What is science?

Science is systematized body of knowledge obtained

through careful and accurate observations of qualitative and
quantitative facts or information.

Physical science

Any of several branches of science, such as physics,

chemistry, and astronomy that study the nature and properties
of energy and nonliving matter

Natural science

Chapter 1 Refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the

universe,which is understood as obeying rules or laws of
natural origin.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
However, the main focus of this book is all about
CHEMISTRY.

What is chemistry?
Chemistry is a science that deals with the study of
matter, its composition, structure, properties, changes it
undergoes, factors that bring about these changes and energy
associated to these changes.
It tackles the different substances or chemicals that
include everything in the universe which refers to matter.
Importance of Chemistry
1. Learning about the composition of the world around us
can lead to interesting and useful inventions and new
technology.
2. Chemistry is central to understanding many fields,
including agriculture, astronomy, animal science,
geology, medicine, molecular biology and material
science.
3. Chemistry is used by each of us every day in our
struggle to cope with our technological world.
4. Learning about the benefits and risks associated with
the chemicals will help you to be an informed citizen,
able to make intelligent choices concerning the world
around you.
5. Studying chemistry teaches you to solve problems and
communicate with others in an organized and logical
manner.
Branches of Chemistry
1. Inorganic Chemistry- study of the elements and their
compounds except carbon containing compounds.
2. Organic Chemistry- study of substances containing
carbon
3. Physical Chemistry- study of the development of
theoretical aspects of chemistry, of the scientific laws
governing the transformations of matter from one form
to another and the quantitative relationship among each
other.
which consist a set of assumptions. Theories are more
4. Biochemistry- study of the composition of substances
that make-up all living things and the chemical
processes that take place in plants and animals.
5. Analytical Chemistry- study of the identity of the
composition of matter on the kind and relative amount
that composed a particular substance.
6. Industrial Chemistry- study of the chemical changes
that takes place in the industrial processes.
7. Nuclear Chemistry- study of radioactivity and
transmutations of elements.
With these chemical processes, scientific method is
used.
What is Scientific method?
It is the gathering of scientific knowledge that is
generally done by a process.
Phases of Scientific method:
1. Observation and description by the collected data or
facts
2. Analyzation and classification of data
3. Framing a scientific law
4. Formulation of hypothesis or theories
5. Testing the prediction by experimentation
6. Generalization and conclusion
If the hypothesis is verified, it is evaluated into a theory
permanent conclusion but it can also be changed or rejected if
disproved.
Measurements
Every process that takes place needs measurements. We
are measuring different things in our everyday life for example
the food we eat, we need balanced diet right? If you have a
fever, you are measuring your temperature by using a
thermometer.
We are considering different aspects in making and
reporting measurements and one is proper observation.
2 Kinds of Observation
1. Qualitative Observation- observations that does not
answer the questions “How much. How long, How
high”. It is all about the description of your observation
like the color, taste, odor and sound.
Examples:
Red roses
Long table
2. Quantitative observation- observation that answers the
questions “How much. How long, how high”. There is a
numerical value. These are the observations using
measuring device such as weighing balance,
thermometer and others.
Examples:
75°C 27.1 kg 15.25 km
But measurements in all cases are accompanied with
uncertainties. Errors may arise from the instruments used, the
environment or the scientist’s judgments.
Most measurements are reported with some degree of
uncertainties. Scientists indicate the uncertainty in a quantity
by reporting only the significant figures. Significant Figure –
the digits that are known with certainty and the first uncertain
digit.
2 Kinds of Quantity
1. Quantity with uncertainty
-quantities that are measured with the aid of an
instrument
Examples:
3.5 ml- obtained from graduated cylinder
10.5 g- obtained from weighing balance
2. Exact quantity
-quantities obtained by counting
Examples:
4 apples
33 sacks of rice
Rules in Counting Significant Figures in Quantity
a. Quantity with uncertainty
1. Non-zero digits
All non-zero digits are significant.
 Ex: 3.6 g 2 SF b. Exact Quantities
623 mL 3 SF 1. Quantities obtained from counting
Values determined from counting objects have
2. Zero an infinite significant figure.
3 Kinds of Zero 5 mangoes INF. SF
 Middle Zero- all zeros between two 12 guavas INF. SF
significant figure are significant
305 g 3 SF 2. Integers or Pure Numbers
103502 mL 6 SF It has an infinite number of significant figures.
25 INF. SF
 Leading Zero- zero at the beginning of a
value before a decimal point is not Scientific Notation
significant. Quantities can be expressed in scientific
0.75 L 2 SF notation. It is a method of representing numbers by
0.0726 3 SF moving the decimal point and discarding leading and
trailing zeros. It is also used to control the number of
 Trailing Zero significant figure in a quantity.
1. Trailing zero that indicates a
decimal point. All zeros after a Express the following quantities in scientific notation.
significant figure but before a
decimal point are not significant. 5000 sec 5 x 103 1 SF
300 g 1 SF 5.0 x 103 2 SF
5200 mL 2 SF
2. Trailing zero after a decimal 0.0003826 cm 3.826 x 10-4 4 SF
point. All zeros to the right of the 3.83 x 10-4 3 SF
decimal point are significant.
20.00 g 4 SF
18.60 mL 4 SF
 Rounding Off + 132.1 g
To remove unwanted digits, values are rounded 2.756 g
off. 136.946 g 136.9 g
If the digit to be discarded is greater than 5, the
preceding digit will be increased by one, 5.08 x 10-3 g 0.0508 x 10-1
4.19 can be round off to 4.2 +2.121 x 10-1 g +2.121 x 10-1
3.46 can be round off to 3.5 2.1718 x 10-1 2.172 x 10-1

