Module 1:The Introduction to
Physiological Psychology
Module 1 Lesson 1:The Biological Roots of
Physiological Psychology
Physiology
● from the Greek word “Physis”,
meaning nature or origin and
“logia” which means Study of A
branch of biology that deals with
the workings of the human body.
What is Physiological Psychology
Physiological psychology, biological
psychology, or behavioral neuroscience is
a field of psychology that connects
behavior and mental processes to bodily
processes, and to the functions and
actions of the brain. The brain in turn
affects behavior and mind
The Nature of Physiological Psychology
The modern history of physiological
psychology has been written by
psychologists who have combined the
experimental methods of psychology with
those of physiology and have applied them
to the issues that concern all
psychologists.
Thus, we have studied perceptual
processes, control of movement, sleep
and waking, reproductive behaviors,
ingestive behaviors, emotional behaviors,
learning, and language. In recent years we
have begun to study the physiology of
human pathological conditions, such as
addiction and mental disorders.
Biological Roots of Physiological
Psychology
Rene Descartes’ speculations about the
roles of the mind and brain in the control
of behavior provide a good starting point
in the history of physiological psychology.
To Descartes, animals were mechanical
devices; their behavior was controlled by
environmental stimuli. His view of the
human body was much the same: it was a
machine.
Reactions like this did not require
participation of the mind; they occurred
automatically. He called them reflexes.
Descartes was a duelist; he believed that
each person possesses a mind – a unique
human attribute that is not subject to
the laws of the universe.
He was the first to suggest that a link
exists between the human mind and its
purely physical housing, the brain.
He noted that the brain contains hollow Behavioral Change
chambers (the ventricles) that are filled - Change in mating behavior
with fluid, and he hypothesized that this - Motor movement
fluid is under pressure. - Behavioral deficits
In his theory, when the mind decides to
perform an action, it tilts the pineal body Heavy influence of Psychophysics
in a particular direction like a little
joystick, causing fluid to flow from the ● Weber Weber's law
brain into the appropriate set of nerves. ● Fechner
This flow of fluid causes the same ● Psychology begins in 1879
muscles to inflate and move. ● Wilhelm Wundt
● Willian James championed the role
Galvin found that electrical stimulation of of evolution and biology in
a frog’s nerve causes contraction of the understanding psychological
muscle to which it was attached. processes

Contraction occurred even when the Today's Biopsychology

nerve and muscle were detached from the
rest of the body, so the ability of the Behavioral Neuroscience
muscle to contract and the ability of the
nerve to send a message to the muscle Very eclectic, multidisciplinary field
were characteristics of these tissues should not be rigidly defined many parts
themselves. to neuroscience
Thus, the brain did not inflate muscles by
directing pressurized fluid though the Neuroanatomy
nerve. Neurophysiology
Neurochemistry
Relating Brain and Behavior Neuropharmacology

1. Somatic Intervention Many areas within Biopsychology

Somatic Intervention Mix of pure and applied research

- Administer a hormone Physiological psychology
- Stimulate brain regions Scientific study of brain/ behavior in
- Lesion brain controlled experimental settings
Generally uses animal subjects
Psychopharmacology study of the effect
of drugs on the brain, behavior, and as Use philosophy as a basis for the
well as interactions. understanding of neuroscience

Neuropsychology Comparative Psychology

Generally studies the effects of brain Study of the role of evolution in brain and
damage in humans behavior

Deals with clinical populations Comparison of behaviors of different

species of animals with attention to the
Gathers information via case-studies phylogenetic and ecological context

Works towards treatment Includes laboratory research as well as

the study of animals in their natural
Cognitive Neuroscience cross between environments (ethology)
cognitive psychology and physiological
psychology Psychoneuroimmunology

Experimental exploration of human is the study of the interactions between

cognition and the physiological processes the brain and the immune system/
involved endocrine system in regulating behavior

E.g., fMRI analysis of attention Examples

● Illness and stress
E.g., Event-related potentials and ● Wound healing is much slower in
dreaming psychologically stressed adults
● Placebo effects
Neurophilosophy
the interdisciplinary study of
neuroscience and philosophy

Works both ways

Use neuroscience results to understand

philosophy E.g., Dennett
Module 1 Lesson 2: The Nerve Cells and
Nerve Impulses
Two Kinds of Cells of the Nervous
System
1. Neurons receive information and
transmit it to other cells.
The adult human brain contains
approximately 86 billion neurons, on
average (Herculano-Houzel, Catania,
Manger, & Kaas, 2015).
The exact number varies from person to
person.
2. Glia (or neuroglia), the other
components of the nervous system.
The term glia, derived from a Greek word
meaning “glue,” reflects early
investigators’ idea that glia were like glue
that held the neurons together.
Glia outnumber neurons in the cerebral
cortex, but neurons outnumber glia in
several other brain areas, especially the
cerebellum (Herculano-Houzel et al.,
2015; Khakh & Sofroniew, 2015). Overall,
the numbers are almost equal
Types of neurons
Neurons are the nerve cells, the
structural and functional units of the
nervous system.
They conduct impulses that enable the
body to interact with its internal and
external environments.
There are various types of neurons. The
tissues that support the nerve cells are
called neuroglia (nur ROH glee ah).
The motor neurons usually have one axon
and several dendrites.
The axon is covered with an insulating
fatty layer called a myelin sheath, and
transmits signals a long distance from the
neuron to the area to be activated.
Dendrites are short and unsheathed.
1. Motor neurons cause muscle
contractions and control secretions from
glands and organs… controlling body
functions.
2. Sensory neurons do not have true
dendrites. They are attached to sensory
receptors and transmit impulses to the
central nervous system, which then
stimulate the interneurons, and then
motor neurons.
 A bundle of nerve fibers is simply called
NERVE RECEPTORS ‘a nerve’.

AFFERENT nerves conduct impulses to

SENSORY NEURONS the central nervous system;

EFFERENT nerves conduct impulses to

INTERNEURONS
the muscles, organs, and glands.

MOTOR NEURONS
Types of glia

3. Interneurons are located entirely

1. The star-shaped astrocytes wrap
within the central nervous system. They
around the synapses of functionally
intercept the impulses from the sensory
related axons.
neurons and transmit the signals to the
motor neurons.
By surrounding a connection between
neurons, an astrocyte shields it from
Nerve fibers
chemicals circulating in the surrounding
(Nedergaard & Verkhatsky, 2012).
Schwann cells, only found on peripheral
nerves which can regenerate
Also, by taking up the ions and
transmitters released by axons and then
Myelin sheath, a fatty layer of insulation
releasing them back, an astrocyte helps
on some nerve fibers
synchronize closely related neurons,
enabling their axons to send mes- sages in
The axon that transmits the message
waves (Martín, Bajo-Grañeras, Moratalla,
Perea, & Araque, 2015).

