variables)
Table 17 indicates the curtain wall requirements selected for the systematic approach. The
curtain wall requirements are classified by categories for clear identification.
The items on the cells not highlighted in Table 5 have been excluded of this approach for
the following reasons:
1) Requirements for operable components as windows and doors are usually limited
areas in the curtain wall with their own set of requirements and functions.
2) Requirements for testing. Testing is a fundamental mechanism and tool that along
with calculations and drawings allow to verify the performance for each of the
design parameters. Testing is not considered a requirement itself or a constraint on
its own.
3) Requirements for equipotential bonding as it is considered an explicit method to
protect against electrical shock.
4) Requirements for interfaces, as they are specific for junction between a curtain
wall with other system. Interfaces would include several variables that would
require attention on it is own.

73
Table 17: Comparison of the selected curtain wall requirements and international standards contents
Proposed research AAMA CMHC Canada CWCT EN
Requirement MCWM-1-89 Glass and Metal Standard for EN 13830 Curtain
categories Metal Curtain Wall Curtain wall. Est systemised building walling - Product
Manual practice guide envelopes standard
building technology CE marking
Chapter 10.7
Performance and Chapter 4 Chapter 4 Product
Testing requirements Performance characteristics
(CWCT, 2005)
(AAMA, 1989) (CMHC, 2004) (CEN, 2015)
Structural Properties 4.1 Function of Wall 4.5 Resistance to its
4.2 Structural own dead load
Integrity 4.6 Wind load
resistance
4.7 Resistance to
STRUCTURAL snow load
LOADING Part 2. Loads, 4.8 Impact resistance
fixings and 4.9 Resistance to live
movement horizontal loads
4.10 Seismic
resistance
4.11 Thermal shock
MOVEMENT Provision for Thermal
ACCOMMODATION Movement
WEATHER Air Leakage 4.3 Control of Water Part 3. Air, water 4.4 Watertightness
PROTECTION Water Penetration Penetration and wind 4.15Air permeability
4.4 Control of Air resistenance
4.16 Water vapour
Leakage permeability
4.5 Control of Water
Vapour Flow
BUILDING Thermal Performance 4.6 Control of Heat 4.14 Thermal

PHYSICS Light Transmission Flow transmittance
4.7 Condensation Part 5. Thermal, 4.17 Radiation
Resistance mositure and properties
ACOUSTIC Sound Transmission 4.8 Control of Sound acoustic 4.12 Airborne sound
BARRIER Transmission performance insulation
4.13 Flanking sound
transmission
FIRE SAFETY Fire Requirements 4.9 Control of Fire Part 6. Fire 4.1 Reaction to Fire
performance 4.2 Fire resistance 4.3
Fire propagation
DURABILITY - - Part 7. Robustness, 4.19 Durability
EXPECTATIONS durability, tolerances
and worksmanship

74
In Figure 34, the curtain wall requirements selected for this investigation has been divided
by category.
Seismic load Self-weight load Blast load
Structural loading Barrier load Impact load
Wind load Thermal load
Movement accommodation Thermal expansion Slab deflection Building sway
Weather protection Air leakage Watertightness
Thermal resistance Condensation

Building physics
Light transmission Solar gains
Airborne sound insulation Flanking transmission

Acoustic barrier
Fire safety Compartmentation Surface spread
Durability Service life Repair Replacement
Figure 34: Selected curtain wall requirements divided by categories

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4.4 Industry limitations
4.4.1 Construction phases (independent variables)
After reviewing current literature and research of the curtain wall industry and market, the
selected construction industry phases and stages as independent variables are listed in
Figure 35.
The phases have been further subdivided with the aim to list the current industry
constraints in each stage.
Fabrication Manufacturing Processing Assembly
Transportation Packaging Shipping
Lifting Placing Storage

Installation
Maintenanc Cleaning Repairing Replacing
Figure 35: Selected curtain wall requirements divided by categories

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4.4.2 Industry constraints (intervenient variables)
After reviewing current literature and interviewing several industry players. Figure 36
contains the current constraints selected as intervenient variables for the industry
limitations.
Extruded profile size Extruded profile length Cast element size
Gasket compression Glass panel size limit Glass thickness range

Fabrication
Selectivity ratio Number of coating layers Hard or soft coating
Moulded profile size Cavity compression Unit assembly tolerances
Transportation Panel size variation limit Unit panel width limit
Bracket setting-out Panel handling Gasket & seal installation

Installation
Temporally loading Workmanship tolerances
Reachable surface Impact loading Restraint points

Maintenance
Components accessibility Glass weight limit
Figure 36: Current industry constraints selected as intervenient variables
4.5 Summary of determination of variables
The variable for each group has been selected. The following chapters studies the
relationships between each set of variables: The set of variables studied is this research
are:
1. Project brief factors

2. Curtain wall requirements
3. Design parameters
4. Industry overview
5. Current constraints.

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STRUCTURAL LOADING
Seven requirements have been identified to define structural loading requirements related
to facades: wind load, seismic load, self-weight load, thermal-induced load, barrier load,
impact load and blast load. Project brief factors that impact those requirements have
been identified along with design variables that are affected.

79
5.1 Structural requirements affected by project brief factors
5.1.1 Wind load
Structural design for wind load involves a determination of wind pressures, analysis of
the forces in the wall because of these pressures and the design of members and
components to resist and transfer the loads. Knowledge of the anticipated wind pressures
is fundamental to the design of the curtain wall and to the establishment of the peak test
pressures to be used when testing. Depending on the building location, shape and height
the wind loads may vary greatly.
Wind pressures on the curtain wall shall be calculated in accordance with the current
national code for the determination of wind loading on buildings. When buildings have a
complex shape or unusual aspect ratio a wind tunnel study (physical scaled modelling) is
used to identify design pressures and to highlight areas with expected elevated pressures.
These tools provide a mechanism to efficiently design a curtain wall system.
Design life
Material selection
Wind load
Project scale
Site location
Figure 37: Project brief factors affecting wind load
The project brief factors that affect wind load are as follows:
 Design life: Expected design life might influence the wind return period. 50-
year return period is usually chosen for permanent building. A 1-year or 5-year
return period could be used for temporally structures.
 Material selection: the stiffness and elasticity of the material used for the
framing will have an impact on the resistance to wind load.
 Project scale: The height and shape of the building or an unusual aspect ratio
can have an impact on the design wind pressures.
 Site location: Gust wind speed varies per city and increases with the height

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5.1.2 Self weight load
Most glass and metal curtain walls would be classified as lightweight cladding systems.
Curtain wall systems will have to have the ability of supporting its self-weight including
any attachments incorporated into it by original design.
Curtain wall shall transfer safely its weight to the building structure via the brackets
intended for that purpose. It is important to understand the building structure and where
the brackets can be located.
The engineering stresses induced into infills, framing components, structural brackets and
fixings shall be no greater than those specified within the appropriate materials standard
from which the components and brackets are made.
Material selection
Self weight load
Figure 38: Project brief factors affecting self-weight load
The project brief factor that affect wind load is as follows:
 Material selection: Curtain wall system are usually comprised by lightweight

material. The weight of material selected for curtain walling would impact the
self-weight that needs to be transferred.
The infill panel self-weight is usually carried out by the horizontal transoms. The design
variable of the curtain wall of this study has assumed glass would be used as infill panel.
Should other material be used, such as stone or glass reinforced concrete or ceramic, the
weight of the system could increase significantly.

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5.1.3 Thermal load
Materials and components used in the building envelope shall be capable of

accommodating stresses created by differential temperatures. Maximum stresses are
established by calculation for all brittle materials, especially glass, all composite materials
and components as a result of temperature gradients within the material or element. These
calculations shall prove that the strength of the materials and components is adequate to
prevent failure due to thermally induced loads. Calculation is required to show that
components do not fail as result of internal temperature gradients.
Where a temperature gradient exists, there will be differential stresses within the
component, and these stresses may lead to failure of the component. The mechanism of
failure may be fracture, in brittle materials, or delamination, in composite materials and
components. Where the components are at uniform temperature, thermally induced loads
can be avoided by allowing the components to expand and contract. Accommodation of
thermal expansion is covered in 6.1.3 of this document.
The location of the building would be required to know to calculate the thermal gradient
and the material selected would determine the allowable strength to sustain thermal load
without failure as indicated in Figure 39.
Material selection
Thermal load
Site location
Figure 39: Project brief factors affecting thermal load
The project brief factors that affect thermal load are as follows:
 Material selection: Material selected would determine the allowable strength.
 Site location: Where the building is located and what is its surrounding would
impact the temperature exposure.
It might be necessary to consider temperature gradients from centre-to-edge of large

panels, as well as from warm-side to cold side. Design surface temperature are given in
clause 2.7 of CWCT (CWCT, 2005).

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5.1.4 Seismic load
The seismic loading is dependant to of the location zone of the building. Metal and glass
curtain walls are subject to two effects during a seismic event. The first is the inertial
forces induced in the parts of the wall itself due to its mass. The second is the movement
or sway of the building structure during an event, which is addressed in 0.
The primary goal of Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP) was to create
a global seismic hazard map in a harmonized and regionally coordinated fashion, based
on advanced methods in probabilistic seismic hazard assessments (PSHA); which the
range of seismic hazard across the globe.
Regulations usually specify the determination of each of these effects and provides a
maximum allowable inter-storey drift. Given their light weight, the inertial forces rarely
govern a curtain wall design.
In addition to the location the seismic load determination is dependent on other project
brief factors as indicated in Figure 40. The height of the building will have an impact on
the seismic. Small buildings are more affected, or shaken, by high frequency waves (short
and frequent). Large structures or high-rise buildings are more affected by long period, or
slow shaking.
The building use of occupancy would be required to know to identify the seismic use
group or risk category as per International Code Council (ICC, 2021). Similarly, to the
building use, building that impose a public risk would be identified.
Building use
Design life
Life safety Seismic load
Project scale
Site location
Figure 40: Project brief factors affecting seismic load
Seismic events accelerate buildings laterally and vertically. This causes buildings to sway.
Curtain wall should resist accelerations and accommodate building movements in seismic
events. The inertia or seismic force acting onto façade components is the force acting at
83
the centre of mass of the façade member and is defined by the weight of the element,
multiplied by the seismic acceleration.
The project brief factors that affect seismic load are as follows:
 Building use: Buildings will be assigned a structural occupancy category to

identify buildings that would result in a substantial public hazard, or buildings
that would essential facilities after a post-earthquake recovery.
 Design life: The design life of the building and how long is intended to operate
would assist to define the seismic event ratio to apply. It is usually expected
that after a natural occurrence of a design life scale, the wall performance
should be maintained.
 Life safety: Similarly, to the building use, building that impose a public risk
would be identified.
 Project scale: Height of the building will have an impact on the seismic. Small
buildings are more affected, or shaken, by high frequency waves (short and
frequent). Large structures or high-rise buildings are more affected by
long period, or slow shaking.
 Site location: As per the GSHAP map, the seismic hazard varies per location.

84
5.1.5 Barrier load
Most of curtain walls act as a guard or barrier. This requirement is needed where there is a
change in the high levels between two adjacent floors, the curtain wall is designed to
provide containment and resist lateral design loads which vary depending on the
occupancy and use of the building. The minimum horizontal imposed loads for barriers
was established on British Standard (BS) 6180 (BSi, 2011) and listed in Table 18.
Table 18:Extract from minimum horizontal imposed loads for barriers (BSi, 2011)
Building use Horizontal A uniformly A point load
uniformly distributed applied to
distributed line applied to the part of the
load (kN/m) infill (kN/m2) infill (kN)
A Domestic and residential 0.36 0.50 0.25
activities A Domestic and
residential activities
B and E Offices and work areas not 0.74 1.0 0.5
included elsewhere including
storage areas
C Areas where people may 1.5 1.5 1.5
congregate
C1/C2 Areas with tables or fixed
seating areas
C5 Areas susceptible to 3 1.5 1.5
overcrowding
D Retail areas 1.51 1.5 1.5
The values given in Table 18 are applied on the curtain wall areas. It must be noted that
the barrier loads do not consider forces generated by someone intentionally trying to
impact the wall or particularly the glass.
Figure 41: Project brief factors affecting barrier load
The project brief factors that affect barrier load are as follows:
 Building use: Occupancy and expected use defined the barrier loads.
 Life safety: In addition to the imposed loads another factor that affect barrier
load is the risk of fall from height as indicated in Figure 41. When there is a
drop of height, it is recommended that glass provide containment after failure.

85
5.1.6 Impact load
The curtain wall system should be designed to withstand the expected impact loads. The
most common impacts to be considered are soft body impact from window cleaning
activities from the outside or occupants from the inside Hard body impacts from cleaning
equipment and wind-borne objects could also happen. The main concern is the glass
integrity and its retention in the frame to minimize the risk of breakage and of subsequent
injury from broken glass.
Table 19:Exposure categories for facades based on location (CWCT, 2012)

Building exposure Soft body Hard body
Safety Serviceability Safety Serviceability
A Readily accessible to the public and others with little No values are given as severity of potential vandalism
incentive to exercise care. Prone to vandalism and needs to be assessed
abnormally rough use
B Readily accessible to the public and others with little 500J 120J 10J 10J
incentive to exercise care. Chance of accident
occurring and of misuse
C Accessible primarily to those with some incentive to 500J 120J 10J 6J
exercise care. Some chance of accident occurring or of
misuse.
D Only accessible, but not near a common route, to No values given as risk of impact is minima
those with a high incentive to exercise care. Small
chance of accident occurring or of misuse.
E Above zone of normal impacts from people but liable 350J 120J 10J 10J
to impacts from thrown or kicked objects. May also be
subject to impact during maintenance.
F Above zone of normal impacts from people and not 350J 120J 3J 3J
liable to impacts from thrown or kicked objects. May
also be subject to impact during maintenance.
The use of protective building maintenance equipment. For certain height, suspended
maintenance units need to be tied back to the building to reduce the swing under wind and
potential impact exerted on the façade.
Building use
Maintenance strategy Impact load
Site location
Figure 42: Project brief factors affecting impact load
The project brief factors that affect barrier load are as per Figure 42 and as follows:
 Building use: Similarly, to the external exposure, the building use would indicate
if any potential impact from inside.
 Maintenance strategy: The use of protective building maintenance equipment and
tied back to the building might reduce the impact on the curtain wall.
 Site location: The site location will dictate the building exposure.

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5.1.7 Blast load
Blast loading is a dominant requirement when curtain wall systems need to be designed to
resist. There has been a concerted effort to design new buildings or upgrade several
buildings to prescribed threat levels. In addition to computational analysis, full-scale test
such as arena tests or shock tube tests assist in evaluating performance.
Blast loading is usually not considered in the design of curtain wall. However, when a
security expert identifies a risk to a building due its location or use; the security expert
would define level of threat in terms of expected overpressure at wall surface.
Building use
Life safety Blast load
Site location
Figure 43: Project brief factors affecting blast load
Three project brief factors have been identified that have an impact on blast load as
indicated in Figure 43:
 Building use: The use of the building can dictate if there is there is a tread such as
airports.
 Life safety: Building that impose a public risk would be identified.
 Site location: the location of building would indicate if country has tread of
terrorism.

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5.2 Design parameters based on structural requirements
Design of curtain walls is driven by their capacity to sustain and transfer loads and their
ability accommodate structural movements.
On a curtain wall design there are three main design parameters that pending on the
structural requirements. The sizes of the framing and glass mainly depends on the applied
loads onto it while the joint sizes are down to movement accommodation.
However, the definition of those structural requirements is depending of a wide variety of

factors which will change from project to project and that are key to set to determine the
design parameter variables.

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5.2.1 Framing size
The depth and width of the mullion and transom are one of the preliminary calculation
taken. Particularly the depth and it will determine the cladding zone needed, which is the
zone between the outer line of the façade and the slab edge. As a secondary calculation,
the thickness of the profiles and if reinforcement is needed should be evaluated.
Numerous loads as indicated in Figure 44are to be considered while calculation the

framing size. A combination of loads derived from the factors will be used to calculate the
framing size, it shall be assumed:
a) That dead loads, including loads due to fixtures and fittings, act concurrently with
the maximum wind load.
b) That live loads do not act concurrently with the maximum wind load
Figure 44: Structural loading requirements affecting framing size
The framing size is determined by the allowable deflection and the stress limits.
Aluminium is usually accounted with no composite behaviour with the glass.
In a curtain wall it is essential to assume that there is no load from main structure carried
by the system or causing stresses induced due to movements. The framing size is
determined by the allowable deflection and the stress limits. Aluminium is usually
accounted with no composite behaviour with the glass.

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Strategies can be implemented to reduce the framing depth, such as reinforcing the
mullion or using thicker section. Using the amount of material needed structurally for the
mullions can be reduced if the stack joint is located approximately 1m above the bracket
as per Figure 45.
Figure 45: Comparison of moment diagrams by varying stack joint locations

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5.2.2 Glazing build-up
Designing and engineering the glass is one of the key parameters in the curtain wall,
usually taking most of the attention. From a structural point of view, the parameters that
need to be defined are:
 Type of glass depending on the strength need. Types could be annealed, heat
strengthened and toughened. The lowest allowable design ultimate stress is
annealed glass and toughened has the highest allowance value. The choice usually
depending on the project specific applied loading and potential thermal-induced
stresses.
 Thickness required for the inner and outer pane, mainly driven by the wind load
and derived glass stresses. Deflection at the centre point of the panel is sometimes
checked but is unusually a code requirement.
 Monolith or laminated. Highly dependent on the barrier loads and the need of
providing containment if a drop of height exists. Laminated glass is also common
when a certain blast resistance is sought. Use of laminated glass is a common
option for enhancing glazing to improve its blast resistance and reduce potential
hazards as per UK Home Office Scientific Development Branch (HOSDB, 2008).
When laminated glass is used, type of lamination layer and thickness should also
be defined.
Figure 46: Typical glass build-up indicating glass type, thickness and composition
Typical glass build-up for IGU is indicated in Figure 46. Numerous loads as indicated in
Figure 47 are to be considered while calculation the glass build-up. A combination of
loads derived from the factors will be used to calculate the thickness.

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Figure 47: Structural loading requirements affecting glazing build-up
Once the structural requirements and minimum build-up is established, the glass colour or
coating will depend on the building physical requirements. The final decision on the glass
build-up is usually determined by sample or full-scale mock-ups to ensure the aesthetic
aspirations are achieved.
5.2.3 Glass retention
Guidance to glazing enhancement to improve blast resistance includes that the glass
should be well held in suitable gaskets in 35mm rebates or be in at least 30mm rebates if
held in well bedded clamped gaskets or, preferably, bonded with silicon or polysulphide
sealant. The latter will reduce the hazard range to about a quarter of that for plain glass
(HOSDB, 2008). The aim is that the glass retention system is able to held the glass even
after fracture as per Figure 48
Figure 48: Blast pressure on laminated and silicone bonded glass
Glazing retention would require to be designed to account for the specific blast load if
applicable as indicated in Figure 49.
Figure 49: Structural loading requirements affecting glazing retention

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5.3 Summary of structural loading requirements
The seven (7) structural loading requirements, wind load, seismic load, self-weight load,
thermal-induced load, barrier load, impact load and blast load, can be impacted by up to
seven (7) project brief factors. The structural loading requirements affect three (3) design
variables as indicating in Figure 50.
Figure 50: Structural loading requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design variables.
While only three variables are affected, one is mainly dependent on one requirement but
the other two are affected by five or six structural requirements. This may indicate why
the structural requirements is one of the first one and many often the driver to assess
when designing curtain walling.

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MOVEMENT ACCOMMODATION
Three requirements have been identified to define movement accommodation

requirements related to facades: slab deflection, building sway and thermal expansion.
Project brief factors that impact those requirements have been identified along with
design variables that are affected.

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6.1 Accommodation of movement affected by project requirements
6.1.1 Slab deflection
Floor deflections result from dead load (self-weight of the floor slab) and live load
(occupation loads). Dead load deflections are present when the cladding is installed and
may be allowed for in the same manner as accommodating tolerance. Live loads would
vary during the building life cycle and may be different from floor to floor. This variation
rises to differential floor movements that must be accommodated by the facade.
Columns shortening usually occurs during the first six months after pouring the concrete
(CWCT, 2007). Once the shortening has occurred, the movement is irreversible, similarly
to façade self-weight deflection.
Figure 51: Rotation of units due to floor deflection (CWCT, 2007)

The weight of the curtain wall is applied as the panels are installed and may cause
movement that affects the system as well. Each panel attached to the edge of a floor slab
will experience further movement as following panels are installed. It may be necessary
to allow for this movement as a live load or it may be possible to adjust the position of the
cladding panels after they have all been installed.
Foundation settlement, column shortening beam and slab self-weight deflection is

considered movement already happened when façade is installed. It is generally assumed
as construction tolerances and is accommodated as tolerance via brackets upon
installation. Movement due to curtain wall self-weight is usually accommodated by
brackets upon installation.
Further primary structure movement during building life such as remaining foundation
settlement, column shortening and self-weight deflection and movement during operation
and use such as live load deflection and secondary dead load deflection and superimposed
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live load (e.g. partition, furniture, people) or superimposed dead (e.g. load, services,
suspended ceiling) would be the sum deflection that must be accommodated within the
parameters of the selected curtain wall.
Figure 52: Project brief factors affecting slab deflection
With regards to the project brief factors there are three main factors that would affect the
slab deflection during operation as indicated in Figure 52: building use, construction
methods for the remaining settlement and shortening, and the primary structure.