if it is less than 5, the preceding digit will be retained. Multiplication and Division
4.14 can be round off to 4.1 Final answer must have the same number of significant
3.42 can be round off to 3.4 figure as the value which has the least.

If the digit to be discarded is 5, the preceding digit will 0.25 g ۫2 SF

be increased by one if it is an odd number and retain if x 1.376 g 4 SF
it is an even number. 0.34 g2 2 SF
30.15 can be round off to 30.2
20.45 can be round off to 20.4 5.7678 g 5 SF
/ 2 INF SF
Arithmetic Rules 2.8839 g 5 SF
You can’t report all the digits displayed by your
calculator. You should present your answers in correct number Logarithm
of significant figure by following the rules below. Log quantities must have as many digits to the right of
the decimal point as there are significant figure in the original
Addition and Subtraction value.
Final answers must have as many digits to the right of Log (2.90 x 10-2) = -1.537
decimal point as the value with the fewest digits to the right of
the decimal point. Accuracy and Precision
Scientists see to it that the result of their experiments is
2.09 g accurate and precise. To ensure that they will get accurate and
precise results, they perform a procedure more than once. Electric Current Ampere A
Accuracy is the agreement of the results to the true value while Amount of substance mole Mol
Precision is the agreement of the results to one another. Luminous intensity candela cd

Systems of Measurement Conversion

A measurement is expressed by a numerical value Sometimes, measurement is not enough. Quantities
together with a unit of that measurement. It is also known as obtained in some cases, must also be converted to another unit.
the quantitative observation. There are three to things to be considered in converting one
1. English System- each unit is defined separately unit to another unit: the given unit, desired unit and the
Length: 12 inch= 1 ft conversion factor-the equality that relates two units.
Volume: 4 qt=1 gal
Mass: 2000lb=1 ton Given unit x conversion factor = desired unit
Time: 24 hr= 1 day
Given unit x desired unit = desired unit
2. Metric System- a decimal system of units for Given unit
measurement of mass, length, time and other
physical quantities. Let us try to covert 36 inches to feet.
Length: meter (m) base unit 1. Look for the appropriate conversion factor.
Km, cm, dm, mm: units containing the 12 inches= 1 foot
base unit. Prefixes are added to indicate that the unit
is multiplied by a certain factor. 2. Write the equality in fraction form.
12 in or 1 ft
Metric system are also known as the International 1ft 12 in
System (SI). 3. Multiply the given unit with the appropriate conversion
Physical Quantity Name of Units Symbol factor where the unit of the given is in the denominator
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg 36 in x 1ft = 3 ft
Time second s 12 in
Temperature kelvin K
Try to convert the following: Kelvin (K)
K= °C+273.15
1. 652 mg to kg
2. 45 gal to L
3. 20 cm to km
4. 200 lb to g
5. 250 ml to cm3

Temperature
-the degree of hotness and coldness of an object. There
are three temperature scales: Fahrenheit (°F), Celsius (°C) and
Kelvin (K).