There are no Schwann cells on nerve

Astrocytes are therefore important for
fibers in the central nervous system,
generating rhythms, such as your rhythm
therefore damage to those nerve fibers
of breathing (Morquette et al., 2015).
is not reversible.
Astrocytes dilate the blood vessels to
bring more nutrients into brain areas that
have heightened activity (Filosa et al.,
2006; Takano et al., 2006).
A possible role in information processing
is also likely but less certain.
According to a popular hypothesis known
as the tripartite synapse,
● The tip of an axon releases
chemicals that cause the
neighboring astrocyte to release
chemicals of its own, thus
magnifying or modifying the
message to the next neuron (Ben
Achour & Pascual, 2012).
This process is a possible contributor to
learning and memory (De Pitta, Brunel, &
Volterra, 2016).
In some brain areas, astrocytes also
respond to hormones and thereby
influence neurons (Kim et al., 2014).
In short, astrocytes are active partners
of neurons in many ways.
2. Microglia
Tiny cells called microglia act as part of
the immune system, removing viruses and
fungi from the brain.
They proliferate after brain damage,
removing dead or damaged neurons
(Brown & Neher, 2014).
They also contribute to learning by
removing the weakest synapses (Zhan et
al., 2014).
3. Oligodendrocytes
(OL-i-go-DEN-druh-sites) in the brain
and spinal cord and Schwann cells in the
periphery of the body build the myelin
sheaths that surround and insulate
certain vertebrate axons.
They also supply an axon with nutrients
necessary for proper functioning (Y. Lee
et al., 2012).
4. Radial glia guide the migration of
neurons and their axons and dendrites
during embryonic development.
When embryological development
finishes, most radial glia differentiate
into neurons, and a smaller number
differentiate into astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes (Pinto & Götz, 2007).
The Blood–Brain Barrier
The brain, like any other organ,
needs to receive nutrients from the
blood, many chemicals cannot cross from
the blood to the brain (Hagenbuch, Gao, &
Meier, 2002).
The mechanism that excludes most
chemicals from the vertebrate brain is
known as the blood–brain barrier.
Why Do We Need Blood–Brain Barrier?
When a virus invades a cell,
mechanisms within the cell extrude virus
particles through the membrane so that
the immune system can find them.
When the immune system cells discover a
virus, they kill it and the cell that
contains it.
This plan works fine if the
virus-infected cell is a skin cell or a blood
cell, which the body replaces easily.
To minimize the risk of irreparable brain
damage, the body lines the brain’s blood
vessels with tightly packed cells that
keep out most viruses, bacteria, and
harmful chemicals.
The Blood–Brain Barrier
However, certain viruses do cross
the blood–brain barrier (Kristensson,
2011).
What happens then? When the rabies
virus evades the blood–brain barrier, it
infects the brain and leads to death.
The spirochete responsible for syphilis
also penetrates the blood–brain barrier,
producing long-lasting and potentially
fatal consequences.
The microglia are more effective
against several other viruses that enter
the brain, mounting an inflammatory
response that fights the virus with- out
killing the neuron (Ousman & Kubes,
2012).
This response may control the
virus without eliminating it.
When the chickenpox virus enters spinal
cord cells, virus particles remain there
long after they have been exterminated
from the rest of the body.
The virus may emerge from the spinal
cord decades later, causing a painful
condition called shingles.
Similarly, the virus responsible for genital
herpes hides in the nervous system,
producing little harm there but
periodically emerging to cause new genital
infections.
Most large molecules and electrically
charged molecules cannot cross from the
blood to the brain.
A few small, uncharged molecules such as
O2 and CO2 cross easily, as can certain
fat-soluble molecules. Active transport
systems pump glucose and amino acids
across the membrane.
How the Blood–Brain Barrier Works
The blood–brain barrier depends on the
endothelial cells that form the walls of
the capillaries (Bundgaard, 1986;
Rapoport & Robinson, 1986).
Outside the brain, such cells are
separated by small gaps, but in the brain,
they are joined so tightly that they block
viruses, bacteria, and other harmful
chemicals from passage.
“If the blood–brain barrier is such a good
defense,” you might ask, “why don’t we
have similar walls around all our other
organs?”
The answer is that the barrier keeps out
useful chemicals as well as harmful ones.
Those useful chemicals include all fuels
and amino acids, the building blocks for
proteins.
For these chemicals to cross the
blood–brain barrier, the brain needs
special mechanisms not found in the rest
of the body.
No special mechanism is required for
small, uncharged molecules such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide that cross
through cell walls freely. Also, molecules
that dissolve in the fats of the membrane
cross easily.
Examples include vitamins A and D and all
the drugs that affect the brain—from
antidepressants and other psychiatric
drugs to illegal drugs such as heroin.
How fast a drug takes effect depends
largely on how readily it dissolves in fats
and therefore crosses the blood– brain
barrier.
For certain other chemicals, the brain
uses active transport, a protein-mediated
process that expends energy to pump
chemicals from the blood into the brain.
Chemicals that are actively transported
into the brain include glucose (the brain’s
main fuel), amino acids (the building
blocks of proteins), purines, choline, a
few vitamins, and iron (Abbott, Rönnback,
& Hansson, 2006; Jones & Shusta, 2007).
Insulin and probably certain other
hormones also cross the blood–brain
barrier, at least in small amounts,
although the mechanism is not yet known
(Gray, Meijer, & Barrett, 2014; McNay,
2014).
The blood–brain barrier is essential to
health. In people with Alzheimer’s disease
or similar conditions, the endothelial cells
lining the brain’s blood vessels shrink, and
harmful chemicals enter the brain (Zipser
et al., 2007).
However, the barrier poses a difficulty
for treating brain cancers, because nearly
all the drugs used for chemotherapy fail
to cross the blood–brain barrier.
Nourishment of Vertebrate Neurons
Most cells use a variety of carbohydrates
and fats for nutrition, but vertebrate
neurons depend almost entirely on
glucose, a sugar.
(Cancer cells and the testis cells that
make sperm also rely overwhelmingly on
glucose.)
Because metabolizing glucose requires
oxygen, neurons need a steady supply of
oxygen.
Although the human brain constitutes
only about 2 percent of the body’s
weight, it uses about 20 percent of its
oxygen and 25 percent of its glucose
(Bélanger, Allaman, & Magistretti, 2011).
Why do neurons depend so heavily on
glucose?
They can and sometimes do use ketones
(a kind of fat) and lactate for fuel.
However, glucose is the only nutrient that
crosses the blood–brain barrier in large
quantities.
Although neurons require glucose, glucose
shortage is rarely a problem, except
during starvation.
The liver makes glucose from many kinds
of carbohydrates and amino acids, as well
as from glycerol, a breakdown product
from fats.
A more likely problem is an inability to
use glucose. To use glucose, the body
needs vitamin B1, thiamine. Prolonged
thiamine deficiency, common in chronic
alcoholism, leads to death of neurons and
a condition called Korsakoff’s syndrome,
marked by severe memory impairments.