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6.1.2 Building sway
Sway occurs due to wind or earthquake. These horizontal loads give rise to lateral
movement of the floor slabs. The movement of one floor slab relative to the one below is
known as inter-storey drift. This type of movement occurs after the facade has been
installed. They are short-term reversible movements that may occur at any time and may
exceed the design levels.
Sway deflection due to wind loading varies widely depending on the form of building
structure and its design as indicated in Figure 54. During seismic sway, movements are
typically greater than the ones caused by wind. When seismic movement occurs, it might
go beyond the horizontal limit.
It can be argued whether curtain wall shall be designed to allow for the maximum
allowable lateral drift, which is often overly conservative and onerous, or to actual
expected drift based on the design life of the building. Building sway causes the effect
shown in Figure 53. Since all units rotate together the change in joint size is nominal. As
such building sway only affects a unitised system at the interface between the panel and
surrounding structure, this will need to be designed to accommodate the expected sway.
Figure 53: Unitized curtain wall movement subject to building sway

Braced frames and or shear walls will have much smaller sway movement than unbraced
frames. The drift limit is very dependent of the floor-to-floor height or points of support
distance. The usually allowable sway (drift) are height divided by 300 for unbraced
frames and height divided by 500 for braced frames. Ideally from a façade point of view
the drift should be height divided by 1,000. This means that for a 4,000mm floor to floor
height, the drift limit would be 13mm, 8mm or 4mm respectively.

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Typical stick systems and unitized systems with a vertical mullion splice have very little
ability to accommodate lateral drift without frame racking and subsequent glass breakage.
For this reason, stick and vertical splice systems should be limited to discrete strips or
avoided in high seismic zones. Unitized systems without mullion splices typically
perform well in seismic events.
The height of the building and the area to be covered are the most important factor also to
consider the distance between slabs and the span of each panel that will be required. The
floor-to-floor height as the theorical span between façade panels has a significant impact
on how the loads are supported and movement is accommodated.
Figure 54: Project brief factors affecting building sway
The project brief factors that affect building sway are as follows:
 Building use: The allowable permitted drift of a building might depend on the use.
For example, an area could be close for use during high winds.
 Primary structure: All of the above brief would dictate the maximum allowable
drift permitted for the primary structure of the building. The floor-to-floor height
as the theorical span between façade panels has a significant impact on how the
loads are supported and movement is accommodated.
 Project scale: Sway deflection due to wind loading varies widely depending on the
form of building structure and its design risk. The movement in the building will
also depend on the height/width ratio of the project.
 Site location: Location would dictate if the building is in a seismic zone and the
associated risk.

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6.1.3 Thermal expansion
Temperature and moisture change are greatest for external components of the building
envelope but may also affect internal components Uniform changes in temperature or
moisture will cause the component to expand or contract uniformly. However,
temperature and moisture changes often vary through the thickness of a component and
over the surface of a component as a result of shading or protection from weather
(CWCT, 2006).
Non-uniform changes lead to differential expansion that causes changes of shape

(bowing, dishing and warping), or complex internal stress fields. Differential movement
of adjacent components may impair joint performance.
Temperature loading, primarily due to solar effects, is one of the most significant
environmental load factors. Aside from the thermal performance implications, which are
covered in Chapter 8 changes in temperature results in movements of the wall that must
be accommodated at discrete movement joints.
There are existing procedures for predicting temperature sufficiently accurate for design.
These temperatures must be modified to account for material and surface colour as
indicated in Table 20.
Table 20: External surface temperatures for UK (CWCT, 2006)

Material thermal mass and colour Surface temperature variation
Heavyweight, light colour -20 °C to +50 °C
Heavyweight, dark colour -20 °C to +65 °C
Lightweight (insulated), light colour -25 °C to +60 °C
Lightweight (insulated), dark colour -25 °C to +80 °C
Clear glass -25 °C to +40 °C
Coloured or solar control glass -25 °C to +90 °C
With the above information estimates can be made of overall wall and component
movements due to temperature loading. The total temperature-induced movement would
consist of an expansion and contraction portion to be split depending on temperature at
time of installation or cutting. Temperature-induced movements might cause problems
with external caps. It is essential to provide sufficient clearance between caps to avoid
bowing or disengagement of caps due to temperature-induced movements.

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Two project brief factors affect the thermal expansion, the site location and the material
selection as indicated in Figure 55.
Figure 55: Project brief factors affecting thermal expansion
Thermal movements are dependent on the materials and their colours, due to the different
absorption of heat and radiation. Different materials will have different thermal properties
as per include the structure, the cladding and their relative movements.
Moisture movements only occur in porous materials, such as stone, masonry and mortar.
In temperature climates it usually acts against thermal movements, while in tropical
climates, it is additional to the thermal movements. Since this study is based on
aluminium and glass, moisture movements have not been considered.

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6.2 Design parameters based on movement accommodation requirements
6.2.1 Joint size
Non-loadbearing building envelopes require to be isolated from movement of the

supporting structure to avoid resisting structural movement for which they have not been
designed to. Movement is basically accommodating at the joints. Joints sizes are dictated
by the space required between panels from a movement accommodation.
Figure 56: Movement accommodation location
The panels are separated by gaps/joints where installation tolerances and structural
movements are accommodated as indicated in Figure 56. The size and number of the
joints may significantly affect the exterior appearance of the facades; hence it is important
to be taken into consideration during design. Movement at the joints comprises
predominantly slippage along the line of the joints with regards to the units in the storey
above and below. When the panels rotate the joint widths might reduce.
Building sway
Slab deflection
Joint size
Thermal expansion
Figure 57: Movements requirements affecting joint size
The combination of the three movements as indicated in Figure 57 and any other relevant
movement dictates the joint size for both mullions and transoms. In-plane deformation
usually occurs during building sway. The objective is to determine glass movement
relative to framing. Vertical movement would be generated by the closing and opening of
the stack transom joint usually at floor slab level.

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6.2.2 Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion is the tendency to change shape or density in response to a change in

temperature. The relative expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the
material’s coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
The glass and the aluminium have different linear thermal expansion coefficients and as
such the glazing retention system uses required to accommodate the relative differential
movement between both components as indicated in Figure 58.
Thermal expansion
Glazing retention
Figure 58: Movements requirements affecting glazing retention

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6.3 Summary of movement accommodation requirements
The three (3) movement accommodation requirements, slab deflection, building sway and
thermal expansion, can be impacted by up to six (6) project brief factors. The movement
accommodation requirements affect two (2) design variables as indicating in Figure 59.
Figure 59: Movement accommodation requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design
variables.
It can be concluded that while accommodation of movement only affects two design
variables it is a key one as it frequently leads to failure.

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WEATHER PROTECTION
Two requirements have been identified to define weathering protection requirements

related to facades: air leakage and water resistance. Project brief factors that impact
those requirements have been identified along with design variables that are affected.

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7.1 Weathering requirements affected by project brief factors
7.1.1 Air leakage
The curtain wall ability to control air leakage is frequently evaluated in accordance with
American Society for Testing and Materials E283 (ASTM, 2004) or EN 12152 (CEN,
2002). Both are laboratory procedures carried out on a representative sample of curtain
wall installed in a test chamber.
When setting the weathering performance of a curtain wall, it is imperative to know

certain factors that will define the needs of the system as indicated in Figure 60.
Energy consumption
Operational budget Air tightness
Maintenance strategy
Figure 60: Project brief factors influencing air tightness
The project brief factors that affect air leakage are as follows:
 Energy consumption: Consumption target will impact the expected requirements

with regards to the weathering protection particularly air leakage of the entire
building.
 Operational budget: the amount of money that is expected to be available during
the design life of a building to cover their operational cost. Sometimes known as
operating expenditures or, are the expenses of running your business.
 Maintenance strategy: The strategy for maintenance the seal would be key to
sustain the level of air tightness required.
Depending on the air permeability value achieved at each test pressure, the systems are
classified as per Table 21. The highest performance is AE.
Table 21: Curtain wall air permeability classification as per EN 12152 (CEN, 2002)
Maximum test pressure (Pa) Air permeability m3/m2h Class

150 1.5 A1
300 1.5 A2
450 1.5 A3
600 1.5 A4
> 600 1.5 AE

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7.1.2 Watertightness
Water penetration is one of the most persistent performance problems with all wall types.
The materials used in traditional walls of masonry and stone have significant capacity to
absorb water. This feature often masks a water penetration issue. Most materials in a
metal curtain wall are impervious to moisture. This greatly reduces the area subject to
water penetration but increases the importance of joints and seals. The impervious nature
of the curtain wall materials also eliminates any absorptive storage capacity. Therefore
any wetted opening rapidly leads to visible water entry (CMHC, 2004). While lacking
absorptive water storage capacity typical curtain wall sections do contain cavities that can
potentially accumulate water. Accumulated water can damage seals and will promote
premature failure of IGU. Any water finding their way inside, it might become visible as
per Figure 61 or hidden which could damage components without perception.
Figure 61: Example of water leakage in a transom
Similarly, to air leakage performance, the only satisfactory way to demonstrate that the
building fabric is watertight up to a certain pressure is by physically testing the
construction.
Site location
Construction budget Water resistance
Figure 62: Project brief factors influencing water resistance
Several factors can affect the water resistance requirements

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 Site location: Project location and in particular the exposure to high wind loads it
might dictate that a system needs to be water resistance to a higher pressure.
 Construction budget. A low budget might limit the use of more engineered
systems with higher water resistance performance.
 Maintenance strategy: The budget allocated for maintenance might not allow for
re-sealing after a certain period which might. The strategy to maintain the curtain
wall over the service life is key to ensure the expected water resistance
performance is maintained particularly after a major event (higher wind or seismic
event) has occurred as it might have dislodged some of the gaskets.
Water resistance is tested in a specimen of the curtain wall in a laboratory usually in

accordance with ASTM E 330 or EN 12155. The EN 12154 provides curtain wall
classification in relation to the higher pressure achieve prior to leakage as per Table 22.
Table 22: Curtain wall water resistance classification as per EN 12154 (CEN, 2000)
Maximum test pressure (Pa) Class

150 R4
300 R5
450 R6
600 R7
> 600 RE xxx 1
Note 1: Final pressure achieved
Where maximum test pressure is the final exceptional test pressure, the final pressure
shall be quoted in the test report. This exceptional pressure shall be demonstrated by test
in steps of 150 Pa for a time duration of 5 minutes at extra step and the final pressure
shall be indicated as a suffix to the classification, i.e. RE750, RE900, etc.

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7.2 Design parameters based on weathering requirements
7.2.1 Joint size
Given the impervious nature of the main elements of the curtain wall air leakage is
concentrated at joinery, seals and gaskets (CMHC, 2004). Joints are critical to maintain
the building envelope sealed against the external environment. A curtain wall system
might have 2, 3 or ever 4 layers of seals as shown in Figure 63. Usually the higher
number of seals the better for the air leakage performance and water resistance.
Figure 63: Mullion joint with gaskets between split profiles
Generally, the wider the joint are the more difficult to seal and to achieve onerous air
leakage and water resistance rates as indicated in Figure 64.
Air leakage
Joint size
Water leakage
Figure 64: Weathering requirements affecting joint size

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7.2.2 Equalization and drainage
Pressure equalisation is basically the equalisation of pressure between the external

environment and a cavity which may form a part of a rain screen system. The diagram in
Figure 65 shows typical curtain wall systems at mullion joints indicating the internal
zones that are vented air space, and, as such pressure equalized, with the external
environment. The aim is to reduce or eliminate the air pressure difference that might drive
water through an opening in the external seal and to avoid moisture being drawn into the
cavity.
Air sealed interior barrier
Vented air space
An outer rain screen which provides

a protective barrier
Figure 65: Pressure equalized joint components
As important as adding the holes to allow for the equalisation is to figure out the water
path and add weep holes for drainage. Most unitized curtain wall have the drainage holes
at the horizontal transoms. The stack joint transoms usually act as a gutter for any
moisture or water drop that could find his way inside the system.
Air leakage
Equalization and drainage

Water leakage
Figure 66: Weathering requirements affecting equalization and drainage
Strategy to equalize and drain the cavities would be required to achieve onerous air
leakage and water resistance rates as indicated in Figure 66.

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7.3 Summary of weathering requirements
The two (2) weathering protection requirements, air tightness and water resistance, can be
impacted by up to five (5) project brief factors. The weathering requirements affect two
(2) design variables as indicating in Figure 67.
Joints are needed in the curtain wall systems mainly for fabrication and movement
accommodation. However, joints represent the weak point in terms of weather protection,
against air and water ingress. Testing is required to ensure both the air tightness and water
resistance expected requirements are achievable.
In addition to each of the system careful design and consideration must be given to
junctions between standardised curtain walling systems and non-standard elements such
as floor slabs, roof slabs, internal or structural walls or columns, windows and doors, as
they often represent detailing that relay in full in workmanship quality.
Figure 67: Weathering requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design variables
Maintenance strategy is fundamental to conserve the weather protection.

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BUILDING PHYSICS
Four requirements have been identified to define building physics requirements related to
facades: thermal resistance, condensation, solar radiation gains and light transmission.
Project brief factors that impact those requirements have been identified along with
design variables that are affected.

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8.1 Building physics requirements affected by project brief factors
8.1.1 Thermal resistance
Thermal properties of envelope systems are selected to reduce the total in-service energy
consumption of the building (CWCT, 2005). Energy conservation is usually associated
with reducing heat loads. For air-conditioned buildings, consideration mush also be given
to minimising cooling loads caused by solar hear gains.
Thermal transmittance considers heat transfer due to conduction, convection, and

radiation. Thermal transmittance, also known as U-value, is the rate of transfer of heat
through a structure which can be a single material or a composite, divided by the
difference in temperature across that structure (Lymath, 2015). Although the concept of
U-value (or U-factor) is universal; the units of measurement in International System of
Units (SI) are W/m²K.The better-insulated a structure is, the lower the U-value will be.
Solid walls tend to provide a better thermal resistance than glazed wall as per Figure 68.
It is to be noted that workmanship and installation standards can strongly affect the
thermal transmittance. If insulation is fitted poorly, with gaps and cold bridges, then the
thermal transmittance can be considerably higher than desired.
Figure 68: Average U-values of various glazing and solid walls
In addition to glass, curtain walls often contain different kinds of materials, joined in
different ways, and can exhibit numerous variations of geometrical shape. With such a
complex structure, the likelihood of producing thermal bridges across the curtain wall
envelope is quite high increasing their U-value. Also known as heat flow. standard
procedures have been established to calculate the thermal transmittance of curtain wall
structures. EN ISO 12631 (CEN, 2012) and NFRC 100 (ANSI, 2014) are the reference
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standards in Europe and America respectively. They both describe overall system U-value
calculation methods based on area weighting the U-values of the different components.
Comfort and wellbeing
Construction budget
Energy consumption Thermal resistance
Material selection
Site location
Figure 69: Project brief factors influencing thermal transmittance
Several project brief factor have an impact on the thermal resistance requirement as
indicated in Figure 69.
 Comfort and wellbeing: Comfort zone internally is usually defined as a range of

temperature and relative humidity. The thermal resistance helps to achieve the
internal comfort zone.
 Construction budget: It might limit the use of high-performance systems with
thermal breaks.
 Energy consumption: When targeting to limit the energy consumption of a certain
building, the thermal resistance requirement is one of the critical passive values.
 Material selection: The higher thermal conductivity of a given material the lower
their thermal resistivity would be. Thermal resistance is calculated by multiplying
the thermal resistivity by the thickness of the proposed material to use
 Site location: the climate on which the building would be located influences the
need for high or low thermal resistance requirement.

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8.1.2 Condensation
After water penetration, condensation is considered one of the most often reported
performance issue (CMHC, 2004). The control of heat flow and condensation resistance
is closely related.
Condensation occurs when the surface temperature is lower than the dew-point of the
ambient. The dew-point depends on the ambient temperature and humid content.
Effective thermal breaks that retard heat flow from warm (interior) to cold (exterior) will
help to boost frame surface temperatures. Designs to include as much thermal mass to the
interior and exposing or connecting this mass to the interior heat sources also promote
higher surface temperatures.
Figure 70: Psychrometric chart (left) and example of condensation on a curtain wall frame (right)
From the performance perspective, design for condensation resistance is a process of

designing to minimize the frequency and extent of condensation formation. Depending on
the interior environment, one of the challenges that must be met is good moisture
condensation resistance capability. Condensation on the framing is a significant concern
for building ownership for varied reasons.
Within the curtain wall systems themselves there are internal elements such as thermal
breaks and thermal isolators that assist in improving the framing performance. A common
practical is to define expected indoor and outdoor temperatures and indoor relative
humidity at which the condensation will not be allowed. Condensation might be allowed
in the external surface of the façade and in the cavities where the water forming could be
drained out.

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Building use
Comfort and wellbeing Condensation
Material selection
Site location
Figure 71: Project brief factors influencing condensation
As indicated in Figure 71 several project brief factors affect the condensation

requirements as follows:
 Site location: It would dictate where a building is located in a humid environment

or a low temperature climate, both of them could lead to external condensation
when reaching the dew point.
 Building use would also indicate the expected temperature and relative humidity
for the indoor conditions. Generally certain spaces with higher relative humidity
as bathrooms or pools might have a higher likelihood of water condensate in
surfaces with temperatures below the dew point.
 Comfort and wellbeing: Indoor conditions of a given project will set the range of
internal temperatures and relative humidity to provide a conform zone.

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8.1.3 Solar gains
Radiation is the heat transfer by generating electromagnetic waves between two bodies at
diff. temperature separated by space or a medium that is transparent or non-absorbing to
the heat wave. Solar gain (also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain) is the
increase in thermal energy of a space, object or structure as it absorbs incident solar
radiation. The amount of solar gain a space experiences is a function of the total incident
solar irradiance and of the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the
radiation.
Objects struck by sunlight absorb its visible and short-wave infrared components,
increase in temperature, and then re-radiate that heat at longer infrared wavelengths.
Though ‘transparent’ building materials such as glass allow visible light to pass through
almost unimpeded, once that light is converted to long-wave infrared radiation by
materials indoors, it is unable to escape back through the window since glass is opaque to
those longer wavelengths. The trapped heat thus causes solar gain via a phenomenon
known as the ‘greenhouse effect’. In buildings, excessive solar gain can lead to
overheating within a space, but it can also be used as a passive heating strategy when heat
is desired.
Figure 72: Solar radiation spectrum ( (Robert, n.d.)
Solar radiation spectrum comprises UV, visible and infrared wavelength as shown in
Figure 72. The amount of solar radiation entering a building depends on many factors

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such as time of day, weather, glazing type and shading devices. Solar and light
performance are parameters which influence both the visual appearance of the glazed
façade, the energy performance of the envelope and the daylight quality of the interior
spaces.
Construction budget
Energy consumption Solar gains
Material selection
Orientation
Site location
Figure 73: Project brief factors influencing solar gains
Several project brief factors affects the solar gains as indicated in Figure 73:
 Comfort and wellbeing: Internal target to achieve would be critical to set the solar
gain requirement. In addition, discomfort by direct sun leading to glare should be
also considered.
 Construction budget: It might limit the use of high-performance coatings or
shading devices.
 Energy consumption would define the target in terms of maximum solar gains to
be achieved. Solar radiation would lead to solar gains and heating the internal
space. Whether an indoor space require heating or air conditions, the solar gains
might be beneficial or the oppositive respectively.
 Material selection: The coating selectivity would dictate the amount of solar gains
going through glazing areas. In addition, the percentage of vision and opaque,
often called Window Wall Ratio (WWR) would determinate the solar gains.
 Orientation: Façade orientation is the critical factor for solar exposure. In the
North hemisphere, the south façade will have the higher exposure while the South
hemisphere would be the opposite.
 Site location and orientation would dictate the solar exposure and azimuth
throughout the year.