Nerve Impulses
The action potential transmits
information without loss of intensity over
distance. The cost is a delay between the
stimulus and its arrival in the brain.
The inside of a resting neuron has a
negative charge with respect to the
outside, mainly because of negatively
charged proteins inside the neuron.
The sodium–potassium pump moves sodium
ions out of the neuron, and potassium ions
in.
When the membrane is at rest, both the
electrical gradient and the concentration
gradient would act to move sodium ions
into the cell, except that its gates are
closed.
The electrical gradient tends to move
potassium ions into the cell, but the
concentration gradient tends to move it
out.
The two forces almost balance out, but
not quite, leaving a net tendency for
potassium to exit the cell.
The all-or-none law: For any stimulus
greater than the threshold, the
amplitude and velocity of the action
potential are independent of the size of
the stimulus that initiated it.
When the membrane is sufficiently
depolarized to reach the cell’s threshold,
sodium and potassium channels open.
Sodium ions enter rapidly, reducing and
reversing the charge across the
membrane.
This event is known as the action
potential.
After the peak of the action potential,
the membrane returns toward its original
level of polarization because of the
outflow of potassium ions.
The action potential is regenerated at
successive points along the axon as
sodium ions flow through the core of the
axon and stimulate the next point along
the axon to its threshold.
The action potential maintains a constant
magnitude as it passes along the axon.
In axons that are covered with myelin,
action potentials form only in the nodes
that separate myelinated segments.
Transmission in myelinated axons is
faster than in unmyelinated axons.
Immediately after an action potential,
the membrane enters a refractory period
during which it is resistant to starting
another action potential.
Local neurons are small, with no axon.
They convey information over short
distances.
Contrary to a popular belief, people use
all of their brain, not some smaller
percentage.
Propagation of an action potential
As an action potential occurs at one point
on the axon, enough sodium enters to
depolarize the next point to its
threshold, producing an action potential
at that point.
In this manner the action potential flows
along the axon, remaining at equal
strength throughout.
Behind each area of sodium entry,
potassium ions exit, restoring the resting
potential.
Module 1 Lesson 3: The Synapses
Historical Background:
Ramón y Cajal (1800)
● Anatomically demonstrated
a narrow gap separating one
neuron from another.
Charles Scott Sherrington (1906)
● Physiologically
demonstrated that
communication between one
neuron and the next differs
from communication along a
single axon.
● He inferred a specialized
gap between neurons and
introduced the term
synapse to describe it.
Cajal and Sherrington
● are regarded as the great
pioneers of modern
neuroscience, and their
nearly simultaneous
discoveries supported each
other: If communication
between neurons is special
in some way, then there can
be no doubt that neurons
are anatomically separate
from one another.
 ● Sherrington’s discovery was an
amazing feat of scientific
reasoning, as he used behavioral
observations to infer the major
properties of synapses half a
century before researchers had
the technology to measure those
properties directly.
Types of Neurotransmitters
● Amino Acids
○ glutamate, GABA, glycine,
aspartate, maybe others
A Modified Amino Acid
Acetylcholine Monoamines (also modified
from amino acids) indoleamines: serotonin
catecholamines: dopamine,
norepinephrine, epinephrine
Neuropeptides (chains of amino acids)
endorphins, substance P, neuropeptide Y,
many others Purines ATP, adenosine,
maybe others Gases NO (nitric oxide),
maybe others
At a synapse, a neuron releases chemicals
that affect another neuron. Those
chemicals are known as
neurotransmitters. A hundred or so
chemicals are known or suspected to be
neu- rotransmitters, as shown in Table 2.1
(Borodinsky et al., 2004). Ctenophores
(see Figure 2.12), possibly representative
of the earliest, most primitive animals,
apparently have only one
neurotransmitter, glutamate (Moroz et
al., 2014).
Most of the rest of the animal kingdom
has all or nearly all of the same
transmitters that humans have.
The oddest transmitter is nitric oxide
(chemical formula NO), a gas released by
many small local neurons. (Do not con-
fuse nitric oxide, NO, with nitrous oxide,
N2O, sometimes known as “laughing gas.”)
Nitric oxide is poisonous in large
quantities and difficult to make in a
laboratory. Yet, many neurons contain an
enzyme that enables them to make it
efficiently.
Many neurons release nitric oxide when
they are stimulated. In addition to
influencing other neurons, nitric oxide
dilates the nearby blood vessels, thereby
increasing blood flow to that brain area
(Dawson, Gonzalez-Zulueta, Kusel, &
Dawson, 1998).
Synthesis of Transmitters
Neurons synthesize nearly all
neurotransmitters from amino acids,
which the body obtains from proteins in
the diet. Examples are;
The Acetylcholine, is synthesized from
choline, which is abundant in milk, eggs,
and peanuts.
The amino acids phenylalanine and
tyrosine, present in proteins, are
precursors of dopamine, norepinephrine,
and epinephrine.
People with phenylketonuria lack the
enzyme that converts phenylalanine to
tyrosine. They can get tyrosine from
their diet, but they need to minimize
intake of phenylalanine, because
excessive phenylalanine would accumulate
and damage the brain.
Storage of Neurotransmitter
Most neurotransmitters are synthesized
in the presynaptic terminal, near the
point of release.
The presynaptic terminal stores high
concentrations of neurotransmitter
molecules in vesicles, tiny nearly spherical
packets.
The presynaptic terminal also maintains
much neurotransmitter outside the
vesicles.
Neurons that release serotonin,
dopamine, or norepinephrine contain an
enzyme, MAO (monoamine oxidase), that
breaks down these transmitters into
inactive chemicals, thereby preventing
the transmit- ters to accumulating to
harmful levels. The first antidepressant
drugs that psychiatrists discovered were
MAO inhibitors. By blocking MAO, they
increase the brain’s supply of serotonin,
dopamine, and norepinephrine.
However, MAO inhibitors also have other
effects, and exactly how they help
relieve depression is still not certain.
Release and Diffusion of Transmitters
At the end of an axon, an action potential
itself does not release the
neurotransmitter. Rather, depolarization
opens voltage- dependent calcium gates in
the presynaptic terminal.
Within 1 or 2 milliseconds (ms) after
calcium enters the terminal, it causes
exocytosis—bursts of release of
neurotransmitter from the presynaptic
neuron.
An action potential often fails to release
any transmitters, and even when it does,
the amount varies(Craig & Boudin, 2001.
After its release from the presynaptic
cell, the neurotrans- mitter diffuses
across the synaptic cleft to the
postsynaptic membrane, where it
attaches to a receptor.

The neurotransmitter takes no more than
0.01 ms to diffuse across the cleft, which
is only 20 to 30 nanometers (nm) wide.
The synapse is the point of
communication between two neurons.
Charles S. Sherrington’s observations of
reflexes enabled him to infer the
existence of synapses and many of their
properties.
Stimulation at a synapse produces a brief
graded potential in the postsynaptic cell.
An excitatory graded potential
(depolarization) is an EPSP.
An inhibitory graded potential
(hyperpolarization) is an IPSP.
An EPSP occurs when gates open to allow
sodium to enter the neuron’s mem- brane.
An IPSP occurs when gates open to allow
potassium to leave or chloride to enter.

Because transmission through a reflex
arc is slower than transmission through
an equivalent length of axon, Sherrington
concluded that some process at the
synapses delays transmission.
The EPSPs on a neuron compete with the
IPSPs; the balance between the two
increases or decreases the neuron’s
frequency of action potentials.

Graded potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs)

summate their effects.

The summation of graded potentials from

stimuli at different times is temporal
summation.

The summation of potentials from

different locations is spatial summation.