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8.1.4 Light transmission
One major advantage of glazed curtain walls is that it allows filtration of natural light into
the building providing occupant comfort. As indicated in Figure 74 (left) the visual light
is the wavelength between approximately 380 to 740 nanometers from the solar spectrum.
The transmittance is the percentage of visible light that is transmitted through a

transparent or translucent material. When light incidents in a transparent material, it is
directly transmitted, and objects can be viewed clearly through the glass. When light
incidents in a translucent material, it is diffused within the glass as illustrated in Figure 74
(right). Objects cannot be viewed clearly through the glass. It is to be noted that
translucent is not necessarily associated with reduced light transmission (CWCT, 2007).
Figure 74: Solar radiation spectrum highlighting visible light and infrared (left) and Incident light through
transparent and translucent components (right) (CWCT, 2007)
The architectural design community is always challenged to improve visibility by varying

sight lines, module spacing, and material choice and these aspects have direct bearing on
the level of transmitted light into the occupied space. Light from the sun can transform a
dull scene; give contrast of light level, show texture of surfaces, act as a time reference,
link a room to the outside, have health benefits and provide warmth. However direct
sunlight may cause glare, cause fading due to ultraviolet rays and may overheat buildings.
It is to be noted that in the standards or guidelines for curtain walling studied in this
research, limited information about light transmission have been found. This is more
likely due that it is considered a requirement related to the glass itself not the system.

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Since solar gains and light transmission go hand by hand, the project brief factors that
affect the light transmission requirements are the same as those affecting the solar gains
as indicated in Figure 75.
Building use
Construction budget
Energy consumption Light transmission
Material selection
Orientation
Site location
Figure 75: Project brief factors influencing light transmission
Several project brief factors affects the light transmission as indicated in Figure 73:
 Building use: The amount of daylight required in the indoors spaces might change
depending on the activities expected to be carried out int the spaces.
 Comfort and wellbeing: Internal natural light target to achieve would be critical to
set the light transmission requirement. In addition, discomfort by direct sun
leading to glare should be also considered.
 Construction budget: It might limit the use of high-performance coatings allowing
higher level of light transmission while reduction solar gains.
 Energy consumption would define the target in terms of natural daylighting to be
achieved. The lack of natural light would end up with higher use of artificial light
leading to higher energy consumption
 Material selection: The coating selectivity would dictate the amount of light
transmission going through glazing areas. In addition, the WWR would be a
critical factor for daylighting.
 Site location and orientation would dictate the solar exposure and azimuth
throughout the year.

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8.2 Design parameters based on building physics
8.2.1 Framing size
The overall thermal transmittance of the curtain wall is determined by the thermal
performance of filling elements (glazing units, opaque panels) and frames (mullion,
transom) as well as the edge effect by thermal interaction between these elements.
Thermal interactions between the filling elements and frames can be investigated by two
or three dimensional analysis. While curtain wall frames represent relatively lower
percentages of the overall curtain wall area, their impact on its overall thermal
transmittance may be much larger. Even if the same types of glass and frames are used in
the same area of the curtain wall, the overall thermal transmittance can vary according to
the number of frames. Therefore, measurement and calculation standards such as ISO
12631 (ISO, 2012) specify that the specimen sizes might be typical of those found in
practice for general application (Bae, Oh, & Kim, 2015).
When referring to the thermal properties of curtain walling, traditionally we refer to heat
losses during winter. The parameter measuring the rate of heat transfer through a glazing
system is the U-value [W/(m².K)]. The overall U-value of a glazed curtain waling system
depends also on:
• Heat transfer through the panels (glazing).

• Heat transfer through the edges (glass and frame joint).
• Heat transfer through the frame (frame material and configuration).
4.00
3.50 3.62
3.00
U-value [W/m2°K]
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.91
0.50 0.70 0.67
0.00
Frame Edge of Centre of Total
glazing glazing
Figure 76: U-value distribution (left) (Cordero, 2015) and components in framing systems (right)

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Figure 76 is extracted from the study carried out comparing a conventional curtain wall
with protruding frame and a frame integrated system (Cordero, 2015). Thermal
transmission through the framing is five time larger than the transmission through glass.
Although as the area is lower the frame contribute to 30% of total area-weighted U-value.
Since the framing will have an impact on the thermal resistance of the curtain wall, the
framing can also lead to condensation risk as indicated in Figure 77. Since majority of
heat loss would be through the framing, the internal surface might lead to cold areas
which could be below the dew-point of the internal conditions.
Condensation
Framing size
Thermal resistance
Figure 77: Building physics requirements affecting framing size
Framing size would have impact on the thermal resistance and condensation risk of a
given curtain wall.
It is to be noted the framing material might also impact the thermal performance of the
curtain wall systems (Yong Woo Song, 2013). However, since this research is based on
the assumption of aluminium framing, the variance based on materiality of the framing is
not included.

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8.2.2 Joint Size
In a curtain wall the thermal bridges tend to occur at the joints where the IGUs have
stopped and as such the continuous thermal line is broken as shown an thermography or
infrared example image in Figure 78.
Figure 78: Infra-red image with temperature distribution (Van der Bossche, Van Goethem, & Mared, 2016)
Improvement at joints is essential to minimize the heat loss through them. In addition to the thermal
barrier breakage that occurs at glass joint, the use of metal space bar within the IGUs also
accentuates the thermal bridges at panel edges as indicated in Figure 79.Figure 79Figure 79: Thermal
bridge caused by metal space bar (CWCT, 2008)
Common solutions to minimize the thermal bridges in curtain wall are the use of
thermally broken frame as indicated in 0, warm edge spacer, more insultation or better
edge detail and/or better design of interfaces. The requirements for thermal resistance and
condensation would have an impact on the joint size as indicated in Figure 80.
Condensation
Joint size
Thermal resistance
Figure 80: Building physics requirements affecting joint size
Joint size would have impact on the thermal resistance and condensation risk of a given
curtain wall.
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The centre-pane U-value of glazing systems depends mainly on heat transfer occurring in
the cavities (number of cavities, cavity width and fill and emissivity of glass surface) and
on the inclination of the unit. As this research is focused on curtain wall, it has been
assumed that it would be placed vertically 90 degrees from the ground.
Figure 81: Heat transfer due to temperature difference through an IGU
Figure 74 explains how the long wave radiation or infrared transferred through an
insulated glass unit (IGU) combining convention, conducting and radiation. In additional,
the thermal performance depends on the presence and number of cavities as shown in Figure
82. No cavity: single glass; One cavity: double glazed unit (DGU) or two cavities: triple
glazed unit (TGU)
Figure 82: Centre pane U-value for glass build-ups
Insulating glazing units are made of two or more panes of glass separated by one or more
sealed cavities. The spacer around the perimeter of the insulated unit, which separates the
two panes of glass, is sealed to the glass with a butyl seal and filled with a desiccant to

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absorb moisture in the cavity. The perimeter of the entire unit is further sealed with a high
grade sealant (secondary sealant).
Condensation
Glass build-up
Thermal resistance
Figure 83: Building physics requirements affecting glazing build-up size
The greater number of glass panes and cavities is a glazing build-up, the higher thermal
resistance the panel will have and higher temperature gradient across the system.
The impact that glass build-up could have in solar gains and light transmission have been
considered insignificant in this study and therefore discarded.

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8.2.4 Glazing cavity
The thermal performance of IGUs is mainly given by the thermal exchanges occurring in
the cavity (or cavities). To improve the thermal performance of curtain walling with
insulated glazing, some manufacturers fill the space between the glass panes with gas
instead of air. The cavities may be filled with inert gases such as Argon or Krypton that
provide a higher thermal resistance. Thanks to the thermal resistance provided by the
layer of air or gas, an IGU reduces the thermal loss through curtain wall: the inner glass
surface is maintained at a temperature closer to the room air temperature and
consequently the room radiant temperature is more uniform leading to better comfort and
the risk of surface condensation is reduced.
The different properties of air and gas fills together with the cavity width define the heat
transfer through the cavity. The variation is shown in Figure 84 for European boundary
conditions as per EN 673 (CEN, 2011).
Figure 84: U-value variation depending on the cavity width and fill. DGU with low-emissivity coating
as per EN 673 (CEN, 2011).
Noble gases are used in IGUs to reduce heat loss by slowing down convection inside the
air space. Argon is the most common choice for the cavity fills as it is a colourless,
odourless, non-flammable, non-reactive, inert gas. Argon is relatively inexpensive and
works well with low-e coated glazing. Krypton is less used, due to the high cost of the gas
but does significantly improve performance. Xenon is rarely used and it has a very high
embodied energy.

127
The spacer material used to separate the glass panes have also an impact on the thermal
transmittals as it can be made of high conductive materials such as aluminium or less
conductive spacer such as plastic composite material.
The performance of ten different spacer bars in IGUs mounted on frames of four different
materials was assessed (Elmahdy, 2003), Unit with conventional aluminium metal spacer
had the lowest glass surface temperature in the edge-of-glass region, followed by the steel
spacer with the second lowest.
The cavity and air or gas filler either play an important role in the thermal resistance of
the glazing. In addition, condensation at the edges might occur depending on the type of
spacer used. The higher thermal conductivity of the spacer, the higher likelihood of
condensation as the internal temperature might be low and not reach the internal dew
point. Two building physics requirements affect the glazing cavity
Condensation
Glazing cavity
Thermal resistance
Figure 85: Building physics requirements affecting glazing cavity

The cavity width and air or gas filler would determine thermal resistance of the glazing. A
spacer with high thermal conductivity would the increase the risk of condensation.

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8.2.5 Glazing coating
The largest performance challenge of a glazing system is to reduce the heat losses during
the winter period while lowering the solar gains in summer period, taking advantage of
natural illumination and reducing reliance on artificial lighting systems. Specifying
facade solutions for energy efficiency can be a very complex process, because the
enhancement of thermal performances during the heating period has negative impacts on
summer behaviour and together, they often compromise illumination requirements.
The solar incident radiation through a glazed façade is broken up into three components
as shown in Figure 86:
Figure 86: Diagram of solar incident breakdown through at an IGU
Glass coatings, shading devices and blinds are used to modulate the solar radiation
through a glazed curtain wall. Solar control needs to consider reducing the transmitted
short infrared and thereby the solar gain without necessarily reducing the transmitted
visible light. Consequence is that the need for artificial lighting is reduced, such as the
energy demand of the building and increase the increasing daylight availability. Filtering
the ultra-violet radiation should also be considered as it can cause damage to some
materials.
The main parameter which describes this physical performance is the g-value, which
represents the proportion of the incident solar radiation transmitted by glazing, plus the
solar heat that is absorbed by the material and re-radiated into the enclosed space. It is

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also known as the solar factor and expressed as a number measured between 0 and 1 or as
a percentage. A value of zero would transmit no solar gain, whilst a value of 1 would
transmit the full energy of the solar irradiance incident on the window. The visual light
transmittance is the percentage of the visible light of the solar spectrum that is transmitted
through a glass build-up. The greater the percentage, the higher the daylight availability
of the enclosed space.
The aim is to prevent the entry of infra-red energy to prevent solar gain while admitting
visible light to reduce the need for lighting energy.). Light and solar performance are
linked by a relationship which is the ratio between the visual light transmission and the g-
value. This ratio is called selectivity. Currently the highest achievable value is around 2.1
and uses triple silver coatings.
Three building physics requirements affect the coating as indicated in Figure 87. The
solar gains and light transmission are hand by hand and dictated by the solar control or
selectivity coating.
Condensation
Light transmittance
Glazing coating
Solar gains
Thermal resistance
Figure 87: Building physics requirements affecting glazing coating
Solar control coating will provide the solar gains coefficient and light transmission
through a piece of glass. Low Emissivity (Low-E) coatings will improve the thermal
resistance and reduce solar heat gains.
The thermal resistance of an IGU is improved by using Low-E coatings. Low-E coating
reduces heat gain or loss by reflecting long-wave infrared energy (heat) and therefore,
decreases the U-value and solar heat gain, and in doing so, improves the energy efficiency
of the glazing. Because of its relative neutrality in appearance and energy efficiency,
Low-E coated glass is widely used in residential and commercial buildings. When
coatings combine the performance of solar control and Low-E coatings, they are known
as selectivity coatings.

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8.2.6 Glazing retention
The connection between glass and frame can be done either mechanically by external
presume caps, bolt or hidden toggle systems or chemically by structural silicone or
adhesive. Curtain systems that use IGU can be: 1) mechanically fixed with presume caps
and gaskets, 2) four sided structural silicone glazed with wet weather seals, 3) four sided
structural silicone glazed with dry gasket weather seal, and 4) hybrid glazing system
(structurally clamped with toggles). The thermal transmittance (U-value) and energy
consumption of four typical curtain wall glass retention systems were compared by
Lawrence & Fiby (Lawrence & Fiby, 2007) as shown in Figure 88.
Figure 88: Four glazing retention systems
Lawrence & Fiby study concluded that bonded systems outperform the toggle and
pressure cap systems based on frame and façade U-value as shown in Figure 89 (left) and
interior glass temperatures as shown in and Figure 89 (right). The main reason is that
structural silicone bonded outperform as it minimizes the thermal bridges at glass joints.

131
U-value comparison Interior glass surface temperature (°C)
4 14
3 12
2 10
1 8
0 6
Mechanically Structural Structural Hybrid toggle
fastened silicone with silicone with system 4
system wet gasket
weatherseals 2
U-value Frame (W/m2K)

0
Mechanically Structural Structural Hybrid toggle
fastened system silicone with wet silicone with system
U-value curtain wall (W/m2K) weatherseals gasket
Figure 89: (left) U-value comparison of four glazing retention systems (right) internal surface
temperature of four glazing retention systems (Lawrence & Fiby, 2007)
Results table in above figures are using stainless steel spacer. The interior glass surface
would dictate the risk of condensation, the lower the internal surface is, the higher
likelihood that it would not reach the internal dewpoint and would condensation internal
humidity content. The isotherm with the thermal graduation across the systems is shown
in Figure 90.
Figure 90: Isotherm results four glazing retention systems ( (Lawrence & Fiby, 2007)
Bolt systems are unusual in curtain wall system, hence has not been included in this
research.
Condensation
Glass retention
Thermal resistance
Figure 91: Building physics requirements affecting glazing retention
Therefore it can be concluded that both condensation and thermal resistance requirements
will have an impact on the glass retention system chosen as per Figure 91.

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8.2.7 Thermal break
Heat transfer occurs through three mechanisms: convection, radiation, and conduction
(Kaviany, 2011). A thermal bridge is an example of heat transfer through conduction. The
rate of heat transfer depends on the thermal conductivity of the material and the
temperature difference experienced on either side of the thermal bridge. When a
temperature difference is present, heat flow will follow the path of least resistance
through the material with the highest thermal conductivity and lowest thermal resistance;
this path is usually considered as a thermal bridge. Thermal bridging describes a situation
in a building where there is a direct connection between the outside and inside through
one or more elements that possess a higher thermal conductivity than the rest of the
envelope of the building.
Figure 92: Temperature distribution (CWCT, 2008)
Figure 92 show four profiles shapes with higher thermal conductivity than vast majority
of the wall. In the study carried out (CWCT, 2008), it was assuming the same external
and internal ambient temperatures. Results show that the profiles with larger surface
exposure to the outside feature lower temperature gradient to the inside which may lead to
condensation. The smaller surface exposure to the inside was accentuating the low
temperature gradient.

133
Effective thermal breaks are essential to retard heat flow from warm to cold and would
help to boost frame surface temperatures. Designs to include as much thermal mass to the
interior and exposing or connecting this mass to the interior heat sources also promote
higher surface temperatures. Both condensation and thermal resistance requirements will
drive the need for thermal breaks into the system as per Figure 93.
Condensation
Thermal break
Thermal resistance
Figure 93: Building physics requirements affecting thermal break
Figure 94 illustrate a non-thermally broken system with continuous aluminium from

inside to outside and a thermally broken system. The study results table in Figure 95
shows an improvement of over 55% of the U-value or thermal resistance of the system
(Facade One, 2021)
Figure 94: (left) Non-thermally broken system (right) thermally broken system (Facade One, 2021)
U-value for unitized curtain wall (W/m2K)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Non-thermally broken system Thermally broken system
Figure 95: U-value comparison for unitized curtain wall (Facade One, 2021)

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When moisture gets trapped within a build-up or a system, it might condensation if the
temperatures do not reach the dewpoint. While the requirement of equalization and
drainage is mostly to increase the watertightness of a curtain wall system, cavities are also
required to ventilate to avoid condensation forming. This is important at spandrel panel
with glass because the condensation can be visible and damage components in a long
term. Therefore, spandrel shadow boxes require to equalization to avoid condensation
forming due to moisture trapped in the cavity as per.
Condensation
Figure 96: Building physics requirements affecting equalization and drainage
Spandrel panel with shadow box cavity equalization directly to the exterior is commonly
done by leaving gaps in the glazing gaskets of the vision glass and putting porous baffles
in the resulting openings. Typical practice is to provide vents in the vertical mullions near
the top of the shadow box unit and in the horizontal mullion at the bottom. This
arrangement prevents the direct infiltration of rainwater and insects through the vents and
promotes a convective flow of air through the cavity.
In hot humid climate whether the vapour barrier is located on the outside of the system,
ventilation of the cavity might occur to the inside through holes in the metal backing
panel.

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8.2.9 Spandrel panel
The term spandrel panel is use to refer to cladding panels that fill the space above the
vision glass at floor slab and below the cill of the vision panel on the next floor on high-
rise buildings. These panels conceal the floor structure as shown in Figure 97. They are
usually made from opaque panel or obscure glass and fill with insultation. Sometimes
spandrel panels are built using same glass as vision area with a cavity behind to with the
aim to simulate similar appearance as the vision areas. This type of construction is known
as shadow box.
Figure 97: Schematic of a curtain wall indicating glazing and spandrel panels (Pringle, 2019)
As it is an insulated panel, it usually helps to reduce the area weighted U-value of the
curtain wall and their total solar gains through the envelope. However, it would reduce
the overall amount of natural light through the curtain wall as indicated in Figure 98.
Light transmission
Solar gains
Spandrel panel
Thermal resistance
Figure 98: Building physics requirements affecting spandrel panel
Since the spandrel panel represents an opaque are of the curtain wall, it would help
positively to improve the thermal resistance of the system, reduce the solar gains but it
would reduce the overall amount of natural light through the curtain wall.

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8.3 Summary of building physics requirements
The four (4) building physics requirements, thermal resistance, condensation, solar gains
and light transmission, can be impacted by up to seven (7) project brief factors. The
building physics requirements affect the nine (9) design variables as indicating in Figure
99.
Figure 99: Building physics requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design
variables
The building physics requirements impacts all the design variables studied in this
research. Building physics in many times the driven behind decision in a curtain wall
design. It is also to be noted that 7 project brief factors might impact the requirements.
This emphasis that each project might be unique and what it works on a specific project
from building physics perspective might not be applicable to other projects.

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ACOUSTIC BARRIER
Two requirements have been identified to define acoustic performance related to facades:
airborne sound insulation and flanking transmission. Project brief factors that impact
those requirements have been identified along with design variables that are affected.

139
9.1 Acoustic requirements affected by project factors
9.1.1 Airborne sound insulation
Airborne noise, airborne sound or direct sound transmission is defined as any sound that
is transmitted by the air. Sound waves are picked up and carried by air until they crash
into something solid, like a wall as shown in Figure 100, sending vibrations through the
wall to the inside room.
Figure 100: External sound waves hitting a glazed window
The performance of a wall is considered in terms of the internal spaces. The aim is to
provide a building envelope that gives the required sound pressure levels within a room or
other internal space. The noise level within a room will depend on the amount of sound
energy transmitted through the wall and interreflection of sound inside the room. The
room effect is usually determined by the amount of sound absorbing material in the room.
As described in the technical note 39 (CWCT, 2003), the sound transmission through a
whole wall is established by calculating an apparent Sound Reduction Index (SRI) for the
wall. This is used to determine the difference in sound between the outside and inside.
The procedure is to calculate the sound power reduction for each element of the wall. The
total sound power reduction can then be calculated and converted to an apparent sound
reduction index. The direct sound transmission through the curtain walling is transmitted
through the glazing and frames. As the glazing usually covers most of the area, it is the
key element to reduce the sound coming inside a building.
The sound reduction of a single partition is usually determined by its mass per unit area,
by what is known as the Mass Law. For cavity constructions, such as IGUs the SRI is not

140
the sum of the indices of the individual layers as it will also depend on the cavity size,
acoustic absorption of the cavity and the degree of connection between the two leaves.
Building use

Airborne sound insulation
Material selection
Site location
Figure 101: Project brief factors influencing airborne sound insulation
The expected airborne sound insulation performance of a curtain wall might vary due to
four project brief factors as indicated in Figure 101.
 Site location would dictate where a building is located near a sound source (i.e
motorway, station, etc) requiring higher noise insulation.
 Building use would dictate the expected level of noise adequate for their specific
use.
 Comfort & wellbeing would target specific noise level. Accreditation as
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) would provide
minimum sound levels to improve conform of users.
 Material selection; as the glazing usually covers most of the area, it is the key
element to reduce the sound coming inside a building.
Built environments can induce sounds that are distracting and disruptive to work or
relaxation. Employee surveys show that acoustic problems are a leading source of
dissatisfaction within the environmental conditions of an office. As acoustic comfort is
determined in part by the physical properties and contents of environments, the aim is to
shape spaces to mitigate unwanted indoor noise levels and reduce exterior noise intrusion
in order to enhance social interaction, learning, satisfaction and productivity
(International WELL Building Institute, 2020).