Inhibition is more than just the absence

of excitation. It is an active brake that
suppresses excitation. For effective
functioning of the nervous system,
inhibition is just as important as
excitation.
From ppt: Correlation

Study of Biological Bases of Behavior Brain size Learning Score

Hormone Levels Mating Behavior

● Brain and behavior are two of the
most interesting subjects of
scientific research;
Strength
Enlarged cerebral ventricles
Schizophrenic symptoms

● Biopsychology focuses on the

relation between them.
Characterized by an Eclectic Approach

Somatic Intervention
Administer Hormone Change in
mating behavior
Stimulate brain regions
movement
Biopsychology uses an eclectic
combination of theories and research
from many different areas (psychology,
biology, physiology, pharmacology, and
anatomy) to better describe, understand
Motor and predict behavior.

What is Neuroscience?
Lesion Brain Behavioral deficits
● Until the middle of the last
century, the brain was studied
Behavior Intervention primarily by philosophers;

Change in Brain Hormone Put male ● Since then, it has been subjected

with a female rat more and more to scientific study.

● Neuroscience is the study of the

Neurons Fire Presents a visual
nervous system;
stimulus

● It includes many different

Brain morphology changes Training approaches such as:
Neuroanatomy, neurophysiology,
neurochemistry, neuroendocrinology,
neuropharmacology, and neuropathology.
Neuroanatomy

The study of the structure of the

nervous system.

Neurochemistry

The study of the chemical bases of neural

activity.

Neuroendocrinology

The study of interactions between the

nervous system and endocrine system.

Neuropathology

The study of nervous system disorders.

Neuropharmacology

The study of the effects of drugs on

neural activity.

Neurophysiology

The study of the functions and activities

of the nervous system.
(From PPT)
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
The colorless fluid that fills the
subarachnoid space, the central canal and
the cerebral ventricles of the brain.
- Central canal - small central
channel which runs the length of
the spinal cord.
- Cerebral ventricles - four large
internal chambers of the brain:
two lateral ventricles, third
ventricle and fourth ventricle.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
● Hydrocephalus (water head) -
build up of CSF in the ventricles
thereby causing the walls of the
ventricles and the brain to expand.
Blood-Brain Barrier
● It is the mechanism that impedes
the passage of many toxic
substances from the blood into
the brain;
● This barrier is a consequence of
the special structure of cerebral
blood vessels; however, it does not
impede the passage of all large
molecules since some of them are
critical for normal brain
functioning like glucose.
● Many CNS disorders are
associated with impairment of the
blood-brain barrier.
Cells of the Nervous System
● Neurons - cells that are
specialized for the reception,
conduction and transmission of
electrochemical signals.
● Supportive cells - cells that hold
neural circuits together and
absorb dead cells and other
debris.
- Glial cells or neuroglia - cells which
provide physical and functional
support to the CNS.
- Satellite cells - cells which provide
physical and functional support to
the PNS.
Types of Glial/ Satellite Cells
● Oligodendroglia/ Oligodendrocytes
- are glial cells with extensions
that wrap around the axons of
some neurons of the CNS;
● These extensions are rich in
myelin (a fatty insulating
substance)
● Schwann cells - performs similar
function as oligodendrocytes in
the PNS;
● Each Schwann cell constitutes one
myelin segment and can guide
axonal regeneration (regrowth)
● Microglia - the third class of the
glial cells; are smaller than other
glia - thus their name;
● They respond to injury or disease
by multiplying, engulfing cellular
debris, and triggering
inflammatory responses;
● Microglia travel independently, not
attached to any structure,
constantly circling a territory with
extended arms repeatedly tapping
all axons, dendrites and synapses
looking to detect any suboptimal
functioning;
● Astroglia/ Astrocytes - a fourth
class of glial cells; they are the
largest glial cells and they are so
named because they are
star-shaped (astron means star);
its extension cover the outer
surfaces of blood vessels that
course through the brain; they
also make contact with neuron cell
bodies;
○ They play a role in allowing
the passage of some
chemicals from the blood
into CNS neurons and in
blocking other chemicals.
● Ependymal cells or ependymocytes
- line the cavities of the CNS and
make up the wall of the ventricles.
They also secrete CSF and beat
their cilia for its circulation;
● Are the glial cells that make up
the ependyma, the membrane that
lines the ventricles of the brain
and the central canal of the spinal
cord.
Different Types of Neuron
● Afferent or sensory neurons
(unipolar) - These nerve cells
convey messages from the sense
organs of the brain.
● Efferent or motor neurons
(multipolar) - These nerve cells
convey messages from the brain to
the glands and muscles.
● Interneurons (bipolar) - These
nerve cells carry impulses from
one neuron to another.
Components of a Neuron Anatomical Directions

● Axon - the long, narrow process ● Dorsal = top/ superior

that projects from the cell body. ● Ventral = bottom/ inferior

● Axon hillock - the cone-shaped ● Anterior = front/ rostral

region at the junction between the ● Posterior = back
axon and the cell body.
● Medial = middle
● Myelin sheath - the fatty ● Lateral = sides
insulation around many axons which
speeds up the transmission of
impulses.

● Nodes of Ranvier - the gaps

between sections of myelin.

● Terminal buttons - the button-like

endings of the axon branches
which release chemicals into
synapses.

● Synapses - the gaps between

adjacent neurons across which
chemical signals are transmitted.
Anatomical Planes ○ White Matter - glossy
white area surrounding the
● Horizontal Plane gray matter which is largely
○ Divides the brain to dorsal composed of myelinated
and ventral sections. motor and sensory neurons.

● Coronal Plane
○ Divides the brain to
anterior and posterior
sections.

● Sagittal Plane
○ Divides the brain to the
left and right hemisphere.

Spinal Cord
● It is a long, thin, tubular bundle of
● The human spinal cord is divided
nervous tissue and support cells
into 31 different segments:
that extends from the brain.
- Cervical (8 pairs)
● It is comprised of two different
- Thoracic (12 pairs)
areas:
- Lumbar (5 pairs)
○ Gray Matter - an inner
- Sacral (5 pairs)
H-shaped core that is
- Coccygeal (1 pair)
largely composed of cell
bodies and unmyelinated
motor neurons and
interneurons.
 Cranial Nerves Mnemonics

● Cranial Nerves
- Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And
Feel A Vintage Green
Velvet, Simply Heaven

- Olfactory
- Optic
- Oculomotor
- Trochlear
- Trigeminal
- Abducens
- Facial
- Auditory-Vestibulocochlear
- Glossopharyngeal
- Vagus
- Spinal
Cranial Nerves - Hypoglossal

● The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of

nerves that can be seen on the
ventral surface of the brain.
● Some of these nerves bring
information from the sense organs
to the brain; other cranial nerves
are connected to glands or internal
organs such as the heart and lungs.
● Cranial Nerve Functions
- Some Says Marry Money But My
Brother Says Big Brains Matter
Most
● S = Sensory
● M = Motor
● B = Both Sensory & Motor
Major Divisions of the Brain

Myelencephalon
● It is also known as the medulla
oblongata which is the most
posterior division of the brain.
● Reticular formation is also
referred to as reticular activating
system because part of it play a
role in arousal;

Forebrain: Metencephalon
Telencephalon, Diencephalon ● Pons - serves as a bridge which
connects the two hemispheres at
Midbrain: the hindbrain level. It holds the
Mesencephalon pneumotaxic center, a nuclei which
regulates the change from
Hindbrain: Metencephalon, inspiration to expiration.
Myelencephalon
 ● Cerebellum - a large, convoluted
structure on the brain stem’s
dorsal surface.
It is an important sensorimotor
structure responsible for motor
control, coordination, precision and
accurate timing and some cognitive
functions such as language and
memory.
● Tectum or corpora quadrigemina
○ Inferior colliculi
○ Superior colliculi
● Tegmentum
○ Periaqueductal gray (for
pain and defensive
behavior)
○ Substantia nigra (for
reward, addiction and
movement),
○ Red nucleus (for motor
coordination).
Diencephalon
● It is made of five distinct areas;
the thalamus, subthalamus,
hypothalamus, epithalamus and
pituitary gland.
● Thalamus - large two-lobed
structure which acts as the last
relay center for sensory and
motor signals before they go to
the cerebral cortex.
It also has a role in the regulation
of sleep, consciousness and
alertness.
● Subthalamus - a small lens-shaped
nucleus in the forebrain which acts
as a pacemaker for the basal
ganglia.
● Hypothalamus - an almond-sized
structure in the forebrain which
plays an important role in the
regulation of emotions and
motivated behaviors.
● Epithalamus - acts as a connector
between the limbic system and the
other parts of the brain.
● Pituitary gland - a pea-sized
structure in the brain which
regulates homeostasis.
*Homeostasis is defined as a
self-regulating process by which a living
organism can maintain internal stability
while adjusting to changing external
conditions.
Telencephalon
● Parts of the Limbic System:
● Cerebrum or Cerebral cortex - a - Amygdala - almond-shaped
layer of convoluted tissue which nucleus that is responsible
covers the cerebral hemispheres. for emotional associations.

● Four lobes of the cerebral cortex: - Hippocampus - responsible

- Frontal - mainly responsible for formation of long-term
for the executive functions memories and maintenance
of the brain. of cognitive maps.

- Parietal - responsible for - Cingulate cortex - has

visuospatial processing, autonomic functions such as
manipulation of objects and regulating heart rate, blood
integration of sensory pressure and cognitive and
information from different attentional processing.
parts of the body.
- Mamillary body - involved in
- Temporal - responsible for formation of memory
auditory perception and
processing of semantics in
both speech and vision.

- Occipital - visual processing

center of the brain.

● Limbic System - a circuit of

midline structures that circle the
thalamus and is responsible for
the regulation of motivated
behaviors.
(From PPT) ○ Glycine (proteins)
Neurotransmitter deactivation ○ GABA
■ Gamma Amino
● If nothing intervened, a Butyric Acid
neurotransmitter molecule would ● Inhibitory
remain active in the synapse. neurotransmi
tter of the
● There are two mechanisms which brain
can terminate synaptic messages
and keep that from happening - ● Binds to
reuptake and enzymatic either GABA
degradation. (A) or GABA
(B).

Exocytosis MOOD COGNITION

● Small molecule neurotransmitters
○ Released in a pulse each NOREPINEPHRINE
time an action potential ● Energy
triggers a momentary influx ● Alertness
of Ca2+ ions (presynaptic ● Concentration
membrane)
SEROTONIN
● Neuropeptides ● Memory
○ Released gradually in ● Obsession
response to general ● Compulsion
increases in the level of
intracellular. DOPAMINE
● Pleasure
● Reward
Amino Acids N ● Motivation
● Drive
● Directed synapses in the CNS
● Widely studied AAN NOREPINEPHRINE + SEROTONIN
○ Glutamate (proteins) ● Impulse
■ Excitatory N ● Anxiety
○ Aspartate (proteins) ● Irritability
NOREPINEPHRINE + DOPAMINE Soluble - gas neurotransmitters
● Attention These are also called unconventional
neurotransmitters.
SEROTONIN + DOPAMINE
● Sex ● Nitric Oxide (NO) - a signaling
● Appetite molecule which can inhibit smooth
● Aggression muscle contraction and promote
adaptive relaxation and localized
vasodilation. It is also critical for
The Monoamines penile erection.
● Metabolized by MAO enzymes ● Carbon monoxide (CO) - a
● NOREPINEPHRINE (NE) neurotransmitter involved in
○ Excitatory transmitter of memory and learning. It also
the brain and smooth appears to mediate ejaculation.
muscles
(High Energy = Adrenaline Rush!!!)
Acetylcholine
● DOPAMINE (DOPA) ● It is a neurotransmitter
○ Receptors are D(1) ad D(2) responsible for neuromuscular
(brain) junctions and also plays a role in
(High Dopamine = High Desire 50% in the memory and other cognitive
GIT) functions.
● It is the only neurotransmitter
● SEROTONIN (SE, 5-HT) used in the motor (efferent)
○ Released from inhibitory division of the somatic nervous
neurons system.
○ Stimulates either 5-HT(1),
or 5-HT(2) receptors Neuropeptides
(High 5HT = High Temp. (Hyperthermia) ● Endorphins - an opioid peptide that
or induce sleep, can produce analgesia and feelings
of well-being. It is produced by
Low 5HT = Low Mood (Depression) 90% in the pituitary gland and
the GIT) hypothalamus during exercise,
excitement, pain, consumption of
spicy food, love and orgasm.

● Substance P - associated with pain
perception, regulation of anxiety
and stress, reinforcement and
neurogenesis.
● Neuropeptide Y - associated with
increasing food intake, storage of
fat as energy, reducing anxiety
and stress, reducing pain
perception and affecting circadian
rhythm.
● Corticotropin - a neuropeptide
which directs the body’s response
to many forms of stress. This
neurotransmitter can suppress
appetite, increase subjective
feelings of anxiety and boost
affection.
● Oxytocin - a hormone and
neurotransmitter which plays a
huge role in pair bonding. This is
also associated with social
recognition and maternal
behaviors.
● Vasopressin - a neuropeptide which
plays a big role in social behavior,
sexual motivation, bonding, and
maternal response to stress.
● Secretin - a neuropeptide which is
involved in the regulation of body
energy homeostasis. This
neurochemical also has an
anorectic effect and has been
proposed as a treatment to autism.
● Prolactin - a hormone and a
neurotransmitter which facilitates
the production of milk in the
mammary glands. This is also
involved in the care of one's
offspring.
● Neurotensin - a neuropeptide
which induces a variety of effects
like analgesia, hypothermia and
increased locomotor activity. This
is also involved in the regulation of
dopamine pathways.
Research Methods in Biopsychology
Methods to study the Nervous System
● Brain Imaging & Brain Stimulation
Techniques in Living Humans
● Psychophysiological Techniques
● Invasive Physiological Methods
● Neuropharmacological Methods
● Genetic Engineering
Behavioral Methods in Biopsychology
● Neuropsychological Testing
● Behavioral Methods in Cognitive
Neuroscience
● Animal Behavior Paradigms
Imaging & Stimulating the living brain
● Contrast X-rays
○ Cerebral angiography
● Computed tomography (CT)
● Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI)
● Positron Emission Tomography
(PET)
● Functional MRI (fMRI)
● Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
● Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
(TMS)
X-ray Based Techniques
Contrast X-ray
● Involve injecting into one
compartment of the body a
substance that absorbs x-rays
either less than or more than the
surrounding tissue.
● The injected substance then
heightens the contrast between
the compartment and the
surrounding during x-ray
photography.
Computed Tomography
● A computer assisted x-ray
procedure that can be used to
visualize the brain and other
internal structures of the living
body.
● An x-ray scanner is rotated 1
degree at a time over 180 degrees.
● Horizontal sections
● Reveal structural abnormalities,
such as cortical atrophy or lesions
caused by a store or trauma.
Radioactivity Based Technique
Positron Emission Tomography
● Was the first brain-imaging
technique to provide images of
brain activity (functional brain
images) rather than images of
brain structure (structural brain
images).
● Radioactive fluorodeoxyglucose
(FDg) is infected into the
patient’s carotid artery (an artery
off the neck that feeds the
ipsilateral cerebral hemisphere).
● Each PET scan is merely a colored
map of the amount of radioactivity
in each of the tiny cubic voxels
(volume pixels) that compose the
scan.
 ● MRI provides clearer images of
the brain than does CT.