141
9.1.2 Flanking transmission
As described in the technical note 39 (CWCT, 2003), flanking transmission is the

transmission of sound through the wall by adjacent elements, such as partitions or floors.
For sound travelling through an external façade, flanking would involve vibration of the
façade being transmitted to internal walls and floors, which would then radiate sound into
rooms.
In the interface of a curtain wall system with the internal partition, flanking sound can be
transmitted through the glazing and through the mullion, being the mullion the weak part
as shown in Figure 102. Depending on the requirement for the project, it might need to be
filled up or clad to reduce the amount of sound transmitted.
Figure 102: Vertical (left) and horizontal (right) flanking transmission through curtain wall systems
The flanking sound transmission is generally related to the internal activities of the
building and level of comfort expected for the users as shown in Figure 103.
Building use
Flanking transmission
Figure 103: Project brief factors influencing flanking transmission
The project brief factors affecting acoustic barrier requirements are:
 Building use: It would dictate the expected level of noise adequate for their
specific use.
 Comfort and wellbeing: It would require specific noise level targets.

142
9.2 Design parameters based on acoustic
9.2.1 Framing size
Aluminium and glass have comparable stiffness and density properties, which gives them
roughly matching acoustical characteristics. However, with the advent of the new higher
performing glass solutions, the framing elements becomes more critical for limiting of the
sound transfer. Aluminium framing even though has a smaller exposed area, it is made of
various cavities and often contains orifices for drainage and air circulation. Also, the
extrusion wall thicknesses are frequently optimized to archive a minimum, while
mechanical interlocking systems are employed to reduce field labour costs. All these
factors can contribute to the degradation of acoustical performance of the overall barrier.
(Hans-Walter Bielefeld, 2018).
Figure 104: Effect of exposed framing area on the acoustical performance of a typical glass (left)
and a high performing acoustic glass (right) (Hans-Walter Bielefeld, 2018).
The glass/frame ratio might impact the overall airborne insulation. Figure 104 compares
the effect of the exposed framing area for the two glass types. It is evident from these
results that for the higher the framing area is, the lower transmission loss is. This loss is
particularly more noticeable when using high performance acoustic glass.

143
Split mullion Split mullion with Split mullion with
hidden board external board
42-44 dB 44-46 dB 45-47 dB
Figure 105: Example of additional mass to enhance acoustic performance of mullions
To improve the flanking transmission through the framing, additional mass is needed in
the system as shown in Figure 105. The additional mass can be external or internal and is
usually metal plates or foam boards.
Framing size
Figure 106: Acoustic requirements affecting framing size
Based on above, both the airborne sound insulation and flanking transmission impact on
the framing size as indicated Figure 106. The glass/frame ratio would impact the overall
airborne insulation. Adding mass in the framing would improve the flanking transmission
through the wall.

144
The crucial parameter in the acoustic design for glass systems are glass thickness, number
of layers and separating air space between the glass panels. Airborne sound insulation
requirement influences in the glass build-up as indicated in Figure 107. The use of panes
with different thickness is a key enhancement in the airborne sound insulation in the mid-
range frequency. The use of interlayers results in increased loss factors and an
improvement in the high-frequency range.

Glass build-up
Figure 107: Acoustic requirements affecting glass build-up
Glass thickness and laminating panes will impact the transmission loss through the glass
and the airborne sound insulation of the system.
The PVB laminating layer used for laminated glass provide superior high frequency
performance. Other softer interlayer (such as cast-in place or resins) enhance performance
further.

145
Figure 108, Figure 109 and Figure 110 contain the sound reduction index given in octave
bands with single number rating calculated in accordance with EN ISO 717-01 (ISO,
1996). The data represents the average result minus the standard deviation of
approximately 1 dB to 2dB. The results are extracted from table B.1 of EN ISO 10140-1
(ISO, 2016).
60.0
Sound reduction index (dB)
40.0
20.0
0.0
125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
Frequency (Hz)
Single pane 4mm Single pane 6mm

Single pane 8mm Single pane 10mm
Figure 108: Sound reduction index (dB) comparison for glass thickness range (ISO, 2016)
50.0
Sound reduction index (dB)
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
Frequency (Hz)
Single pane 10mm Laminated pane 5+5mm
Figure 109: Sound reduction index (dB) comparison for monolith and laminated glass (ISO, 2016)
60.0
40.0
Sound reduction index
20.0
(dB)
0.0
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
1,600
2,000
2,500
3,150
Frequency (Hz)
IGU 6(16)6
IGU 6(16)4+4 laminated glasss with acoustic interlayer
Figure 110: Sound reduction index (dB) comparison for IGU without laminated glass and with laminated glass
(ISO, 2016)

146
Separating glass panels and creating air space between the panes helps to further increase
the sound reduction index as it generates a cavity-resonance frequency resulting in better
performance at the low-frequency rang as indicated in Figure 111. However as it can be
seen in Figure 111, the acoustic benefit is significant only when the cavity exceeds 50mm,
reaching the optimum performance at 200mm glass separation.
30
Relative sound insulation (dB)
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Glass separation (mm)
Figure 111: Diagram showing relative sound insulation with increase airspace width (CWCT, 2008)
In addition, absorbent materials can be placed round the perimeter of the cavity to
improve performance further.

Glass cavity
Figure 112: Acoustic requirements affecting glazing cavity
Separating glass panels and creating air space between the panes helps to further increase
the sound reduction index as it generates a cavity-resonance frequency resulting in better
performance at the low-frequency rang.

147
The spandrel panel of a curtain wall system can be influenced by both acoustic
requirements as indicated in Figure 113. Since spandrel panel would comprise insulation
to separate floors, that area will contribute to the overall airborne sound insulation of the
system.
Spandrel panel
Figure 113: Acoustic requirements affecting spandrel panel
Spandrel panel components would influence in both the overall airborne sound insulation
by adding mass and on the vertical flanking transmission.
The critical aspect of the spandrel panel with regards to acoustics is the vertical flanking
transmission which is the sound that can be transmitted from one floor to another via the
components. Figure 114 show possible variation in closure performances based large or
minimal spandrel panels.
Large spandrel panel Minimal spandrel panel
SLAB SLAB
45-55 dB Rw 20-30 dB Rw
Figure 114: Example of spandrel panel flanking transmission
All three examples were calculated assuming the room depth, concrete slab thickness,
same space between concrete slab edge and the back of the curtain wall and same curtain
wall performance.

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9.3 Summary of the acoustics requirements
The two (2) acoustic requirements, airborne sound insulation and flanking transmission,
can be impacted by up to four (4) project brief factors. The acoustics requirements affect
four (4) design variables as indicating in Figure 115.
Figure 115: Acoustics requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design variables
It is to be noted that while a significant effort has been expanded to create energy efficient
curtainwalls over the last decades, the acoustical consideration has always been treated as
a secondary design requisite. However, new environmental regulations have focused
attention on adverse health effects associated with unwanted and disruptive noise levels.
These concerns are leading to new guidelines and limitations on the amount of noise
transfer allowed through the façade systems.

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FIRE SAFETY
Two requirements have been identified to define fire safety performance related to
facades: compartmentation and surface spread. Project brief factors that impact those
requirements have been identified along with design variables that are affected.

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10.1 Fire safety requirements
10.1.1 Compartmentation
Many buildings are divided into compartments to restrict fire spread. Where an external
wall abuts a compartment wall or floor, it is necessary to provide fire stopping between
the external wall and the compartment wall or floor to restrict fire spread through the
junction.
Compartmentation requirement varies from country to country. In some countries, such as

Spain, it is mandatory to provide a 1m high band with a fire resistance of 60 minutes for
insulation and integrity at the interfaces with the floor slab (Código Técnico de la
Edificación (CTE-DB-SI, 2010)). However, there are other countries, such as UK, where
it is assumed that the curtain wall would collapse in a fire event. Therefore, the gap
between floor and external wall only requires stopping the heat and smoke spread
between compartment floors during the period that the external wall stands. As stated in
the UK Buildings Regulations Approved Document part B, Clause B8.25, where a
compartment floor meets an external wall, the junction should maintain the fire resistance
of the compartmentation. Fire-stopping and sealing systems shall be proprietary products
which have been shown by test to maintain the fire resistance of the wall. A comparison
among four codes are provided in Table 23 showing variety of requirements for spandrel
panels.
Table 23: Comparison of code and regulation compartmentation requirements
Spandrel panels
CTE Seguridad en caso de incendio 1m high band with a fire resistance of 60 minutes for insulation and
(Dirección General de Arquitectura, integrity at the interfaces with the floor slab
Vivienda y Suelo, 2019)
IBC 2021 (ICC, 2021) Required in non-sprinklered buildings 4 stories and more. Open car
Clause 705.8.5. parks are exempted.
UAE Fire and Life Safety Code 2018 Only required in buildings 15m high and taller. Open car parks are
(United Arab Emirates Civil Defence, exempted.
2018)
UK Regulations Spandrel panels are not required.

(Ministry of Housing, Communities &
Local Government, 2020)

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In addition, the scale of a building can also affects the compartmentation depending on
the height as seen in the UAE as per Table 23. If the building have sprinklers to enhance
the life safety of the users minimizing internal risk, compartmentation requirement for the
curtain wall could be reduced as indicated in Figure 116.
Building use
Life safety
Compartmentation
Project scale
Site location
Figure 116: Project brief factors influencing compartmentation
The project brief factors that affect compartment are as follows:
 Building use: The use of the building as such might not directly affect
compartmentation, but the occupancy of the building would do. Building with
high occupancy rate might expect stringer requirements.
 Life safety: A building with sprinklers might modify the compartmentation
requirement.
 Project scale: The height of the building can also dictate the compartmentation
requirement per code.
 Site location: Site location will dictate the regulations to follow which as shown in
Table 23 can vary significantly.

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10.1.2 Surface spread
To avoid the spread of fire along the envelope surface it is key to limit the combustibility
of the materials used in the wall.
Except specific cases, the use of materials with limit combustibility is mandatory.
Table 24 which contains comparison of the Spanish, International Building Code (IBC),
United Arab Emirates (UAE) and UK regulations with regards to the surface spread
requirements. Except specific cases, the use of materials with limit combustibility is
mandatory.
Table 24: Comparison of code and regulation surface spread requirements
Façade surface fire spread requirements

CTE Seguridad en caso de incendio Spanish Building Code ( (Dirección General de Arquitectura,
(Dirección General de Arquitectura, Vivienda y Suelo, 2019) Seguridad en caso de incendio depends on:
Vivienda y Suelo, 2019) Building height.
Clause SI 2.1.4 The CTE provides fire reaction for the materials on façade up to 10m,
up to 18m and above 18m. It also provides the fire reaction for the
insulation material within internal cavities up to 10m, up to 28m and
above 28.
IBC 2021 (ICC, 2021) Requirements depend on:
Clause 1405.1.1. Building height.
Proximity to site boundary.
The type of façade materials.
UAE FLSC 2018 All buildings heights have restrictions in relation to external façade
(United Arab Emirates Civil Defence, surface spread.
2018).
Chapter 1 Table 1.14a Building with a use such as schools, hospitals, assembly buildings,
shopping centre or theme parks have higher requirements than other
building types.
UK Regulations In accordance with UK Building Regulations Approved Document
(Ministry of Housing, Communities & part B, requirements depend on:
Local Government, 2020) Building height.
Table 12.1 Proximity to site boundary.
Occupancy classification.
Requirements range from no restrictions to Class A2-s1, d0 or better
as per EN 13501-1 (CEN, 2018) .
Typical materials used in conventional curtain wall systems are glass and aluminium.
Both meet the requirements of limit of combustibility as stated in the building regulations.
However, curtain wall systems also use rubbers, EPDM products or sealant to provide the
weathering requirements. These materials do not usually meet the level of combustibility
required but as the quantity used in the façade is limited, most of the codes allow their
use. The Spanish code limits the percentage of area of these materials while the UK code
explicitly mentions which materials are excluded of this requirement.

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Building use
Life safety
Compartmentation
Project scale
Site location
Figure 117: Project brief factors influencing surface spread
As per Table 24, several project brief factor might affect the surface spread requirements.
Those projects brief factors are summarized in Figure 117:
 Building use: The building use might affect the surface spread in certain
regulations.
 Life safety: A building with sprinklers might modify the compartmentation
requirement.
 Project scale: The height of the building can also dictate the surface spread based
on regulation.
 Site location: The surface spread regulations vary from country to country based
on mandatory fire safety codes.

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10.2 Design parameters based on fire requirements
10.2.1 Framing size
Both for horizontal or vertical compartmentation, framing should be able to achieve the
fire rated resistance required either by itself or by over cladding it. Typical examples are
when internal partitions dividing two compartments, such as two residential units, meet
the vertical mullions or at the floor slab junction.
Compartmentation
Framing size
Figure 118: Fire safety requirements affecting framing size
Framing should be able to achieve the fire rated resistance required either by itself or by
over cladding it. Since framing size are generally made of aluminium, it would unlikely
achieve a 60-minute or 120-minute fire resistance requirement which is usually needed
for compartmentation. Therefore, over cladding the mullions is generally the solution and
would impact the size as indicated in Figure 118.

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Under the current European test and classification methods, laminated glass is not of
limited combustibility. Results included in the CWCT Technical Note TN 98 (CWCT,
2017) suggests that interlayer thicknesses up to 0.76mm or glass thicknesses of 8mm or
more give Class B to EN13501-1 (CEN, 2018), whereas interlayers thicker than 0.76mm
with glass ply thicknesses below 8mm may give Class C or D.
Surface spread
Glazing build-up
Figure 119: Fire safety requirements affecting glass build-up
In laminated glass, the combustible interlayer is encapsulated between two non-

combustible glass plies and might not exposed during the initial stages of the fire.
Laminated glass is generally not considered to increase the risk of fire spread and its use
is considered acceptable above 18m. However, as regulation keep becoming more
stringent, certain interlayer could end up not been allowed in the glass build-up as

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Even though the curtain wall systems are not required to be fire resistant, the
effectiveness of the fire stop at slab interface. will depend on the performance of the
curtain wall. Solutions might include removing a strip of the insulation to allow the fire
stop to continue to the back of the glazing or metal spandrel panel, a fire resisting lining
on the back of the insulation against which the fire stop can interface or a fire resisting
insulation for the whole of the spandrel panel. If the interface of the fire stop with the
curtain wall is aligned with the transom location, the transoms may require protection by
fire resisting boards to extend the fire resisting construction to the glazing.
1m band with 60 min insulation between Heat and smoke stop only while
different floors curtain wall stands
Fire insulation between back of Fire insulation between glazing

system and front of slab and front of slab
1m band with SLAB SLAB

60 min
insulation
between
different floors
Fire stop (heat and Fire stop (heat and

smoke) sealed against smoke) sealed against
glazing glazing
Figure 120: Typical detail for unitized curtain walling system for floor compartmentation (left) with fire rated
resistance board
Two typical floor compartmentation details for a unitized curtain walling system are
illustrated in Figure 120. One compliant with codes requiring fire resistance between
floors and one compliant with codes that only require fire and smoke stop while the
curtain wall stands.

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Fire stopping products are required to prevent transfer of heat and smoke. Proprietary
materials are available which are generally based on rock fibre to control the passage of
heat and aluminium foil or a liquid applied membrane to control the passage of smoke.
Fire stops should be tested to demonstrate performance. Fire stops are often tested to BS
476-20 (BSi, 1987) or EN 1366-4 (CEN, 2006) with the fire stop positioned between fire
resisting constructions.
Compartmentation
Spandrel panel
Surface spread
Figure 121: Fire safety requirements affecting spandrel areas
Both compartmentation and surface spread requirement affect spandrel areas as per
Figure 121. Component and detailing of the spandrel panel vary depending on country
regulations where building is located. In addition, to form a good seal, fire stops generally
need to be compressed. The amount of compression required depends on the nature of the
fire stop materials and should be as required by the fire stop manufacturer. The fire
stopping materials used in the spandrel might also meet the surface spread requirements
for the curtain wall.

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10.3 Summary of fire safety requirements
The two (2) fire safety requirements, compartmentation and surface spread, can be
impacted by up to four (4) project brief factors. The fire safety requirements affect three
(3) design variables as indicating in Figure 122.
Figure 122: Fire safety requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design variables
It is to be noted that while the fire safety requirements do not impact many design
variables, they are usually one of the first requirement to be reviewed. This is mainly
because it is code driven which are mandatory requirement to meet. It is also worth
mentioning that fire codes vary considerably from country to country. While the façade is
generally not required to be fire resistance rated, the requirements regarding
compartmentation and spread of flame affect the curtain wall design and it might make
not possible to use a curtain wall designed for a location to be used in a different place.

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DURABILITY EXPECTATIONS
Three requirements have been identified to define durability expectations: service life,
repair and replacement. Project brief factors that impact those requirements have been
identified along with design variables that are affected.

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11.1 Durability requirements affected by project brief factors
11.1.1 Service life
A service life ranging from 20 to 35 years is commonly associated with the building skin,
facades and roof. The multi-component nature of glass façade systems, means that the
service life and therefore re-use applicability of one component, is dependent on the
service life and/or deterioration of its nearest permanently connected neighbour
component. Service life estimates for typical curtain walling components are shown in
Figure 123.
Figure 123: Service life of façade components (Rebecca Hartwell, 2020)
The project brief factors affecting service life requirements are as per Figure 124 and as
follows:

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 Construction budget: A long design life is likely to increase the initial cost of the
project, but not necessarily the life cycle cost, and can limit the design solutions
that meet the brief.
 Design life: The client should define how long the building should last. The
design life expectations should form part of the initial brief, which should reflect
the overall requirements. BS 7543 describes the design life of most external
cladding, doors and windows as maintainable, which is defined as it lasts with
period treatment for the life of the building.
 Material selection: Very durable, long lasting construction is usually more
expensive and might restrict the design to a limited range of materials.
 Site location: in particular the climate on which the building would be located
influences the durability and expected service life as indicated in Figure 124. In
many instances degradation is not the result of action by a single environmental
agent but the effect of a combination of agents. It is therefore important to
consider each type of agent and the extent to which their combined effects are
likely to affect a particular form of construction. The most relevant agents for
degradation of building components usually originate from the atmosphere, such
as the following: freeze/thaw and wind (mechanical); solar radiation (electro-
magnetic); temperature (thermal); precipitation (solid, liquid or vapour, chemical);
normal air constituents (chemical); and air contaminants (chemical).
Construction budget
Design life
Service life
Material selection
Site location
Figure 124: Project brief factors influencing service life

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11.1.2 Repair
There are two essential points that relate to the performance of curtain walling systems to
gain maximum lifespans: Understanding of preventive maintenance routines specified by
manufacturer and regular inspections, cleaning and repairs.
Design life
Repair
Material selection
Operation budget
Figure 125: Project brief factors influencing repairs
The project brief factors affecting the repairs are as per Figure 125 and as follows:
 Design life: Program of the building might impact degradation of the components
of the material requiring more or less frequent repairs.
 Maintenance strategy: Means of access to reach façade components are
fundamental to carry out periodic inspection and maintenance activities. It would
also facilitate any required repairs.
 Material selection The specific material would dictate the need and frequency of
repair needed to achieve the expected service life.
 Operational budget: Assigned budget for the periodical inspection, maintenance
and repair would impact on the service life of each of the components.
The typical service life of a polyurethane sealant is roughly 7 to 10 years, while for a
silicone sealant it is approximately 15 to 20 years, meaning that some maintenance or
resealing will be required within the reasonable lifetime of your building.
On the other hand, IGUs usually last for 20-25 years although exposed glazing seals
require inspections and maintenance to minimize water penetration. Aluminium framing
could last for 30 years or more. However, although recoating aluminium with an air-dry
coating is possible it requires special surface preparation. It is also not as durable as the
baked on original coating. Anodized aluminium frames cannot be “re-anodized” but
however can be protected by clear coatings to improve appearance and durability.

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11.1.3 Replacement
Replacement of components is frequently needed to achieve the expected service life of

the entire systems. Similarly to the repair, the expected building design life, material
selection, budget for whole life maintenance and the strategy selected will have an impact
on the replacement requirement activities of a curtain wall as indicated in Figure 126.
In a curtain wall to keep out moisture and wind, a sealant is applied to the perimeter. This
sealant is usually replaced every 10 years or so. The removal and replacement of
perimeter sealants requires meticulous preparation and have been previously designed for
replacement.
Design life
Replacement
Material selection
Operation budget
Figure 126: Project brief factors influencing replacement
The project brief factors affecting replacement requirements are as follows:
 Design life: Program of the building might impact degradation of the components
of the material requiring more or less frequent replacement.
 Maintenance strategy: Means of access to reach façade components are
fundamental to carry out periodic inspection and maintenance activities. It would
also facilitate any required replacement.
 Material selection: The specific material would dictate the need and frequency of
replacement needed to achieve the expected service life.
 Operational budget: Assigned budget for the periodical inspection, maintenance
and replacement would impact on the service life of each of the components and
systems.
In addition, glazing system will be designed to allow for glass replacement in the event of
failure. Sometimes, the system incorporates carrier frames to allow easier replacement.

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11.2 Design paraments affected by durability requirements
11.2.1 Framing size
To allow for glass replacement, some systems might incorporate carrier frames that can
be bonded to the glass at the factory and mechanically fixed to the supporting mullions
and transoms on site. These carrier frames might add additional depth and width to the
framing size and should be conceived during design.
Replacement
Framing size
Figure 127: Durability requirements affecting framing size
It is very unusual to replace framing during expected service life of a curtain wall, and as
such, framings are not designed to allow replacement without a significant dismantling of
the curtain wall.
11.2.2 Joint size
Deterioration is more likely to occur at joints as there may be breaks in the normal
protection systems to the cladding materials, they will often be subject to more aggressive
conditions due to movements and increased water loading and the joint components such
as gaskets and sealants may be prone to degradation. Joints often occur at the interface
between different components and there is a risk that incompatible materials may be used.
For example steel or brass screws may be used to fix an aluminium window frame and
may need isolating.
Typical failure of gaskets and sealants on facades could be adhesive failure,

hardening/crazing and softening in combination with cohesive failure mainly caused by
environmental impact (Barbora Nečasová, 2020). The design of the joint should allow for
the resealing on site (Figure 128) without the need of removing adjacent components.
Repair
Joint size
Figure 128: Durability requirements affecting framing size

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Internal gaskets used to seal cavity as second and third barrier of defence. Repairs (if
feasible) require significant disassembly of curtain wall. If restoration of internal seals is
not physically possible without disassembly, installation of exterior surface wet sealing to
all glazing and frame joints is often performed.
Over service life of IGU, glazing problems specific to curtain wall construction include
condensation, material degradation and IGU delamination issues as indicated in Figure
129. Glass delamination might occur while the bonding between the layer of glass detach
usually due to moisture ingress of adhesive failure.
Service life
Glazing build-up
Figure 129: Durability requirements affecting glazing build-up
An IGU consists of two or more pane of glass that are bonded by structural silicone. The
cavity between the panes are formed by a spacer and can be filled by air or gas, typically
argon or krypton. Depending on the environment conditions where the system would be
installed, the gas cavity might not achieve the desired service life, making the air the
optimum choice for filling the cavity.
Service life
Glazing cavity
Figure 130: Durability requirements affecting glazing cavity
It is important to know the location and climate of the insulating glass to select the
appropriate air or glass filling for the cavity to avoid impacting the expected service life
as indicated in Figure 130.

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11.2.5 Glazing retention
Curtain wall systems are designed to allow for glass replacement over the service life of
the system and without the need of removing adjacent components. Glazing system will
be designed to allow for glass replacement in the event of failure. The glass retention
systems are designed to allow detaching and reinstatement of glass as indicated in Figure
131.
Replacement
Glazing retention
Figure 131: Durability requirements affecting glazing retention
Sometimes, the system incorporates carrier frames to allow easier replacement.

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11.3 Summary of durability requirements
The three (3) durability requirements, service life, repair and replacement, and assembly,
can be impacted by up to six (6) project brief factors. The durability requirements affect
five (5) design variables as indicating in Figure 132.
Figure 132: Durability requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design variables.
The three (3) identified durability requirements are affected by four (4) project factor
each. In fact, repair and replacement are affected by same project brief factors. The
requirement for replacement affects the most the design variables and it requires to be
integrated early in the design.

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FABRICATION CONSTRAINS
Three stages have been identified during the fabrication phase: manufacturing,
processing and assembly. Constraints during each of these stages have been identified
and how they affect the design variables are studied in this chapter.

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12.1 Fabrication stages
12.1.1 Manufacturing constrains
During manufacturing a range of industry players would produce the components for the
unitized curtain wall system. Several procedures take place during manufacturing:
extruding, casting, moulding, chemical fabrication, and float processes. Certain number
of these processes have constraints as listed in Figure 133.
Glass thickness range
Glass panel size limit
Extruded profile length

Manufacturing
Gasket compression
Extruded profile size
Cast element size
Figure 133: Current constraints during manufacturing stage
The current constraints during manufacturing stages are linked to the components and
material:
 Extrusion process for aluminium framing:

o Extruded profile size: Standard die size is 320mm diameter, which usually
limit the profile size to 300mm maximum.
o Extruded profile length During the extrusion process, the profile could
achieve approximately until 10m.
 Casting process for metal hardware:
o Cast element size: Metal casting can have a variety range of sizes.
However, it is seen as a cost premium procedure in the industry and it is
rarely used for large unitized curtain wall components. Usually
components not larger than 200mm x 200mm x 200mm.
 Chemical process and moulding for rubber gaskets:
o Gasket compression: Depending on the shape acquired by the gasket, it
would have a higher or lower ability to compress and expand to

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accommodate movement joints. The chemical composition of the actual
gasket would also play a role in the compression factor.
 Float processes for glass panels:
o Glass panel size: The typical width of the float glass line is 3,210mm. This
value limits one of the dimensions of glass panels, usually the width. The
length is usually not considered an issue. Typical length is 4,500mm,
5,100mm and 6,000mm, although currently some float lines can achieve
length of up to 18m.
o Glass thickness range: The thickness of the glass is dictated by the speed
of which the molten mix is poured into a tin bath.

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12.1.2 Processing constraints
The processing is defined as the stage that occurs when a component is being treated prior
to assembly. Typical processing methods are cutting, painting, vulcanizing, coating heat
treating, laminating, and insulating.
Cavity compression

Processing
Hard or soft body coating
Moulded profile size
Number of coating
Selectivity ratio
Figure 134: Current constraints during processing stage
Certain number of these processes have constraints that affect the design variables.
Constraint generated during the process are summarized below:
 Cutting process. The cutting process brings each component into the required
length and width prior to the assembly. The cutting process can be machined or
manually. Allowable tolerances are usually set by standard to set a level across
industry, generating the following constraints:
o Extruded profile size: Cutting tolerances of +/- 0.5mm to +/-1.5mm
depending on the processor.
o Moulded profile size: Cutting tolerances of - 1.0mm to +5.0mm
o Glass sizes: Cutting tolerances of: The tolerances on nominal dimensions
length and width are +/- 5 mm as per EN 572 (CEN, 2012).
 Painting or finishing of the profile can be made by a series of methods. The most
common applications are powder-based paints or chemical baths, known as
anodising. Both require the profile to fit in an over or tin which have a limited
size. This process creates the following constraint:
o Profile length: Powder Coating: Approximately up to 8m long. Limited
suppliers might reach larger profile up to 11m but it is uncommon in the
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curtain wall industry. Anodized: Approximately up to 6m Limited
suppliers might reach larger profile up to 12m but it is uncommon in the
curtain wall industry.
 Coating: During the coating process metal oxides are sprayed to form thin layers
on the glass surface to modify the solar transmittance of the glass when exposed to
sun. The number of layer and the composition of this layer is dictated generate
constraints:
o Hard or soft body coating: Soft coatings need to be incorporated within the
IGU as they are less durable than hard coatings when exposed to the
atmosphere.
o Number of coating layers: To achieve the expected performance several
coating layers are stack on top pf each other. These layers are usually made
of silver and dielectric materials. Depending on the equipment, it might be
a limitation in the number of coating applied and hence the performance
achieved.
o Selectivity ratio: Selectivity of glass is the ratio between light transmission
and solar factor. Industry can widely achieve 1.5 with some coatings
achieving more than 2.
 Glass processing: It involves a series of activities to bring the large monolithic of
glass into the composition that will be used in the panels. Each of this process
creates constrains mainly in the glass sizes:
o Glass panel size limit: During lamination and heat treating and further
processing, more limitation might apply to the sizes depending on the
equipment used. Many standard processes would limit their standard sizes
to 2.5m wide by 4m long.
o Cavity compression: The glass cavity can be affected if the glass is
assembled in a location with a significant altitude difference compared to
the project location.

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12.1.3 Assembly constrains
The assembly is known as the process when all components are mounting together to
form the curtain unit. The assembly stage usually takes place in the factory for unitized
curtain to ensure a level of quality and reduce fabrication tolerances. However, it still
imposes some constraints into the variables as described in Figure 135.
Assembly
Unit assembly tolerances
Figure 135: Current constraints during the assembly process
The assembly constraints are a combination of the tolerances for each of the components
of a curtain wall unit:
 Profile size for framing: Tolerances are expected within:

o Width and height: +/- 0.5mm.
o Thickness: +/- 3mm.
o Squareness of the external face measured along the diagonals: +/- 1.5mm
per meter on the length of each diagonal and a maximum difference of
4mm in the length of each diagonal.
o Edge straightness: +/- 1 mm per meter measured from the true line.
o Bow/flatness: 4mm maximum measured from the true surface.
o Twist: One corner not more than 4mm up from the plane containing the
other three corners.
 Glass size for panels. Finished IGUs tolerances are expected within:
o Length and Width on units up to 3m²: +3mm, - 0mm.
o Length and Width on units 3m² to 8.5m²: 4.5mm, - 0mm.
o Length and width on units over 8.5m²: +6mm, - 0mm.
o Thickness for 2 panes of glass each 6mm or less plus air space: +/-1mm.
o Thickness for 2 panes of glass each over 6mm plus air space: +/- 1.5mm.
o Variation in thickness round the perimeter of any one unit. Not more than
1mm.
 Finished structurally glazed double units shall be within the following tolerances.
o Sub-frame length and width: +/-2mm.

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o Sub-frame squareness measured along the diagonals:
o 5mm difference in the length of each diagonal.
o IGU length and width: +1.0mm, -2.0mm.
o Stripping of coating on surface 2 of the IGU: -0, + 4.0 mm where the zero
dimension is towards the structural seal.
o Spacer bar position: +/-2.0mm from the nominal position in the plane of
the two panes of glass.

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12.2 Design variables affected by fabrication constrains
The fabrication constrains listed in previous section presents limitations in the design
variables of a unitized curtain wall. The affected design variables are described in detail
in the following sections.
12.2.1 Framing size
The framing size is very dependable in what the current industry can achieve. Limitation
in length and size dictates the profile shape available in the market. The limit on the glass
width also rules the maximum centre distance between framing in at least one direction as
described in Figure 136.
Framing size
Cast element size
Figure 136: Fabrication constrains affecting framing size
The fabrications constraints affect the framing size as follows:
 Extruded profile length: Powder Coating: 7.2m for vertical powder coating &
8.4m for horizontal powder coating. Limited suppliers might reach larger profile
up to 11m but it is uncommon in the curtain wall industry. Anodized: 6.8m
Limited suppliers might reach larger profile up to 12m but it is uncommon in the
curtain wall industry.
 Extruded profile size: Standard die size is 320mm diameter, which usually limit
the profile size to 300mm maximum. Larger extrusions are possible, but it is
limited to a few suppliers which might lead to higher cost.
 Cast element size: Metal casting can have a variety range of sizes. However, it is
seen as a cost premium procedure in the industry and it is rarely used for unitized
curtain wall profiles.
 Glass panel size limit: The typical width of the float glass line is 3.2m. This value
limits one of the dimensions of glass panels, usually the width.

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Above constraints, determine that the limitation for typical framing size are:
 Depth: < 300mm.

 Length: 6-8m, subject to finishes.
 Framing spacing in at least direction: < 3m centres.
While some performance requirement and project brief could have been suggested larger
framing size. It can be said that framing size as design variable is dominated to what the
industry can currently achieved.

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12.2.2 Joint size
The joint size might vary from curtain wall to curtain wall. The key elements that
influence during the fabrication is the gasket compression. Depending on the shape
acquired by the gasket, it would have a higher or lower ability to compress and expand to
accommodate movement joints. The chemical composition of the actual gasket would
also play a role in the compression factor.
Unit assembly tolerances
Gasket compression
Joint size
Moulded profile size
Figure 137: Fabrication constrains affecting joint size
 Extruded profile length: Limitation on the profile sizes provides a maximum

dimension for the curtain wall units. This limitation benefits the joints, since the
larger those units are the larger the joint should be to be able to accommodate
movement. The larger the joint is, the increase risk of air leakage and energy lost
through the joints.
 Glass panel size limit: Similarly, to the extruded profile length, limitation on the
glass sizes provides a maximum dimension for the curtain wall units.
 Unit assembly tolerances: A combination of the tolerances for each of the
components of a curtain wall unit.
 Mould profile size: Gaskets fabrication tolerances: - 1mm to +5mm
 Gasket compression: Depending on the shape acquired by the gasket, it would
have a higher or lower ability to compress and expand to accommodate movement
joints. The chemical composition of the actual gasket would also play a role in the
compression factor
Above constraints, determine that the limitation for typical joint size are:
 Minimum: 10mm
 Maximum: 30mm for single bubble gasket or 60mm for double bubble gaskets.

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The available thickness in the market is common to majority of the float line factories as
listed in Figure 138. The most common minimum available thickness is 3mm and
multiply thickness in case of laminated glass. Scarce float lines could produce thinner
glass such as 1mm or 2mm, but it is uncommon in the curtain wall industry. The available
thickness is the starting point for glass build-up selection.
Glass thickness range
Glazing build-up
Hard or soft coating
Figure 138: Fabrication constrains affecting glass build-up
The thickness of the glass is dictated by the speed of which the molten mix is poured into
a tin bath. Typical glass thickness are 3mm, 4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm,
15mm, 19mm and 25mm. Laminated panes are made multiply ply. The thickness would
be a multiply number of the available thickness. The available of hard and soft coating
would dictate the position in the glass build-up as hard coating can be located on the outer
face where soft coatings need to be protected from the external environment facing the
cavity. The use of hard and soft coating would dictate the position in the glass build-up as.
For IGUs, the cavity needs to be taken as additional in the build-up mentioned in 12.2.3.
It is fundamental when insulating a unit to know the building location where the glass
unit would be installed as indicated in Figure 139.
Cavity compression
Glazing cavity
Figure 139: Fabrication constrains affecting glass cavity
The glass cavity can be affected if the glass is insulated in location with a significant
altitude compared to where the glass would be finally placed. If there is difference in
altitude, the air or gas inside the cavity might change their volume and create a distortion
on the glass, known as pillowing.

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12.2.5 Glass coating
The glass industry is constantly evolving the glass coating performance. A good
selectivity ratio between the visual light transmission and infrared is considered 1.8,
although some coating as are to achieve a ratio higher than 2. in Figure 140.
The capability of added more layers of coating would increase the selectivity, but it might
lead to a darker glass or low light transmission ending with low natural lighting inside the
building.
Number of coating layers

Glass coating
Selectivity ratio
Figure 140: Fabrication constrains affecting glass coating
Coatings are thin layers of metals or metal oxides. Some are very thin and work at the
atomic scale to cause interference of the electromagnetic waves. Others are thicker, but
still measured in microns, and work by absorbing the electromagnetic energy. Hard or
pyrolytic coatings are applied to the glass as it is produced on the float line. The coating is
applied while the glass is semi-molten and is fused to the surface. The coating cannot be
removed from the surface without damaging the glass Hence the term ‘hard coating’

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12.3 Summary of constraints during fabrication
When combining the three fabrication stages, manufacturing, processing and assembly, a
total of thirteen (13) industry constraints have been identified. Those 13 constraints affect
five (5) design variables as indicating in Figure 141.
Figure 141: Industry constraints during fabrication and affected design variables.
The fabrication stage that creates more industry constrains is the processing with eight (8)
followed by the manufacturing stage with six (6). The least number of constrains is the
assembly.
The most affected design variables by the fabrication constraints are the joint size with six
(6) following by framing size with four (4) constraints. This indicates that framing and
joint components are the areas where the industry should put effort to improve the current
technology. In addition, the limitation in the glass width is a recurrent constraint in
numerous projects at design stage that requires modifications of the modulation to fit with
the available sizes.

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TRANSPORTATION LIMITS
Two stages have been identified during the transportation phase: packaging and
shipping. Constraints during each of these stages have been identified and how they affect
the design variables are studied in this chapter.

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13.1 Transportation stages
13.1.1 Packaging constraints
Since the unitized curtain wall is based on the pre-assembly of panels on factory,
packaging of the panels is required to move them from the factory to the site. Although
not a specific limitation, but for the benefits of packaging, a highly repetition of panel
sizes is desired to optimize the protection and packaging volume as shown on Figure 142.
Figure 142: Packaging of panels with same size
Therefore, based on the preference for similarity, it can be noted that the shipping can
limit the panel size, or at least the variety of panel sizes on a building as indicated in
Figure 143.
Packaging
Panel size variation limit
Figure 143: Limitations during packaging
It is also worth to note that the preference is for the panels to be packaged vertically to
avoid the glass deflection on a different manner to what it should be if panels are placed
horizontally.

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13.1.2 Shipping constraints
Usual means of transport for curtain wall panels are either by land or sea. The number of
unitized curtain wall panels that would fit in a truck or container will depend on
dimensions of the panels. However, the effective width of 2.44m and length of 12m
should be considered as a design parameter.
The height of the panel is usually floor-to floor which in most of the cases is above 3m.
Therefore, in both the transport by sea or by land, a driver constraint is the limited
dimension of 2.4m for the panels width as per Figure 144.
Shipping
Panel width limit
Figure 144: Limitations during transportation
A solution is sometimes the use of open container, but it drives the cost up significantly
particularly when distance is considerable.
The time of transport is also an important factor during the procurement of a facades.
However, since it rarely affects the design of a unitized curtain wall, time has not been
considered as a variable in this research

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13.2 Design variables affected by transportation constraints
The transportation constrains listed in previous section presents certain limitations in the
design variables of a unitized curtain wall. Although not many, the design parameters
affected are described.
13.2.1 Framing size
Although it might not be a constraint as such, the preference for limiting the panel size as
explained in Figure 145 to optimize the packaging volume, reinforces further the use of
extruded profile for framing. The cost of creating a die with a new profile shape is usually
high, but the more repetition in the use of that profile, the more cost effective the die
becomes.
Profile size variation limit
Framing size
Figure 145: Transportation constrains affecting framing size
The fact that unitized curtain wall tends to repeat size as much as possible, makes
extrusion the preferred fabrication method profile repetition a benefit.
13.2.2 Joints size
Limitation on the panel sizes provides a maximum dimension for the curtain wall units.
This limitation benefits the joints, since the larger those units are the larger the joint
should be to be able to accommodate movement. The larger the joint is, the increase risk
of air leakage and energy lost through the joints as shown in Figure 146.
Panel width limit
Joint size
Figure 146: Transportation constrains affecting joint size
Limitation on the glass and profile sizes provides a maximum dimension for the curtain
wall units. The actual size of the joint depends on other factors such as gasket
compression or tolerances which are not affected by the transportation.

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13.3 Summary of constraints during transportation
The transportation is the stage that imposes least number of constrains in the design of a
unitized curtain wall. Only two constrains affecting two design variables have been
identified in this study as indicated in Figure 147.
Figure 147: Industry constraints during transportation and affected design variables
Nevertheless, it is to be noted that the panel width constraint has a high implication on the
design limiting the modulation of the curtain wall in elevation. The measurement is a
global limitation and it is likely to remain for a long time as it is linked to the global
logistic transportation and to the agree standard size of containers.

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INSTALLATION CHALLENGES
Three stages have been identified during the installation phase: storage, lifting and
placing. Constraints during each of these stages and how it affects the design variables
are studied in this chapter.