MRI vs. CT SCANS

● Advantages of MRI
○ No ionizing radiation
exposure
○ Better spatial resolution
○ Horizontal, Frontal or
Sagittal planes

● Disadvantages
○ Cost
○ Non ferrous metal!

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scans

● A strong magnetic field causes
hydrogen atoms to align in the
same orientation.
● The MRI scanner is tuned to
detect radiation emitted from
the hydrogen molecules.
● Computer reconstructs image

Functional MRI
● Produces images representing the
increase in oxygen flow in the
blood to active areas of the brain.
● Functional MRI is possible because
of two attributes of oxygenated
blood:
○ Active areas of the brain
take up more oxygenated
blood than they need for
their energy requirements,
and thus oxygenated blood
accumulates in active areas
of the brain.
○ Second, oxygenated blood
has magnetic properties
that influence the
radio-frequency waves
emitted by hydrogen atoms
in an MRI.
● The signal recorded by fMRI is
called the BOLD signal (the
blood-oxygen-level-dependent
signal).
● Advantages over PET:
○ Nothing has to be injected
into the volunteer;
○ It provides both structural
and functional information
in the same age;
○ Its spatial resolution is
better; and
○ It can be used to produce
three-dimensional images
of activity over the entire
brain.
● PET and fMRI have allowed
cognitive neuroscientists to create
images of brain activity while
volunteers are engaging in
particular cognitive activities.
● These kinds of studies of brain
activity and cognition all have the
same shortcoming; they can be
used to show a correlation
between brain activity and
cognitive activity, but they can’t
prove that the brain activity
caused the cognitive activity
(Sack, 2006).
Transcranial Stimulation
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
● Is a technique that can be used to
turn off an area of human cortex
by creating a magnetic field under
a coil positioned next to the skull;
● The magnetic stimulation
temporarily turns off part of the
brain while the effects of the
disruption on cognition and
behavior are assessed.
● TMS is often employed to
circumvent the difficulty that
brain imaging determining
causation studies have in
 ● A technique that can be used to
stimulate (“turn on”) an area of
the cortex by applying an
electrical current through two
electrodes placed directly on the
scalp.
● The electrical stimulation
temporarily increases activity in
part of the brain while the effects
of the stimulation on cognition and
behavior are assessed.
Psychophysiological Measures
● Measures of brain activity
○ Scalp EEG and
magnetoencephalography
● Measures of somatic nervous
system activity
○ Muscle tension and eye
movement
● Measures of autonomic nervous
system activity
○ Skin conductance and
cardiovascular activity.
Invasive Physiological Methods in Non
humans
Stereotaxic Surgery - is the means by
which experimental devices are precisely
positioned in the depths of the brain.
Lesion methods - a part of the brain is
damaged, destroyed, or inactivated; then
the behavior of the subject is carefully
assessed in an effort to determine the
functions of lesioned structure.
● Four types of lesions: aspiration
lesions, radiofrequency lesions,
knife cuts, and reversible lesions.
Electrical stimulation - is usually
delivered across the two tips of a bipolar
electrode - two insulated wires wound
tightly together and cut at the end.
Invasive electrophysiological recording
methods - an intracellular unit recording,
extracellular unit recording, multiple-unit
recording, and invasive EEG recording.
Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test
This test uses new recall procedures to
assess visual-motor memory and provide a
more comprehensive assessment of
visual-motor skills.
The Bender-Gestalt II includes
supplemental tests of simple motor and
perceptual ability that helps identify
specific visual-motor deficits.
This test can also be used to assess
neurological damage and emotional
disorders.
This assessment is suitable for individuals
three and older.
Neurological Testing
The results of neuropsychological testing
can help brain-damaged patients in three
important ways:
1. By assisting in the diagnosis of
neural disorders, particularly in
cases in which brain imaging, EEG,
and neurological testing have
proved equivocal;
2. By serving as a basis for
counseling and caring for the
patients; and
3. By providing a basis for
objectively evaluating the
effectiveness of a treatment or
the seriousness of its side
effects.
Modern Approaches Neuropsychological
Testing
Single-test Approach
● Goal: to discriminate between
patients with psychological
problems resulting from structural
brain damage and those with
psychological problems resulting
from functional, rather than
structural, changes to the brain.
● This approach proved
unsuccessful, in large part because
no single test could be developed
that would be sensitive to all the
varied and complex psychological
symptoms that could potentially
occur in a brain-damaged patient.
Standardized-test-Battery Approach
● Grew out of the failures of the
single-test approach, and by the
1960s, it was predominant.
● The objective stayed the same -
to identify brain-damaged patients
- but testing involved standardized
batteries (sets) of tests rather
than a single test.
○ Halstead-Reitan
Neuropsychological Test
Battery - most widely used
standardized test battery.
Customized-test-Battery Approach
● Began to be used routinely in a few
elite neuropsychological research
institutions in the 1960s.
● It now predominates in both the
research laboratory and the
neurological ward.
● The objective of current
neuropsychological testing is not
merely to identify patients with
brain damage, but to characterize
the nature of the psychological
 deficits of each brain-damaged
patient.
The 10 tests in HRB
● Category test
● Tactual performance test
● Rhythm test
● Finger-oscillation test
● Speech sounds perception test
● Trail making test
● Critical flicker frequency
● Aphasia screening test
● Time sense test
● Sensory-perceptual test
Common Neuropsychological Test
● Intelligence
● Memory
● Language
● Language Lateralization, etc.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
= block or prevent the chemical message
from being passed along any farther.
= Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA),
glycine and serotonin are examples of
inhibitory neurotransmitters
B.F. Skinner
● Operant conditioning, or
instrumental conditioning, is a
theory of learning where behavior
is influenced by its consequences.
● Behavior that is reinforced
(rewarded) will likely be repeated,
and behavior that is punished will
occur less frequently.
Ivan Pavlov (Physiologist)
● Classical conditioning (also known
as Pavlovian or respondent
conditioning) is learned through
association and was discovered by
Pavlov, a Russian physiologist.
● In simple terms, two stimuli are
linked together to produce a new
learned response in a person or
animal.
Module 3 Lesson 1.pptx
LESSON 1: THE CONTROL AND
MECHANISM OF MOVEMENT
MUSCLES AND THEIR MOVEMENTS
● Smooth muscles control internal
organs
○ long thin cells
● Skeletal or striated muscles
control movement of body in
relation to the environment
○ long cylindrical with stripes
○ neuromuscular junction:
synapse of motor neuron
with muscle fiber
■ axons release
acetylcholine at
synapse
○ each muscle moves in one
direction and in absence of
acetylcholine, it relaxes
○ movement in two directions
requires antagonistic
muscles: flexor to raise arm
and extensor to lower arm
● Cardiac or heart muscles
○ fibers that fuse together
at points
○ somewhat between smooth
and skeletal muscles
● Myasthenia Gravis is autoimmune
disease
○ immune system anti-bodies
attack acetylcholine
receptors;
○ weakness and rapid fatigue
of muscles because motor
neurons can’t constantly
produce maximum
acetylcholine
○ treated by drugs that
inhibit acetylcholinesterase
to prolong acetylcholine
VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY
MOVEMENTS
● Reflexes such as the stretch
reflex or constriction of pupil to
light are involuntary
○ infant reflexes include
rooting, grasp, and Babinsk
○ allied reflexes are strong in
infants and still in adults,
e.g., sneezing, closing eyes
in strong sunlight
 ● Most movements, e.g., walking, are
a combination of voluntary and
involuntary muscle control
○ involuntarily adjust to
irregularities in road and
automatically swing your
arms
SENSITIVITY TO FEEDBACK
● Ballistic movements, e.g., reflexes,
cannot be altered once started
● Central pattern generators
○ neural mechanisms in spinal
cord and elsewhere that
generate rhythmic
patterns, e.g., wing flapping
in birds and fin movements
in fish
○ started by stimulus but
motor program sets
frequency of movement,
e.g., cats scratch
themselves 3-4 times/sec
● Motor program is a fixed sequence
of movements
○ Ex: cat washing face,
gymnast with complex
movements, yawn
○ automatic patterns may be
disrupted when thinking
about them, e.g., typing or
playing piano
○ evolutionary holdover:
chicken still flaps wings
when dropped even though
can’t fly
ROLE OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
● Cerebral cortex important for
complex actions such as writing
○ less voluntary movements
e.g., coughing, laughing,
crying are controlled by
subcortical areas
○ Stimulation of primary
motor cortex elicits certain
outcome movements in
corresponding body area
○ 500 msec stimulation of
arm region of monkey
results in grasping
movement and moving hand
toward head
○ also, finger area of cortex
active when pianist hears
music
● Prefrontal cortex active when
planning and calculating possible
outcomes of a movement
○ damage results in badly
planned movements,
showering with clothes on,
salting tea instead of food,
etc.
○ inactive during dreaming
and dreams are usually
haphazard
○ Premotor cortex is active
during preparations for a
movement
○ receives information about
target and body location
○ Supplementary motor
cortex active during
preparations for a rapid
series of movements;
typing, dancing, speaking,
playing musical instrument
● Posterior parietal cortex keeps
track of position of body relative
to environment
○ if damaged we can describe
what we see but can’t walk
toward it, pick it up, or step
over object
● Primary somatosensory cortex is
main receiving area for touch and
other body information
○ responds to shape of
object and grasping, lifting
or lowering
CONNECTIONS FROM BRAIN TO
SPINAL CORD
● Messages from brain reach the
medulla and spinal cord through
dorsolateral or ventromedial
tracts
● Dorsolateral (pyramidal tract)
○ originate from primary
motor cortex, surrounding
areas and red nucleus
○ in pyramids of medulla,
axons cross over to
opposite side of spinal cord
but contralateral control
develops gradually
 ○ clumsiness in children with
cerebral palsy comes from
competition between
contralateral and ipsilateral
paths
○ controls movement in
hands, fingers, toes
○ damage here means loss of
fine movements
CONNECTIONS FROM BRAIN TO
SPINAL CORD CONT.
● Ventromedial tract
○ includes axons from the
primary and supplementary
motor cortex, midbrain
tectum, reticular formation
and vestibular nucleus
○ do not cross to
contralateral side because
axons control bilateral
movement of the neck,
shoulders, and trunk
○ damage here impairs
walking, turning, bending,
standing up and sitting
down
ROLE OF CEREBELLUM
● Important for motor control and
has more neurons than rest of
brain
● Enhances new motor programs and
skills
● Processes information about
guiding movement, not the
movement itself
● active when weighing objects with
hands or when objects rub hands
● Damage causes difficulty with:
○ rapid, ballistic movements,
sequences that require
accurate aiming and timing,
e.g., tapping rhythm,
speaking, writing, playing
musical instrument
○ finger-to-nose task: initial
rapid movement may strike
face or hold segment of
task may waver, as when
intoxicated
○ judging differences in delay
in pairs of tones
○ normal shifting of attention
within 100 msec: may take
up to a second
 ● Damage does not effect
controlling force of movement or
judging loudness of tones
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION IN
CEREBELLUM
● Receives input from the spinal
cord, sensory systems through the
cranial nerve nuclei, and from the
cerebral cortex
● Cells are arranged in precise,
repeating geometrical patterns
● Purkinje cells are very flat and
exist in sequential planes
● parallel fibers are perpendicular to
the planes of the Purkinje cells
● parallel fibers excite Purkinje cell
● the more excited, the longer the
duration of the Purkinje output
which may control either a
movement or a cognitive process
ROLE OF BASAL GANGLIA
● Basal ganglia: group of large
subcortical structures in the
forebrain
● caudate nucleus and putamen
receive input from thalamus and
cortex
● globus pallidus sends information
to the thalamus where it goes on
to the motor and premotor
cortices
● stores sensory information to
guide movements, learn rules and
organize sequences of movements
into a smooth, automatic whole
● Organize action sequence into
chunks or units like learning to
drive a car (habit learning)
Active in selection or inhibition of
movements, e.g.:
● surgery patients had activity when
they made a movement with finger
in response to signal
● drawing a new line on computer
● Linked to obsessive-compulsive
disorder
● OCD is marked by repetitive
thoughts and actions that person
knows is pointless or nonsensical
● OCD increases activity in caudate
nucleus and this may be linked to
strong habits
 ● Most often water regulation is
accomplished via drinking more
water than we need and excreting
the rest.