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14.1 Installation stages
14.1.1 Storage constrains
The unitized curtain wall panels usually arrived in packages to site. As part of the
logistics on site, an area is normally allocated for façade storage area usually at the
ground until it gets lifted as shown in Figure 148. The storage area should have sufficient
space for truck access and unload operations.
Figure 148: Storage area on site
This storage phase does not constitute a specific limitation for the design variables.

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14.1.2 Lifting constrains
Unitized curtain wall is used on facades mainly on high-rise building. The panels need to
be brought up for its later installation. Panels can be lifted still as part of a package or
individually.
Should the lifting occur as part of a package, it will unlikely generate a constraint for the
design. However, when panels are lifted individually, different loading might be
generated in the panel, usually considered as ‘temporally loading’ which should be
considered while designing.
Lifting
Temporally loading
Figure 149: Limitations during lifting
installed in place. While not a specific constraint the temporally loads should be known
and be considered in the design as indicated in Figure 149

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14.1.3 Placing constraints
Placing occurs when the unitized curtain wall panels is positioned in the final location. A
number of steps occurs, setting out of brackets, handling using equipment, locating in
place and adjusting in position via brackets. Each of these steps have certain constraints
as listed in Figure 150.
Brackets installation usually occurs much earlier than panels. When panels will be
supported by concrete primary structure, many times, it requires cast-in channels which
are installed with the slab rebars before pouring the concrete.
Bracket setting out
Panel handling
Placing
Workmanship tolerances
Gasket & seal installation

Figure 150: Limitations during placing stage
The constraints considered during placing are as follows:
 Bracket setting out: The setting-out of the bracket will drive the success or fail of
installation. Brackets are the transition from the primary structure, which
tolerances are in cm to the façade which tolerances are measured in mm. The more
tolerance the brackets are able to absorb the lower impact on the joint would be.
 Panel handling: Panels are to be handling from inside to outside, facilitated by
equipment installed in the building slabs (such as spider crane) or from outside
using external equipment (such as tower crane). Weather conditions, especially
wind, can affect the panel handling and installation.
 Workmanship tolerances: The combination of the bracket setting out and panel
handling delivers in the workmanship, which require to modify deviation by
adjusting the fixing at brackets in the three directions. After adjustment, certain
installation tolerances are still allowed.
 Gasket & seal installation: Once panels are installed, additional gaskets are
usually added, particularly horizontal gaskets acting as gutters at cruciform
interface.

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14.2 Design variables affected by installation constraints
The constrains listed in previous section presents limitations in the design variables of a
unitized curtain wall.
14.2.1 Framing size
installed in place. While not a specific constraint the temporally loads should be known
and be considered in the design of the profile framing as indicated in Figure 151.
Temporally loading
Framing size
Figure 151: Installation constrains affecting framing size
Although the temporally loading is usually lower than the wind load or other most
dominant loads, it should not be discarded in the design as it might impose the loading at
other locations creating a different load path.

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14.2.2 Joint size
Several constraints during installation might affect the joint size. Certain standards can be
used as guidelines to set up the allowable tolerance as the CWCT Standard for systemised
building envelope (CWCT, 2005).
Bracket setting out
Joint size Panel handling
Workmanship tolerances
Figure 152: Installation constrains affecting joint size
By a correct setting out of the brackets and panel handling, the tolerances absorbed can be
of the range of 1/10. Typical tolerances of a primary structure of +/- 25mm could be
reduced to +/- 2 to 4mm tolerance that would be able to adjust by the panel.
Limiting the workmanship tolerances are fundamental to reduce the deviation of the joint
installation. There is no mandatory regulation that set up the accuracy of joints between
panels. However, accuracy of erection is usually set up by the designer of the building.
The diagram contained in Figure 153 shows the maximum offset expected at unitized
curtain wall panels once installed on site.
Figure 153: Accuracy of junction between components (CWCT, 2005)
The above limitations are important to achieve for a performance point of view but also
from aesthetics. The offset elevation can cause distortion in reflection if excessive.

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Gaskets and seals are required to seal the system and provide water tightness and a key
element for the equalization and drainage of the system. Some gaskets might be pre-
assembled in the unit in the factory, while some other will be post-fixed after panels have
been installed and adjusted in place. In most cases is a combination of the two, with the
vertical and air seals usually pre-assembled in the panels and the horizontal gasket at
cruciform, sometimes known as saddle gasket or panel splice, post-fixed on site.
Figure 154: Site applied horizontal sealant (Jackson, 2016)
The reason for the post-fixing is that the cruciform joint spans over two units collecting
the water from the vertical joint and draining towards the outside determining the
equalization & drainage strategy for the system as indicated in Figure 155.
Gasket & seal installation
Joint size
Figure 155: Installation constrains affecting equalization and drainage
Once panels are installed, additional gaskets are usually added, particularly horizontal
gaskets acting as gutters at cruciform interface.

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14.3 Summary of constraints during installation
When combining the three installation stages, storage, lifting and placing, a total of five
(5) industry constraints have been identified. Those 5 constraints affect three (3) design
variables as indicating in Figure 156. The installation stage that creates more industry
constrains is lifting with four (4), followed by the lifting stage with one. No constraints
have been identified during storage that would affect the design variables.
Figure 156: Industry constraints during installation and affected design variables.
The most affected design variable by the installation constraints is the joint size
dominated by three (3) constraints. Framing size and equalization & drainage have one
constraint each. This indicates the design of the joint and the success of the system is very
dependent on the quality of installation, which many times is unknown at the time of the
design, leading to system failure such as air infiltration or water leaks.

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MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
Three stages have been identified during the maintenance phase: cleaning, repairing and
replacement. Constraints during each of these stages and how it affects the design
variables are studied in this chapter.

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15.1 Maintenance stages
15.1.1 Cleaning constraints
The means of access covers the equipment used to reach the curtain wall surfaces for
cleaning. It is important to note that only the outer surface and inner surface is reachable,
unless a component is operable, and as such it depends that cavities are sealed to avoid
dust or dirt to enter. The means of access can also exert impact loads on the curtain wall if
accidentally hit the curtain wall surfaces.
Reachable surfaces
Impact loading Cleaning
Restraint points
Figure 157: Constrains during cleaning activities
Certain regulations required the means of access to be restraint to the façade at interval
which can vary from 20 to 40m centre. The aim is to limit the pendulum effect when
location of the curtain wall.
Constraints during cleaning activities are illustrated in Figure 157 as follows:
 Reachable surfaces: Only reachable surface could be cleaned. This required

cavities to be sealed to avoid dust or dirt to enter.
 Impact loading: Impact loads might be exerted on the curtain wall when means of
access hit the surfaces.
 Restraint points: Certain regulations required means of access to be restrained at
intervals.
How the constraints listed affects the design variables are studied in next section.

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15.1.2 Repairing constraints
Repairing and resealing is required to extend the service life of components and curtain
wall. Most area of the glass and framing are relatively reachable, but gaskets and sealant
are more difficult to reach.
Curtain walls and perimeter sealants require maintenance to maximize the service life of
the curtain walls. Perimeter sealants have a typical service life of 10 to 15 years.
should be reachable for repairs as indicated in Figure 158. In additional a system that
relays on a frequent maintenance or reparation of the gaskets and seals would require to
be designed for that. After reaching the service life of the gaskets and sealants the system
might lose performance typically air infiltration and water leaks.
Repairing
Components accessibility
Figure 158: Considerations for repairing activities
Aluminium frames are inherently corrosion resistant in many environments if anodized

and properly sealed or painted with baked-on fluoropolymer paint. Aluminium frames are
subject to deterioration of the coating and corrosion of aluminium in severe (industrial,
coastal) environments and galvanic corrosion from contact with dissimilar metals.
Recoating with an air-dry fluoropolymer coating is possible but requires special surface
preparation and is not as durable as the baked-on original coating. Anodized aluminium
frames cannot be "re-anodized" in place but can be cleaned and protected by proprietary
clear coatings to improve appearance and durability.
Frame corner seals constructed using sealant are prone to debonding from prolonged
contact with moisture and from thermal, structural, and transportation movements.
Exposed glazing seals and gaskets require inspection and maintenance to minimize water
penetration, limit exposure of frame seals, and protect insulating glass seals from wetting.
Other components that might require reparation over service life are framing surface if
damaged by impact or paint failure. Repairs on the IGUs are very uncommon as glass
usually requires replacement after failure of either the glass panel or its sealants.

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should be reachable for repairs.
15.1.3 Replacement constraints
A curtain wall is designed to allow glass replacement. Other components such as gaskets
or sealants might also require replacement and would need to be considered in the design.
Replacement of framing members is less likely to occur during the service life of a
curtain wall.
Gasket replacement can require intensive effort, depending on the accessibility and it
usually occurs if glass is also replaced. If only gasket replacement is required, additional
seal might be added without removal. Components need to be reachable for replacement.
Alternatively, additional components will need to be added if the initial components fail.
Replacement
Glass weight limit
Figure 159: Consideration for replacement activities
External shading might difficult the replacement of glass and other components. The
adequate distance to curtain walls to allow replacement needs to be taken into
consideration during design stage. However external shading has not been considered as
an essential design variable in this study and as such, will not represent a constraint in the
methodology.

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15.2 Design variables affected by maintenance constraints
15.2.1 Framing size
Certain regulations required the means of access to be restraint to the façade at intervals
which can vary from 20 to 40m centre. The aim is to limit the pendulum effect when
location of the curtain wall framing trough the joints. The pull-out loading that those
restrains imposed on the curtain wall is usually sustained and transferred through the
framing to the primary structure as indicated in Figure 160.
Restraint points
Framing size
Figure 160: Maintenance constrains affecting framing size
The pull-out loading is required to be known during the design to be considered while
sizing the profiles

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15.2.2 Joint size
The maintenance constraints that affect the joint size are the accessibility of components
and the suspended access equipment restraint points as indicated in Figure 161. Seal of
the curtain wall occurs at joints. Whether for repair or replacement, accessibility is needed
for maintenance. The design of the joints should allow maintenance activities to extend
the services life of the system.
For high-rise building, where suspended access equipment requires restraint point, it
usually happens through the joint. Restraint points can be located in the vertical or
horizontal joint and it would have an impact on the size, and it might affect the movement
accommodation if it is not taken into account.
Joint size
Restraint points
Figure 161: Maintenance constrains affecting joint size
Joints are to be designed to allow for components accessibly and restraint points for high-
rise buildings. Two aspects of maintenance need to be considered. Clearly it must be
possible to rectify any defects in the joint and this is likely to be easier where access can
be gained from inside the building. However, it may also be necessary to dismantle the
joint to rectify faults in other components. For example, glazing beads will have to be
removed to replace failed glazing units.

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15.2.3 Glass build-up
Maintenance activities might exert accidental loads on to the curtain when accidentally
either the equipment or the operator hit the façade surfaces. Impact might happen either
externally or internally. Users might also cause internal impact onto the glass. If the glass
fails, it might create the risk of falling from height and as such most of the regulations
request the safety glass in those critical location. In addition, it is also recommended that
glass is able to provide containment after breakage.
Glass build-up should be designed to account for those accidental impacts and provide
containment when there is a drop of height as indicated in Figure 162.
Impact loading
Glass build-up
Glass weight limit
Figure 162: Maintenance constrains affecting glass build-up
The EN 1808 (CEN, 2015) limits the weight of suspended material to 1,000 kg including
replacement equipment to hold the glass. This limits the allowed glass weight for
replacement to approximately 700kg per unit.
Impact loading from maintenance activities or users might cause failure.

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15.2.4 Glass cavity
Glass is a material that requires frequent cleaning. However only the researchable surface
allows cleaning. In an IGU, the surfaces facing the cavity are unreachable due to the
limited cavity width. Therefore, the IGUs are designed with a sealed cavity as indicated in
Figure 163. Butyl is usually used at the edges to stop air and vapour transfer and
desiccant is inserted in the spacer to absorb any moisture content that could have been
trapped during assembly.
Reachable surface
Glass cavity
Figure 163: Maintenance constrains affecting glass cavity
The need for cleaning the cavity internal surfaces if unsealed limits other functions that
could be happening within the cavity to enhance the performance, such as ventilation or
shading.
Sealed cavity is required to prevent moisture and dust entering the space.
Seal of the curtain wall occurs at joints. Whether for repair or replacement, accessibility is
needed for maintenance. The design of the joints should allow maintenance activities to
extend the services life of the system to ensure the equalization and drainage system
performs over the service life of the system as indicated in Figure 164.
When gaskets and seals are not accessible for maintenance it might affect the
performance of the system leading to air infiltration or water leaks.
Equalization & drainage
Figure 164: Maintenance constrains affecting equalization & drainage
Joints are to be designed to allow for components accessibly and restraint points for high-
rise buildings.

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15.3 Summary of constraints during maintenance
When combining the three maintenance stages, cleaning, repairing and replacement a
total of five (5) industry constraints have been identified. Those 5 constraints affect five
(5) design variables as indicating in Figure 165. The maintenance stage that creates more
industry constrains as similarly the cleaning and replacement with three (3) constraints
each. Constraints identified during repairing also affects during replacement.
Figure 165: Industry constraints during maintenance and affected design variables.
The most affected design variables by the maintenance constraints is the glass build-up
two (2) constraints. The other four variables are affected by one (1) constraint each. The
fact that the maintenance activities affect six of the nine design variables studied in this
research, indicate the importance of developing the maintenance strategy parallel to the
design of the curtain wall.

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PROPOSED SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
The systematic approach has been based on the relationship between independent,
intervenient, and dependent variables. The aim of the systematic approach is to be used
two directions. Defining the project brief factors and the construction stages to determine
the design parameters and in the reverse mode to verify that all requirements and
limitations have been considered.

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16.1 Overview
The systematic approach has been based on the relationship between independent,
intervenient, and dependent variables. The type and number of variables used as listed in
Table 25.
Table 25: Type and number of variables used for the approach
Type of variable Description of variables Number of variables

Independent Project brief factors 14
Intervenient Project requirements 23
Dependent Design variables 9
Independent Construction stages 10
Intervenient Current constraints 24
Total 80
Relationships have been identified between the independent, intervening, and dependent
variables. Relationships are linked between the project requirement variables (project
brief factors, requirements and design parameters) and between the industry limitation
variables (construction phases, limitations and design parameters) as listed in Table 26.
The design parameters or dependent variables are identical for both sets of relationships.
Table 26: Number of relationships between variables
Variables set From To Number of relationships

Project Independent variables Intervenient variables 83
requirements
Intervenient variables Dependent variables 55
Industry Independent variables Intervenient variables 32
limitations
Intervenient variables Dependent variables 27
Total 197

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16.2 Systematic approach diagram
Combining the project requirements and industry limitations determine in each of the
chapters, an overall relationship diagram has been established for the design of a unitized
curtain wall.
Figure 166: Overall relationship diagram
The aim of the systematic approach is to be used two directions. Defining the project brief
factors and the construction stages to determine the design parameters and in the reverse
mode to verify that all requirements and limitations have been considered.
The number of design variables affected by the curtain wall requirements and the current
constraints are listed in Table 27 and Table 28 respectively.

210
Table 27: Requirements affecting design variables
Requirement Project requirements

categories
Number design variables per req.

Glazing retention
Glazing build-up
Glazing coating
Spandrel panel
Glazing cavity
Thermal break
Framing size
Joint size
Wind load 2
Thermal Load 2
Self weight load 1
Structural loading Seismic load 1
Impact load 1
Blast load 3
Barrier load 2
Slab deflection 1
Accommodation
of movement Building sway 1
Thermal expansion 1
Air tightness 2
Weathering
Water resistance 2
Thermal Resistance 8
Condensation 8
Building physics
Solar gains 2
Light transmission 2
Flanking transmission 2
Acoustics Airborne sound
insulation 4
Surface spread 2
Fire safety
Compartmentation 2
Service life 2
Durability Repair 1
Replacement 2
Number of project requirements per design
variable 13 8 3 9 4 4 4 2 7 54

211
Table 28: Industry limitation affecting design variables
Construction Construction Industry limitation

phase stage
Glazing retention
Glazing build-up
Equalization and
Glazing coating
Spandrel panel
Glazing cavity
Thermal break
Framing size
Total design
Joint size
variables
drainage
Extruded profile size 2
Extruded profile length 1
Casted element size 1
Manufacturing
Glass panel size limit 1
Gasket compression 2
Glass thickness range 1
Cavity compression 1
Hard or soft coating 1
Fabrication
Number of coating
layers 1
Processing Selectivity ratio 1
Extruded profile size 1
Moulded profile size 1
Glass panel size limit 1
Extruded profile length 1
Unit assembly
Assembly
tolerances 1
Panel size variation
Packaging
Transportation limit 1
Shipping Panel width limit 1
Lifting Temporally loading 1
Bracket setting out 1
Panel handling 1
Installation
Placing Workmanship
tolerances 1
Gasket & seal
installation 1
Restraint points 2
Cleaning Reachable surface 1
Impact loading 1
Maintenance Accessibility of
Repairing components 1
Glass weight limit 1
Replacement Accessibility of
components 1
Total of industry limitations 8 13 2 3 2 3 0 0 0 31

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16.3 Design variables
16.3.1 Framing size
Calculating the framing size, depth, width, and thickness require to determine eleven (11)
project brief factors and twelve (12) curtain all requirements which is a large portion. The
construction stages that represent constraints for the framing size are five (5) construction
stage creating seven (7) current constraints as indicated in Figure 167.
Figure 167: Project requirements and industry limitations affecting framing size
The large number of project brief factors identified in the approach indicates that the
framing size is one of the parameters that it is usually determined at early stage changing
significantly from project to project.

213
16.3.2 Joint size
Calculating the joint size, depth, width, and thickness require to determine eleven (11)
project brief factors and twelve (12) curtain all requirements which a large portion. The
construction stages that represent constraints for the joint size are five (5) construction
stage creating seven (7) current constraints as indicated in Figure 168.
Figure 168: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting joint size
The joint size variable is affected by a significant number of variables. However joint
sizes are rarely calculated considering all the variables. Failures often occur at the joint
and that it is probably due to the lack of knowledge of all the requirements and limitations
of this parameters.

214
16.3.3 Glass build-up
Calculating the glazing building, including type: annealed, heat strengthened, toughened,
monolithic or laminated and the thickness require to determine eleven (11) project brief
factors and twelve (12) curtain all requirements which is a large portion. The construction
stages that represent constraints for the glazing build-up are four (4) construction stages
creating four (4) current constraints as indicated in Figure 169.
Figure 169: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting glazing build-up
The glazing build-up is usually determined at early stages although not before than the
framing size. It is dominated by five (5) structural curtain wall requirement out of seven
(7) which indicates the importance of the structural capacity associated to the glass type
and thickness.

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16.3.4 Glass coating
Establishing the glazing coating requires to determine seven (7) project brief factors and
four (4) curtain all requirements. The construction stages that represent constraints for the
glazing cavity is only one (1) construction stage leading to two (2) current constraints as
Figure 170: Project requirements and industry limitation required to determine glazing coating
The glazing coating usually requires a large amount of decision on a project due to the
impact on the visual appearance of the curtain wall. However, despite the effort that takes
to select the right coating per project, it is worth noted that it is purely dominated by the
building physics requirements and limited at processing stage only.

216
16.3.5 Glass cavity
Calculating the glazing cavity requires to determine seven (7) project brief factors and
four (4) curtain all requirements. The construction stages that represent constraints for the
glazing cavity are two (2) construction stage leading to also two (2) current constraints as
Figure 171: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting glazing cavity
The introduction of the glazing cavity was one of the advances of the technology to
overcome with the poor thermal resistance of a single piece of glass. It also helped with
the acoustic resistance as a secondary benefit. However, the glazing cavity, particularly
the required adhesives to seal it, significantly reduces the service life of a piece of glass.
Development is required for the glazing cavity adhesives to extend the service life of this
component.

217
16.3.6 Glass retention
Calculating the glazing cavity requires to determine ten (10) project brief factors and four
(4) curtain all requirements. The research on this investigation did not identify current
constraints in the construction stages that could affect the glass retention as indicated in
Figure 172.
Figure 172: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting glazing retention
While the glass retention’s function is to maintain the glass attach to the framing, it has an
impact on three unrelated requirements such as thermal resistance & condensation,
replacement strategy and blast resistance.

218
16.3.7 Thermal breaks
Calculating the glazing cavity requires to determine six (6) project brief factors and two
(2) curtain all requirements. The research on this investigation did not identify current
constraints in the construction stages that could affect the thermal break as indicated in
Figure 173.
Figure 173: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting thermal break
The function of the thermal break is to increase the thermal resistance of the metal
framing by introducing material with low thermal conductivity. The introduction of this
parameter does not influence any other requirement.

219
Establishing the equalization and drainage strategy require to determine seven (7) project
brief factors and three (3) curtain all requirements. The construction stages that represent
constraints for equalization and drainage are two (2) construction stage creating two (2)
current constraints as indicated in Figure 174.
Figure 174: Project requirements and industry limitation required to determine equalization and drainage
Equalization and drainage strategy were one of the advancements that were incorporated
in the development of the curtain wall as the initial systems with only one layer of seal
used to fail. The equalization and drainage strategies have not been developed further
since the incorporation. However, air tightness and water resistance of curtain wall
continue to be weak requirements in comparison with other façade systems. Other
strategies to protect from water could be explored.

220
Calculating the glazing cavity requires to determine nine (9) project brief factors and
seven (7) curtain all requirements. The research on this investigation did not identify
current constraints in the construction stages that could affect the spandrel panel as
Figure 175: Project requirements and industry limitation required to determine spandrel panel
The spandrel panel fulfils the role of being the interface between the curtain wall and the
floor slab. However, due to the fact that the spandrel panel is opaque, it acquires an
important role in the achievement of number of parameters based on the vision and
opaque ratio for acoustic and buildings physics requirements. It is also key to stop fire
propagation from floor to floor internally based on the leapfrog effect.
16.4 Summary
All the project requirements and industry limitations that affect each of the nine design
variables have been identified. Some of them have a particular function but the approach
has demonstrated that might affect other requirements indirectly. The current constraints
affect six of the variables and indicates the areas where the industry should focus
development or search for new technologies.

221
CASE STUDY APPLICATION
The proposed systematic approach has been applied to establish the variables that need
to be determined to design a novel unitized curtain wall system. It also focuses on the
development carried out to determine two variables.

222
17.1 Overview
The proposed systematic approach has been applied to establish the variables that need to
be determined to design a novel unitized curtain wall system. A conventional curtain wall
system with protruding framing protruding from the glazing unit is represented in Figure
176. A novel unitized curtain wall design with the aim of integrating framing within the
insulated glazed unit is sketched in Figure 177.
Figure 176: Section through mullion of unitized curtain wall system with triple glazed insulated unit ( (Cordero,
2015)
Figure 177: Section through mullion of the proposed system with triple glazed insulated unit (Cordero, 2015)

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17.2 Determination of design parameters
In order to design the unitized curtain using the proposed systematic approach, the
dependant parameters need to be determined. For the case application, the nine dependent
variables have been established in Table 29. It is essential to define these dependent
variables to design and engineer a unitized curtain all system.
Table 29: Selected curtain wall design parameters as dependent variables

Framing size Joint size Equalization and drainage
Framing size Joint sizes between unitized Application of equalization
Depth system panles Cavity drainage
Width
Thickness
Glazing build-up Glazing cavity Glazing coating

Glass type: annealed, heat Cavity width Selectivity coating properties
stregthened, toughned Air or gas filled
Monolithic or laminated
Thickness
Thermal breaks Glazing retention Spandrel panel

Location Capped At floor slab
Materials Clipped
Structural silicone

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17.3 Examples of variables study
17.3.1 Example 1: Framing size
The systematic approach indicates that to determine the framing size 12 curtain wall
requirements need to be established. Those curtain wall requirements would be also
influenced by 11 project brief factors. In addition, 7 current industry limitations need to
be known when sizing the profiles.
Figure 178: Material selection affecting wind loading and framing size
As an example, the material selection for the framing would influence the final size as
indicated in Figure 178. Either through testing or standard guides the material properties
would need to be established.
The selected material would also have significant effect on the framing size due to wind
loading. Desktop wind calculation or wind tunnel would be required to determine the
wind pressure on the panel. The wind pressure would be utilized to establish minimum
framing size required through calculation as per Figure 179.
Figure 179: Wind load application through computer modelling (Gargallo, Cordero, & Garcia-Santos, 2021)
225
17.3.2 Example 2: Glass retention
Looking at the glass retention design variable, the material selection will have an impact
on the thermal expansion which then would affect the type of glazing retention that could
be used for the system as indicated in Figure 180.
Figure 180: Material selection affecting thermal expansion and glazing retention
Th case study relays on the composite action between the glass and the framing.
Therefore, it is important that the framing has a coefficient of thermal expansion of
similar value to the glass. This similarity allows the use of stiffer adhesives with thinner
bond lines that activates the composite action between glass panels and frames. Diagram
with material comparison for glass retention is in Figure 181.
Figure 181: Material comparison for glazing retention

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17.4 Summary of case study application
The systematic approach has been used to plan the design of a unitized curtain wall. The
following benefits have been observed:
- The systematic approach has determined the variables required to obtain the
design parameters required to engineer the unitized curtain wall system.
- It can easily obtain all the variables in the design and construction that would
affect each design parameter.
- It helps to establish research lines required to obtain the parameters.
- It can be used to establish priorities for investigation lines and to identify areas
where the industry might impose limitations.
Without the proposed systematic approach, it can be tedious and difficult to capture all
requirements needed to engineer a unitized curtain wall system.

227
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
The systematic approach relationships have been analysed to extract number of

relationships between the interdependent, intervenient, and despondent variables. Results
have been interpreted to identify trends in the relationships and area for improvements on
further development.

228
18.1 Overview
In this chapter the results and outcomes obtained from the systematic approach are
analysed with the aim to interpret trends in the relationships and area for improvements
on further development.
The systematic approach has identified 80 variables and have determined 191
relationships between the variables. Looking at the distribution of the variables in
systematic approach in Figure 182 indicates that the design parameters or dependent are
only the 11% of the total number of variables. The construction stages and constraints
account for 43% of the variables, slightly higher portion than the project brief factors and
requirements with the remaining 46%.
Design
parameters
(dependent) Project brief
11% factors
(independent)
17%
Current
constraints
(intervenient)
30% Project
requirements
(intervenient)
29%
Construction
stages
(independent)
13%
Figure 182: Distribution of the systematic approach variables
Despite very similar number of variables, 69% of the relationships occur from the project
brief factors and requirements affecting the design parameters as can be seen in Figure
183. The construction stages and industry limitations only account for 31% of the
relationships.

229
The above can be read that the specific project factors have a higher degree of influence
in the design parameter than what the industry limitations generate.
From to current
constraints
(intervenient) to
design parameters
(dependent)
15% From project brief factors
From construction phases (independent) to project
(independent) to current requirements
constaints (intervenient) (intervenient)
16% 41%
From project requirements

(intervenient) to design
parameters (dependent)
28%
Figure 183: Distribution of relationships between variables
The analysis and interpretations of this investigation are based on the 189 relationships
found in the systematic approach. Looking at the variable relationships distribution, it is
to be noted that the project requirement set of variables accounts for 70% of the
relationships identified as shown in Figure 183 despite the number of intervenient
variables is lower; 23 project requirements versus 24 current constraints. This is due that
the project requirements are affected by several independent variables and affect several
dependent variables while the current constraints affection is majority single.
18.2 Analysis and interpretation of results
The systematic approach relationship has been analysed to extract number of

relationships between the interdependent, intervenient, and despondent variables. The
results have divided into project requirements and industry limitation. An overall
combination has also been reviewed.

230
18.2.1 Project requirements
The systematic approach has identified 14 project brief factors. Those project factors
influence 23 curtain wall requirements that have been established in this approach. The
curtain wall requirements have been grouped into 7 categories in this approach.
The number of project brief factors, curtain wall requirements and categories that affect
each of the design variables have been analysed in Figure 184.
Figure 184: Number of curtain wall requirements affected project brief factors
The interpretation of the project brief factor analysis in Figure 184 is as follows:
 Site location is the project brief factor that an impact on the highest number of
curtain wall requirements. This indicates clearly that a curtain wall designed for a
particular location might not be suitable in a different place. This creates a
difficulty for the standardization of the systems.
 While it is fundamental to address orientation to reduce energy consumption, it is
worth noted that it only has an impact on the solar gains and light transmission.
There is no indirect impact in other requirements or design parameters. This
makes orientation easier to address.
 The actual primary structure and the construction methods have the lowest
number of project requirements and design parameters. This indicates that it
affects a certain design parameter, but they do not have any indirect relationship
with others.
 There are four (4) project brief factors that affect through the project requirements
all the identified design parameters in this approach: building use, comfort and
231
wellbeing, energy consumption and site location. This indicates that these four
project brief factors are required to be known at the early start to design the
curtain wall accordingly.
The number of curtain wall requirements that affect design parameters have been
analysed in Figure 185.
Figure 185: Number of design parameters affected by curtain wall requirements
The interpretation of the curtain wall requirements analysis in Figure 185Figure 184 is as
follows:
 Thermal resistance and condensation are the curtain wall requirements that affect
a higher number of design parameters. Each affects eight (8) design parameters of
nine (9) identified in this approach. This is not surprise as the calculation of
thermal resistance of a curtain wall, called U-value, and assessment of
condensation risk is often carried out at various stages.
 As part of building physics, light transmission and solar gains are the curtain wall
requirements that are affected by a higher number of project brief factor. However,
the impact light transmission and solar gains have on a number of design
parameters is considerably lower than thermal resistance and condensation.
 As average, majority of the curtain wall requirements are affected by either two
(2), three (3) or four (4) project brief factors. Although it is low as fourteen (14)
project brief factors have identified, it still indicates that there are a number of
information required specific to the project prior to design any curtain wall.

232
 The structural loading and building physics requirements are affected by the same
number of project brief factors. However, it is worth to note that the structural
loading has an impact on a higher number of curtain wall requirements while the
building physics impact a much higher number of design parameters. It is very
common that a curtain wall design addresses first the structural and building
physics requirements prior to the other requirement categories.
 Weather protection affects the lower number of curtain wall requirement and
design parameters, but it is also a key requirement as a failure of these
requirements are very noticeable, particularly water resistance.

233
18.2.2 Industry limitations
The number of construction stages that affect each of the current constraints have been
analysed in Figure 186.
Figure 186: Number of current constraints affected by construction stages
The interpretation of the construction stages analysis in Figure 186 is as follows:
 Processing and manufacturing are the stages that provide the higher number of
constraints. They also affect four (4) and three (3) design parameters respectively.
Mainly of the constraints are associated to limitations in size. The industry should
review both the processing and manufacturing process to push those sizes.
 The cleaning also creates several constraints that affect four (4) design parameters.
The need for frequently cleaning is associated to the glass but is much higher than
any other material. The constraints generated due to the need of cleaning the glass
could be compared to other materials to assess the implications that generate the
use of glass. This could also be linked to the replacement stage often only
applicable to glass.
 There are five (5) constructions stage that only create a constraint for the curtain
wall each. Industry could be reviewing each of these constraints with the aim to
minimize or eliminated.

234
 Fabrication is the phase that generates higher number of current constraints.
Industry should be focused on fabrication constraints, particularly those
related to dimensions, to obtain a wide range of sizes.
 While fabrication generates higher number of current constraints, the
maintenance is the stage that affect higher number of design parameters. The
industry should focus to reduce the effect of these constraints, but projects
need to be designed with those constraints into consideration to avoid failure
or a performance reduction over the service life.
 While transportation is the phase that generates lower number of constraints or
affect lower number of design parameters, their constraints are beyond the
curtain wall industry. To reduce the implications, these constraints would need
to be addressed by the global transportation industry which would unlikely
happen in short or medium term.
The number of design parameters affected by current constraints have been analysed in
Figure 187.
Figure 187: Number of design parameters affected by current constraints
The interpretation of the design parameters analysis in Figure 187 is as follows:
 Majority of the current constraints affect only one design perimeter, except for
five (5). This single relationship simplifies what is required to minimize or reduce
the limitations.

235
 There are three (3) constraints that affect two (2) design parameters that are linked
to limit in size: framing length, width, and depth and for the glass width. These are
caused during manufacturing and processing and dictates in many occasions the
modulation of a project.
 The other two (2) constraints that affect two (2) design parameters are linked to
maintenance. These are key to ensure the curtain wall perform over their intended
service life. A project that is built without taking into considerations these
constraints might significantly reduce the service life and performance over the
time of the curtain wall.

236
18.3 Summary of combined results
An additional analysis has been made combining all the variables from the project
requirements and industry limitations. The number of curtain wall requirements and
current constraints that affect design parameters been analysed in Figure 188 and Figure
189 respectively.
Figure 188: Number of curtain wall requirements affecting the design parameters
Figure 189: Number of current constraints affecting the design parameters
The interpretation of the design parameters analysis in Figure 188 and Figure 189 is as
follows:
• Framing size along with glazing build-up are the variables most affected by both
project brief factors and curtain wall requirements followed shortly by joint size.
The main reason for that is that framing size and glazing-up are affected by
majority of categories and also have a large impact on the structural requirements.

237
• Joint size is the design parameter affected by the major number of current
constraints and stages. This highlights the need to pay a higher attention to joint
size and the technology commonly available for this parameter as it might require
improvements. It is worth to note that joint size and framing size are affected by a
higher number of constraints in comparison to all the glass design parameter
together. This indicates how the industry has spent a higher effort in improving the
glass technology but not the framing and joints, mainly metals, rubbers and
sealants.
• Joints size, framing size and glazing build-up are the three (3) design parameters
that are affected by higher number of variables. The three of them should be
addressed at early stages. Industry should also take into consideration the current
constraints affecting joint and framing size and apply research and development to
improve these parameters.
• Glazing retention is affected by a high number of project brief factors by those
when combined have an impact in a lower number of curtain wall requirements.
• Glass retention and spandrel panel design parameters affected by a high number of
project brief factors but are not affected by any industry limitation. Both
coinciding that are required for a particular function (keep the glass in place and
create the interface with floor slab respectively), but the inclusion affect a number
of project requirements.
• Design parameters mainly focus on weather project and building physics but
without structural capacity such as equalization, glazing cavity coating and
thermal breaks are dominated by a lower number of project brief factor and
requirements.
• This approach identifies three (3) design parameters that are not currently affected
by industry limitations: spandrel panel, thermal break glazing retention. These
parameters were excluded from Figure 189 for clarity.
 Equalization and drainage, glazing cavity, glazing coating and thermal break
design parameters are fundamental to achieve to building physics and weather
protection requirements. However, are affected by a very limited number of
constraints.

238
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
This chapter concludes with the systematic approach, evaluate the achievement of the
hypothesis, and set recommendations for future work and improvement of the curtain wall
design.

239
19.1 Conclusion
This research has successfully met its principal objective which was to propose a
systematic approach for the design of unitized curtain wall based on project requirements
and industry limitations.
Figure 190: Overall relationship diagram
The proposed systematic approach is portrayed in an overall relation diagram shown in

Figure 190. The proposed systematic approach is a unique perspective which aims to
agile the design process with a comprehensive application.
The approach brings out the complexity behind the design of a unitized curtain wall with
eighty (80) variables and one hundred and ninety-seven (197) interrelationships required
to be known to perform adequately. The relationships can be visualized in a glimpse
using the proposed diagrams providing clarity to the design process.
The investigation relates individually how each requirement and constraint affect the
design parameters capturing the expertise acquired by industry experts, which usually
requires a long term industry career to obtain as there is scarce literature available
covering the dependency relationships.

240
Assessment of obtained results
Focusing on the obtained results, this research derives that:
 Despite the industry effort to standardize the curtain wall fabrication, there are
fourteen (14) factors specific to each project that affect the end design. In
particular, building use, comfort and wellbeing, energy consumption and site
location affect all design parameters. This implies that these four project brief
factors are required to be known at the early stages to design the curtain wall
accordingly. Failing to understand the differences from project to project might
lead to deficiencies in the end product.
 Processing and manufacturing are the stages that provide the higher number of
constraints, thirteen (13) in total. Eleven (11) constraints are associated to
limitations in size. The size limitations identified in the approach clearly prevents
to have very dissimilar curtain wall layouts from project to project.
Research applications
The obtained systematic approach opens a series of application which could potentially
revolutionize the curtain wall design process.
 Computer automation and machine learning: Automating a procedure

requires to define workflows involving inputs, processes and outputs. The
variables and relationships identified in the proposed systematic approach can
be the base of developing complex computer workflows and mind maps. The
computer workflows could be used to automate procedures and for machine
learning applications using data analysis, identifying patterns, and making
decision with minimal human intervention.
 Learning tool: Numerous publications and courses exists focus on the curtain
wall requirements. The proposed approach could be used in learning platforms
to illustrate clearly how the specific project factors and industry limitations
can affect the design allowing a wider breath of knowledge to be acquired
through training in addition to working experience.
 Circular economy: Circular economy principles aim to keep materials in use

for longer periods. This systematic approach can be used to assess the

241
spectrum of influence and assist with the establishment of a range of systems
that could be re-used within certain parameters. Concepts such as ‘building as
material banks’ can also be benefited of using this systematic approach to
identify similarities between projects that could share materials and
components. By establishing ranges, it would become easier to reuse
construction components after life of a particular building has ended.

242
19.2 Future work
This investigation captures the variables relationships of a particular façade system, a

unitized curtain wall. There are future research lines that can be recommended for the
specific unitized curtain wall but also for other systems and applications.
Future research upon findings
The relationships obtained led to identify further research lines for the unitized curtain
wall system:
 Development of joint and framing technology: Over the decades, the industry
has been focused on improvement the glass technology, such as, heat treatment,
IGU assemblies and coatings. However, joints and framing have seen less
development even though are subjected to the influence of many variables and the
joints often the weak point for failure. Most probably due an overlook of their
complexity. Development of the current technology for joint and framing is
fundamental for the improvement of curtain wall performance.
 Size limitation in fabrication stage. Nearly half of the identified current
constraints are related to size limitation during fabrication. The industry should
invest on both the processing and manufacturing processes to push current size
boundaries to allow buildings to be designed and built with wider range of sizes.
Future utilization of the methodology
This research is based on unitized curtain wall. The methodology used in this
investigation can be relevant to other systems:
 Utilization to other facade systems: the methodology developed to set up the

systematic approach can be extended to other curtain wall systems such as stick
and semi-modular or to other façade systems. Other façade systems, such as
rainscreens, could also develop similar systematic approach. However, it is worth
noted that the design parameters and current constraints could vary significantly
with other façade systems.

243
RELEVANT PUBLICATIONS
 Gargallo, M.; Cordero, B.; Garcia-Santos, A. Material Selection and

Characterization for a Novel Frame-Integrated Curtain Wall. Materials 2021, 14,
1896. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14081896
 Gargallo, M et al. Route to net zero: The UN and RIBA. 2021. Royal Institute of
British Architects. London (United Kingdom)
 Gargallo, M. et al. State of Play for Circular Built Environment in Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Final report October 2020, Arup and
United Nations One Planet Network Sustainable Buildings and Construction
Programme
 Gargallo, M; Shaka, H. Resilient cities. 9th Annual Congress. 2020. Emirates
Green Building Council. Dubai (United Arab Emirates).
 Gargallo, M. et al. Circularity and built environment: impact on economy,
environment and society. 2020. D3 Architectural Festival. Dubai (United Arab
Emirates).
 Gargallo, M; Aguerre, M. Future Facades. Façade Actions: Climate Change and
Wellbeing. WFM Journal Volume 6 2019. Delhi (India).
 Gargallo, M et al. Skinning Tomorrow’s Skyscrapers. Polycentric cities.
Conference Proceedings. Dubai. 2018. Centre for Tall Buildings and Urban
Habitats. Chicago (United States).
 Gargallo, M. Healthy envelopes for buildings. International Architectural
Envelope Congress. 2012.San Sebastián (Spain).
 Gargallo, M The role of transparent technologies in the evolution of architectural
movements. 2009. University of Bath (United Kingdom).
 Gargallo, M. ETFE. Un material del presente. V Congreso de Fachadas Ligeras.
2009. San Sebastián (Spain).
 Gargallo, M. Los Nuevos Juzgados de Manchester.. AFL Magazine Nº1/2007.
Tecnopress Publisher, Barcelona (Spain).