VASOPRESSIN IS A HORMONE
RELEASED BY THE POSTERIOR
PITUITARY WHICH RAISES BLOOD
M3 Lesson2.pptx PRESSURE BY CONSTRICTING BLOOD
VESSELS.
LESSON 2:
THE MECHANISM OF WATER ● HELPS TO COMPENSATE FOR
REGULATION, DIGESTION AND FOOD THE DECREASED WATER
SELECTION VOLUME.

THIRST ● VASOPRESSIN IS ALSO KNOWN

AS AN ANTIDIURETIC
● Water constitutes 70% of the HORMONE BECAUSE IT
mammalian body. ENABLES THE KIDNEYS TO
● Water in the body must be REABSORB WATER AND
regulated within narrow limits. EXCRETE HIGHLY
● The concentration of chemicals in CONCENTRATED URINE.
water determines the rate of all
chemical reactions in the body.
Two different kinds of thirst include:
Mechanisms of water regulation vary for ● Osmotic thirst – a thirst resulting
humans. from eating salty foods.
● Water can be conserved by:
- Excreting concentrated urine. ● Hypovolemic thirst – a thirst
- Decreasing sweat and other resulting from loss of fluids due to
autonomic responses. bleeding or sweating.

● Each kind of thirst motivates

different kinds of behaviors.