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McKinstry.
Gargallo, M., Cordero, B., & Garcia-Santos, A. (2021). Material Selection and
Characterization for a Novel Frame-Integrated Curtain Wall. MDPI Materials(14).
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Segment Forecasts, 2020 - 2027. San Francisco (United States of America): Grand
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Facade Systems. Euronoise 2018 . Crete (Greece): | EAA – HELINA. doi:ISSN:
2226-5147
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London (United Kingdom): Home Office Scientific Development Branch.
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insulation of building elements — Part 1: Application rules for specific products.
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(ISBN 978-1107012400 ed.). New York (United States of America): Cambridge
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explained. London (United Kingdom): National Building Specification. RIBA
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252
List of Tables
Table 1: Exclusions and limitations .......................................................................................................10

Table 2: Aluminium alloy strenghts (CEN, 2013) .................................................................................26
Table 3: Typical properties of common façade frame materials (Cordero, 2015) .................................27
Table 4: Published curtain walling standards and best practice guidelines with edition dates ..............30
Table 5: Overview of the table of contents of published standards and guideliness ..............................31
Table 6: Movement generator (CMHC, 2004) .......................................................................................33
Table 7: Best and normal practice standards depending on building use (ATTMA, 2010) ...................35
Table 8: Design concepts and features (CMHC, 2004)..........................................................................36
Table 9: Project briefing template (RIBA, 2018)...................................................................................42
Table 10: Content of a strategic brief (Designing Building Ltd, 2019) ................................................43
Table 11: Curtain wall walling cost breakdown.....................................................................................49
Table 12: Manufacturing process for typical components of unitized curtain wall systems..................52
Table 13: Processing for typical components of unitized curtain wall systems .....................................54
Table 14: Tolerances on width, B, and length, H as per EN 12150-1 (CEN, 2000) ..............................56
Table 15: Selected curtain wall design parameters as dependent variables ...........................................69
Table 16: Project brief factors descriptions ...........................................................................................71
Table 17: Comparison of the selected curtain wall requirements and international standards
contents ..................................................................................................................................74
Table 18:Extract from minimum horizontal imposed loads for barriers (BSi, 2011) ............................85
Table 19:Exposure categories for facades based on location (CWCT, 2012)........................................86
Table 20: External surface temperatures for UK (CWCT, 2006) ........................................................100
Table 21: Curtain wall air permeability classification as per EN 12152 (CEN, 2002) .......................106
Table 22: Curtain wall water resistance classification as per EN 12154 (CEN, 2000) ....................... 108
Table 23: Comparison of code and regulation compartmentation requirements .................................152
Table 24: Comparison of code and regulation surface spread requirements........................................154
Table 25: Type and number of variables used for the approach .......................................................... 209
Table 26: Number of relationships between variables .........................................................................209
Table 27: Requirements affecting design variables .............................................................................211
Table 28: Industry limitation affecting design variables ......................................................................212
Table 29: Selected curtain wall design parameters as dependent variables .........................................224

253
List of Figures
Figure 1: Research hypothesis for the systematic approach .................................................................... 7

Figure 2: Façade system classification by use and components .............................................................. 8
Figure 3: Research scope ......................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 4: Methodoloy based on variable dependency determination .................................................... 12
Figure 5: Methodoloy to set requirements and design parameters......................................................... 12
Figure 6: Methodoloy to set limitations and design parameters ............................................................ 13
Figure 7: Components and materials of curtain wall systems................................................................ 16
Figure 8: Unitized curtain wall components .......................................................................................... 17
Figure 9: Stick curtain wall (a) aluminium supporting grid fixed to the building slab (b) infill
panels fixed to the supporting grid on site (c) schematic cross-section of glass panels
fixed to aluminium frame (Cordero, 2015) ............................................................................ 18
Figure 10: Unitised curtain wall (a) factory preassembly of glass panel and frame (b)
preassembled units delivered on site (c) installation of preassembled unit (d)
schematic cross-section of connection between two preassembled units (Cordero,
2015) ...................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 11: Typical bracket for unitized curtain wall pane (left) and position relative to floor slab
(right) ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 12: Fracture pattern of; annealed (left), heat strengthened (middle) and toughened (right)
glass and values of characteristic bending strength according to EN 572-1 (CEN,
2012); EN 13474 (CEN, 1999) and EN 16612 (CEN, 2019), image adapted (Matthias
Haldimann, 2008) .................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 13: Spandrel panel location at interface with floor slab ............................................................. 24
Figure 14: Interlock system two-part pressure plate (CMCH, 2004)..................................................... 25
Figure 15: Ventilation and drainage opening ( (CMHC, 2004)) ............................................................ 26
Figure 16: Sealant at joint comparison .................................................................................................. 37
Figure 17: Six building layers based on service life (Source: (Arup and Ellen MacArthur
Foundation, 2020) .................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 18: Factors that affects design and selection of curtain wall choice (CMHC, 2004) ................. 45
Figure 19: Curtain wall typical supply chain (Source: University of Bath)........................................... 46
Figure 20: Component assembly in curtain walls (Cordero, 2015) ....................................................... 47

254
Figure 21: Expected USA glass curtain wall market size, by system type (USD Billions)
(Grand View Research, 2019)................................................................................................48
Figure 22: Typical supply chain for unitized curtain wall panel ............................................................51
Figure 23: Tolerance limit for dimension of rectangular panels as per EN 12150-1 (CEN, 2000)........55
Figure 24: Common truck dimensions ...................................................................................................57
Figure 25: [left] Panels lifted as a package [right] panels lifted individually ........................................59
Figure 26: Unitized curtain wall horizontal alignments clips (Louis, 2015)..........................................60
Figure 27: Unitized curtain wall vertical alignments clips for stacked unitized frame. (Louis,
2015) ......................................................................................................................................60
Figure 28: Intervening variable relationship with independent and dependent variable ........................63
Figure 29: Reviewed publications by type of source .............................................................................64
Figure 30: Reviewed publications by area of research...........................................................................65
Figure 31: Project requirements variables and relationships..................................................................68
Figure 32: Industry limitation variables and relationships .....................................................................68
Figure 33: Selected project brief factors divided by categories .............................................................72
Figure 34: Selected curtain wall requirements divided by categories ....................................................75
Figure 35: Selected curtain wall requirements divided by categories ....................................................76
Figure 36: Current industry constraints selected as intervenient variables ............................................77
Figure 37: Project brief factors affecting wind load ..............................................................................80
Figure 38: Project brief factors affecting self-weight load.....................................................................81
Figure 39: Project brief factors affecting thermal load ..........................................................................82
Figure 40: Project brief factors affecting seismic load ..........................................................................83
Figure 41: Project brief factors affecting barrier load ............................................................................85
Figure 42: Project brief factors affecting impact load............................................................................86
Figure 43: Project brief factors affecting blast load ...............................................................................87
Figure 44: Structural loading requirements affecting framing size ........................................................89
Figure 45: Comparison of moment diagrams by varying stack joint locations ......................................90
Figure 46: Typical glass build-up indicating glass type, thickness and composition.............................91
Figure 47: Structural loading requirements affecting glazing build-up .................................................92
Figure 48: Blast pressure on laminated and silicone bonded glass ........................................................92
Figure 49: Structural loading requirements affecting glazing retention .................................................92

255
Figure 50: Structural loading requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design
variables. ................................................................................................................................ 93
Figure 51: Rotation of units due to floor deflection (CWCT, 2007)...................................................... 96
Figure 52: Project brief factors affecting slab deflection ....................................................................... 97
Figure 53: Unitized curtain wall movement subject to building sway................................................... 98
Figure 54: Project brief factors affecting building sway ........................................................................ 99
Figure 55: Project brief factors affecting thermal expansion ............................................................... 101
Figure 56: Movement accommodation location .................................................................................. 102
Figure 57: Movements requirements affecting joint size ..................................................................... 102
Figure 58: Movements requirements affecting glazing retention ........................................................ 103
Figure 59: Movement accommodation requirements impacted by project brief factors and
affected design variables...................................................................................................... 104
Figure 60: Project brief factors influencing air tightness ..................................................................... 106
Figure 61: Example of water leakage in a transom .............................................................................. 107
Figure 62: Project brief factors influencing water resistance............................................................... 107
Figure 63: Mullion joint with gaskets between split profiles ............................................................... 109
Figure 64: Weathering requirements affecting joint size ..................................................................... 109
Figure 65: Pressure equalized joint components.................................................................................. 110
Figure 66: Weathering requirements affecting equalization and drainage........................................... 110
Figure 67: Weathering requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design
variables ............................................................................................................................... 111
Figure 68: Average U-values of various glazing and solid walls ........................................................ 114
Figure 69: Project brief factors influencing thermal transmittance...................................................... 115
Figure 70: Psychrometric chart (left) and example of condensation on a curtain wall frame
(right) ................................................................................................................................... 116
Figure 71: Project brief factors influencing condensation ................................................................... 117
Figure 72: Solar radiation spectrum ( (Robert, n.d.) ............................................................................ 118
Figure 73: Project brief factors influencing solar gains ....................................................................... 119
Figure 74: Solar radiation spectrum highlighting visible light and infrared (left) and Incident
light through transparent and translucent components (right) (CWCT, 2007) .................... 120
Figure 75: Project brief factors influencing light transmission ............................................................ 121
Figure 76: U-value distribution (left) (Cordero, 2015) and components in framing systems
(right) ................................................................................................................................... 122
256
Figure 77: Building physics requirements affecting framing size .......................................................123
Figure 78: Infra-red image with temperature distribution (Van der Bossche, Van Goethem, &
Mared, 2016)........................................................................................................................ 124
Improvement at joints is essential to minimize the heat loss through them. In addition to the
thermal barrier breakage that occurs at glass joint, the use of metal space bar within
the IGUs also accentuates the thermal bridges at panel edges as indicated in Figure
79.Figure 79Figure 79: Thermal bridge caused by metal space bar (CWCT, 2008) ........... 124
Figure 80: Building physics requirements affecting joint size .............................................................124
Figure 81: Heat transfer due to temperature difference through an IGU .............................................125
Figure 82: Centre pane U-value for glass build-ups ............................................................................125
Figure 83: Building physics requirements affecting glazing build-up size ..........................................126
Figure 84: U-value variation depending on the cavity width and fill. DGU with low-emissivity
coating as per EN 673 (CEN, 2011). ...................................................................................127
Figure 85: Building physics requirements affecting glazing cavity .....................................................128
Figure 86: Diagram of solar incident breakdown through at an IGU................................................... 129
Figure 87: Building physics requirements affecting glazing coating ...................................................130
Figure 88: Four glazing retention systems ........................................................................................... 131
Figure 89: (left) U-value comparison of four glazing retention systems (right) internal surface
temperature of four glazing retention systems (Lawrence & Fiby, 2007) ...........................132
Figure 90: Isotherm results four glazing retention systems ( (Lawrence & Fiby, 2007) .....................132
Figure 91: Building physics requirements affecting glazing retention ................................................132
Figure 92: Temperature distribution (CWCT, 2008) ...........................................................................133
Figure 93: Building physics requirements affecting thermal break ..................................................... 134
Figure 94: (left) Non-thermally broken system (right) thermally broken system (Facade One,
2021) .................................................................................................................................... 134
Figure 95: U-value comparison for unitized curtain wall (Facade One, 2021) ....................................134
Figure 96: Building physics requirements affecting equalization and drainage .................................. 135
Figure 97: Schematic of a curtain wall indicating glazing and spandrel panels (Pringle, 2019) .........136
Figure 98: Building physics requirements affecting spandrel panel ....................................................136
Figure 99: Building physics requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design
variables ...............................................................................................................................137
Figure 100: External sound waves hitting a glazed window ................................................................140
Figure 101: Project brief factors influencing airborne sound insulation .............................................. 141

257
Figure 102: Vertical (left) and horizontal (right) flanking transmission through curtain wall
systems................................................................................................................................. 142
Figure 103: Project brief factors influencing flanking transmission .................................................... 142
Figure 104: Effect of exposed framing area on the acoustical performance of a typical glass
(left) ..................................................................................................................................... 143
Figure 105: Example of additional mass to enhance acoustic performance of mullions ..................... 144
Figure 106: Acoustic requirements affecting framing size .................................................................. 144
Figure 107: Acoustic requirements affecting glass build-up ............................................................... 145
Figure 108: Sound reduction index (dB) comparison for glass thickness range (ISO, 2016) .............. 146
Figure 109: Sound reduction index (dB) comparison for monolith and laminated glass (ISO,
2016) .................................................................................................................................... 146
Figure 110: Sound reduction index (dB) comparison for IGU without laminated glass and with
laminated glass (ISO, 2016) ................................................................................................ 146
Figure 111: Diagram showing relative sound insulation with increase airspace width (CWCT,
2008) .................................................................................................................................... 147
Figure 112: Acoustic requirements affecting glazing cavity ............................................................... 147
Figure 113: Acoustic requirements affecting spandrel panel ............................................................... 148
Figure 114: Example of spandrel panel flanking transmission ............................................................ 148
Figure 115: Acoustics requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design
variables ............................................................................................................................... 149
Figure 116: Project brief factors influencing compartmentation ......................................................... 153
Figure 117: Project brief factors influencing surface spread ............................................................... 155
Figure 118: Fire safety requirements affecting framing size ............................................................... 156
Figure 119: Fire safety requirements affecting glass build-up ............................................................. 157
Figure 120: Typical detail for unitized curtain walling system for floor compartmentation (left)
with fire rated resistance board ............................................................................................ 158
Figure 121: Fire safety requirements affecting spandrel areas ............................................................ 159
Figure 122: Fire safety requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design
variables ............................................................................................................................... 160
Figure 123: Service life of façade components (Rebecca Hartwell, 2020) .......................................... 162
Figure 124: Project brief factors influencing service life..................................................................... 163
Figure 125: Project brief factors influencing repairs ........................................................................... 164
Figure 126: Project brief factors influencing replacement ................................................................... 165

258
Figure 127: Durability requirements affecting framing size ................................................................166
Figure 128: Durability requirements affecting framing size ................................................................166
Figure 129: Durability requirements affecting glazing build-up..........................................................167
Figure 130: Durability requirements affecting glazing cavity ............................................................. 167
Figure 131: Durability requirements affecting glazing retention .........................................................168
Figure 132: Durability requirements impacted by project brief factors and affected design
variables. ..............................................................................................................................169
Figure 133: Current constraints during manufacturing stage ...............................................................172
Figure 134: Current constraints during processing stage .....................................................................174
Figure 135: Current constraints during the assembly process ..............................................................176
Figure 136: Fabrication constrains affecting framing size ...................................................................178
Figure 137: Fabrication constrains affecting joint size ........................................................................180
Figure 138: Fabrication constrains affecting glass build-up ................................................................181
Figure 139: Fabrication constrains affecting glass cavity ....................................................................181
Figure 140: Fabrication constrains affecting glass coating ..................................................................182
Figure 141: Industry constraints during fabrication and affected design variables..............................183
Figure 142: Packaging of panels with same size..................................................................................186
Figure 143: Limitations during packaging ...........................................................................................186
Figure 144: Limitations during transportation .....................................................................................187
Figure 145: Transportation constrains affecting framing size..............................................................188
Figure 146: Transportation constrains affecting joint size ...................................................................188
Figure 147: Industry constraints during transportation and affected design variables .........................189
Figure 148: Storage area on site ........................................................................................................... 192
Figure 149: Limitations during lifting..................................................................................................193
Figure 150: Limitations during placing stage ......................................................................................194
Figure 151: Installation constrains affecting framing size ...................................................................195
Figure 152: Installation constrains affecting joint size ........................................................................196
Figure 153: Accuracy of junction between components (CWCT, 2005) .............................................196
Figure 154: Site applied horizontal sealant (Jackson, 2016) ................................................................ 197
Figure 155: Installation constrains affecting equalization and drainage ..............................................197
Figure 156: Industry constraints during installation and affected design variables. ............................198
Figure 157: Constrains during cleaning activities ................................................................................200

259
Figure 158: Considerations for repairing activities.............................................................................. 201
Figure 159: Consideration for replacement activities .......................................................................... 202
Figure 160: Maintenance constrains affecting framing size ................................................................ 203
Figure 161: Maintenance constrains affecting joint size...................................................................... 204
Figure 162: Maintenance constrains affecting glass build-up.............................................................. 205
Figure 163: Maintenance constrains affecting glass cavity ................................................................. 206
Figure 164: Maintenance constrains affecting equalization & drainage .............................................. 206
Figure 165: Industry constraints during maintenance and affected design variables........................... 207
Figure 166: Overall relationship diagram ............................................................................................ 210
Figure 167: Project requirements and industry limitations affecting framing size .............................. 213
Figure 168: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting joint size ..................................... 214
Figure 169: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting glazing build-up ......................... 215
Figure 170: Project requirements and industry limitation required to determine glazing coating ....... 216
Figure 171: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting glazing cavity ............................. 217
Figure 172: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting glazing retention......................... 218
Figure 173: Project requirements and industry limitation affecting thermal break ............................. 219
Figure 174: Project requirements and industry limitation required to determine equalization and
drainage ............................................................................................................................... 220
Figure 175: Project requirements and industry limitation required to determine spandrel panel ........ 221
Figure 176: Section through mullion of unitized curtain wall system with triple glazed insulated
unit ( (Cordero, 2015) .......................................................................................................... 223
Figure 177: Section through mullion of the proposed system with triple glazed insulated unit
(Cordero, 2015) ................................................................................................................... 223
Figure 178: Material selection affecting wind loading and framing size ............................................. 225
Figure 179: Wind load application through computer modelling (Gargallo, Cordero, & Garcia-
Santos, 2021) ....................................................................................................................... 225
Figure 180: Material selection affecting thermal expansion and glazing retention ............................. 226
Figure 181: Material comparison for glazing retention ....................................................................... 226
Figure 182: Distribution of the systematic approach variables ............................................................ 229
Figure 183: Distribution of relationships between variables ............................................................... 230
Figure 184: Number of curtain wall requirements affected project brief factors ................................. 231
Figure 185: Number of design parameters affected by curtain wall requirements .............................. 232

260
Figure 186: Number of current constraints affected by construction stages ........................................234
Figure 187: Number of design parameters affected by current constraints..........................................235
Figure 188: Number of curtain wall requirements affecting the design parameters ............................ 237
Figure 189: Number of current constraints affecting the design parameters ....................................... 237
Figure 190: Overall relationship diagram ............................................................................................ 240

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Departamento de Construcción y Tecnología Arquitectónicas

Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura

MÉTODO SISTEMÁTICO PARA EL DISEÑO DE MURO CORTINA

Mercedes Gargallo Sanz de Vicuňa

Arquitecto por la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura

MÉTODO SISTEMÁTICO PARA EL DISEÑO DE MURO CORTINA

MÉTODO SISTEMÁTICO PARA EL DISEÑO DE MURO CORTINA

Mercedes Gargallo Sanz de Vicuňa

Arquitecto por la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

Dr. Alfonso García Santos

Doctor Arquitecto por la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

La Plus Grande Aventure Du Monde (1956)

Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture

CONTENTS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- III

ABSTRACT (ENGLISH) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- XI

ABSTRACT (SPANISH) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- XIII

1.1 Prologue ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

HYPOTHESIS, OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY------------------------------------------ 6

2.1 Description of proposed research---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7

STATE OF THE ART -----------------------------------------------------------------------------14

3.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15

DETERMINATION OF VARIABLES ------------------------------------------------------------ 67

4.1 Overview ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68

5.1 Structural requirements affected by project brief factors ------------------------------------------------------ 80

Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture

6.1 Accommodation of movement affected by project requirements ------------------------------------------- 96

WEATHER PROTECTION -------------------------------------------------------------------- 105

7.1 Weathering requirements affected by project brief factors -------------------------------------------------- 106

BUILDING PHYSICS -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 113

ACOUSTIC BARRIER-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 139

9.1 Acoustic requirements affected by project factors -------------------------------------------------------------- 140

Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture

FIRE SAFETY ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 151

10.1 Fire safety requirements------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 152

DURABILITY EXPECTATIONS --------------------------------------------------------------- 161

11.1 Durability requirements affected by project brief factors ----------------------------------------------------- 162

FABRICATION CONSTRAINS ---------------------------------------------------------------- 171

12.1 Fabrication stages --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 172

TRANSPORTATION LIMITS------------------------------------------------------------------ 185

13.1 Transportation stages ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 186

14.1 Installation stages --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 192

MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES ---------------------------------------------------------------- 199

15.1 Maintenance stages ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 200

PROPOSED SYSTEMATIC APPROACH ----------------------------------------------------- 208

16.1 Overview --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 209

CASE STUDY APPLICATION ----------------------------------------------------------------- 222

17.1 Overview --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 223

Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS ------------------------------------------ 228

18.1 Overview --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 229

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ------------------------------------------------------- 239

19.1 Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 240

RELEVANT PUBLICATIONS --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 244

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY ----------------------------------------------------------------- 245

Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture

Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture

AAMA American Architectural Manufacturers Association

Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture

Developments in the field of industrialization, energy conservation, environmental

Possibilities for improvement of technologies and systems are provided by developments

Department of Construction and Technology in Architecture

Las envolventes son la imagen de cada edificio y crean un componente fundamental en el

Los desarrollos en los campos de industrialización, conservación energética, impacto