Eating salty food causes sodium ions to
spread through the blood and
extracellular fluid of the cell.
● The higher concentration of
solutes outside the cell results in
osmotic pressure, drawing water
from the cell to the extracellular
fluid.
● Certain neurons detect the loss of
water and trigger osmotic thirst
to help restore the body to the
normal state.
THIRST
● When osmotic thirst is triggered,
water that you drink has to be
absorbed through the digestive
system.
● To inhibit thirst, the body
monitors swallowing and detects
the water contents of the stomach
and intestines.
● Hypovolemic thirst is thirst
associated with low volume of body
fluids.
– Triggered by the release of the
hormones vasopressin and angiotensin II,
which constrict blood vessels to
compensate for a drop in blood pressure.
● Angiotensin II stimulates neurons
in areas adjoining the third
ventricle.
● Neurons in the third ventricle
send axons to the hypothalamus
where angiotensin II is also
released as a neurotransmitter.
HUNGER
➢ The brain regulates eating
through messages from the
mouth, stomach, intestines,
fat cells and elsewhere.
➢ The desire to taste and
other mouth sensations,
such as chewing, are also
motivating factors in
hunger and satiety.
➢ Sham feeding experiments,
in which everything an
animals eats leaks out of a
tube connected to the
stomach or esophagus, do
not produce satiety.
➢ The duodenum is the part
of the small intestine
where the initial absorption
of significant amounts of
nutrients occurs.
➢ Distention of the duodenum
can also produce feelings of
satiety.
➢ The duodenum also releases
the hormone
cholecystokinin (CCK),
which helps to regulate
hunger.
➢ Cholecystokinin (CCK)
released by the duodenum
regulates hunger by:
- Closing the sphincter muscle
between the stomach and
duodenum and causing the stomach
to hold its contents and fill faster.
- Stimulating the vagus nerve to
send a message to the
hypothalamus that releases a
chemical similar to CCK.
● Glucose, insulin, and glucagon levels
also influence feelings of hunger.
● Most digested food enters the
bloodstream as glucose, an
important source of energy for
the body and nearly the only fuel
used by the brain.
● When glucose levels are high, liver
cells convert some of the excess
into glycogen and fat cells convert
it into fat.
● When low, liver converts glycogen
back into glucose.
● Insulin is a pancreatic hormone
that enables glucose to enter the
cell.
● Insulin levels rise as someone is
getting ready for a meal and after
a meal.
● In preparation for the rush of
additional glucose about to enter
the blood, high insulin levels let
some of the existing glucose in the
blood to enter the cells.
HUNGER
● Glucagon is also a hormone
released by the pancreas when
glucose levels fall.
● Glucagon stimulates the liver to
convert some of its stored
glycogen to glucose to replenish
low supplies in the blood.

● Consequently, high levels of insulin ● As insulin levels drop, glucose

generally decrease appetite. enters the cell more slowly and
hunger increases.

● If insulin levels constantly stay

high, the body continues rapidly
moving blood glucose into the cells
long after a meal.

– Blood glucose drops and hunger

increases in spite of the high insulin
levels.
– Food is rapidly deposited as fat and
glycogen.
– The organism gains weight.
In people with diabetes, insulin levels
remain constantly low, but blood glucose
levels are high.
– People eat more food than normal, but
excrete the glucose unused and lose
weight.
HUNGER: FOOD SELECTION
Long-term hunger regulation is
accomplished via the monitoring of fat
supplies by the body.
● The body’s fat cells produce the
peptide leptin, which signals the
brain to increase or decrease
eating.
● Low levels of leptin increase
hunger.
● High levels of leptin do not
necessarily decrease hunger.
- Most people are obese because
they are less sensitive to leptin.
- Some people are obese because of
a genetic inability to produce
leptin.
● At the age of weaning, most
mammals lose the intestinal
enzyme lactase, which is necessary
for metabolizing lactose.
● Lactose is the sugar found in milk.
● Milk consumption after weaning
can cause gas and stomach cramps.
● Declining levels of lactase may be
an evolutionary mechanism to
encourage weaning.
● A carnivore eats meat and
necessary vitamins are found in
the meat consumed.
○ Herbivores exclusively eat
plants.
○ Omnivores eat both meat
and plants.
● Herbivores and omnivores must
distinguish between edible and
 inedible substances to find
sufficient vitamins and minerals.
● Selecting foods to eat is usually
accomplished via imitation of
others.
● Other strategies of selecting food
include:
- Selecting sweet foods and
avoiding bitter foods.
- Preferring things that taste
familiar.
- Learning from consequences that
happen after a food is consumed.
● A conditioned taste aversion is a
distaste for
food that develops if the food makes one
ill.
M3Lesson3.pptx
Lesson 3:
The Movement Disorders and Eating
Disorders
Movement Disorders
Parkinson’s Disease:
● Gradual progressive death of
neurons especially in substantia
nigra
○ decrease in dopamine
results in decreased
excitation of cerebral
cortex
● Symptoms begin when neurons
decrease 20%-30%
○ slow on cognitive tasks
○ some depression and
cognitive deficits but no
emotional outbursts
○ rigidity, muscle tremors,
slow movements and
difficulty initiating physical
and mental activity
■ but patients
function well with
visual cues, e.g.,
follow parade, climb
stairs and step on
lines at fixed
intervals
 Huntington’s Disease:
● Severe neurological disorder
striking 1 in 10,000

● Extensive damage to caudate

nucleus, putamen, and globus
pallidus, and some in the cerebral
cortex

● Symptoms most often appear

Movement Disorders between 30-50 years
○ begin with jerky arm
L-Dopa Treatment movements, then facial
● Most common treatment twitch, later tremors
○ precursor for dopamine spread and develop into
that crosses blood-brain writhing cannot learn new
barrier or improve movements

○ effective in early to ○ includes depression,

intermediate stages but memory impairment,
some patients do not anxiety, hallucination
benefit at all ■ may be misdiagnosed
as schizophrenic
○ does not stop progression
of the disease, may do
harm What is an Eating Disorder?

○ side effects: nausea, ● Eating Disorders include extreme

restlessness, sleep emotions, attitudes, and behaviors
problems, low blood surrounding weight and food
pressure, hallucinations, issues.
and delusions
● They are serious emotional and
physical problems that can have
life- threatening consequences for
females and males.

Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa:
● is an eating disorder associated
with an unwillingness to eat as
much as needed.
● Genetic predisposition is likely, but
no clear link has been established.
● Associated with a fear of
becoming fat and not a disinterest
in food.
● Biochemical abnormalities in the
brain and blood are probably not
the cause, but a result of the
weight loss.
Bulimia nervosa:
● is an eating disorder in which
people alternate between extreme
dieting and binges of overeating.
● Some force vomiting after eating.
● Associated with decreased release
of CCK, increased release of
ghrelin, and alterations of several
other hormones and transmitters.
● May be the result and not the
cause of the disorder.
● Reinforcement areas of the brain
also implicated.
BINGE EATING DISORDER (also known
as COMPULSIVE OVEREATING):
● Characterized primarily by periods
of uncontrolled eating beyond the
point of feeling comfortably full.
● While there is no purging, there
may be sporadic fasts or
repetitive diets and often feelings
of shame or self-hatred after a
binge.
● People who overeat compulsively
may struggle with anxiety,
depression, and loneliness, which
can contribute to their unhealthy
episodes of binge eating.