Fahrenheit (°F)
°F=9/5°C+32

Celsius (°C)
°C=5/9(°F -32)
EXERCISES 5. 23.0005 kg
A. COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Identify how many SF are there in each item.
1. 15 girls D. CONVERT THE FOLLOWING

2. 20.03 g 1. 16 °F to °C

3. 0.0053 mL 2. 75 K to °F

4. 50000 km 3. 18 °C to °F

5. 17.143 L 4. 26 K to °F

B. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 5. 5 days to seconds

Change each items into scientific notation
6. 34 inches to centimeter
1. 0.00143 g
E. SOLVE THE FOLLOWING USING ARITHMETIC RULE
2.25 000 L
1. 5.05 L + 14.3 L + 0.063 L
3. 37500 km
2. 175. 5 g + 0.71 g + 3.003g
4. 0.00000590 cm
3. 15.6 g x 0.07 g
5.156 000 000 000 m
4. 17.53 km ÷ 2 km

C. ROUNDING OFF
Round off the following in four significant figures. F. SOLVE THE FOLLOWING LOGARITHM
1. 0.16753 cm
2. 174. 67 m 1. Log (3.05 x )

3. 59.041 km 2. Log (5.156 x )

4. 390. 01 L
 MATTER

PURE SUBSTANCE MIXTURE

ELEMENT COMPOUND HOMOGENEOUS

HETEROGENEOUS
METAL OGANIC

NON METAL INORGANIC

Chapter 2 METALLOID

MATTER
Anything that occupies space (volume) and has mass
is called matter. It can be classified as pure substance and
mixture. A pure substance is a form of matter that has
definite composition and distinct properties. It can be
element or compound. Element is composed only of one
atom while compound is the combination of two or more
atoms. Element can be metal, non-metal or metalloids.
Compound can be classified as acid, base or salt. Mixture is
the physical combination of two or more pure substances
which retain their distinct properties. It can be
homogeneous mixture or heterogeneous mixture.
PHASE OF MATTER
CHANGES OF MATTER
Solid Liquid Gas
Volume definite definite Not 1. PHYSICAL CHANGE- changes which take place
Shape definite not Not
without modifying the chemical composition of matter,
change in size or shape or state of subdivision
Density high high Low
Ex. Tearing of paper
Compressibility not slight Compressible Melting of ice
Motion of Vibrate about Slide past one Free motion
molecules fix proportion another freely 2. CHEMICAL CHANGE- changes which involves the
alteration of the chemical composition of a substance.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER When there is a chemical change there is a chemical
There are two properties of matter. reaction.

FOUR TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION

1. PHYSICAL PROPERTY- the physical
appearance and the inherent properties Of a 1. Synthesis/Combination Reaction
substance (color, odor, taste, density, metimg point
-forms a single product only.
and boiling point).
It can be extensive property-depends on the ex. A+B AB
amount og material present: mass. Volume, length,
size. And extensive property- characteristics of K+Cl KCl
any sample of a substance (odor, color, taste, BP,
Na+Cl NaCl
MP, RI and density)

2. CHEMICAL PROPERTY- properties associated

with chemical change, either alone or by interaction 2. Decomposition
with other substances ( rusting of iron, alcohol -a reactant is broken down into 2 or more substance.
burning , wood to decay).
ex. AB A+B
 H2O H2+O2

HCl H2 + Cl2

3. Substitution/Stage Displacement
-a more reactive substance will substitute the less
reactive substance.

ex. AB + C CB + A

HCl+Mg MgCl2 +H2

4. Double Decomposition/Metathesis
-two or more substances produce two or more
products.

ex. AB+ CD AD + BC

HCl + NaOH NaOH+ NaCl

 What is matter made of?

According to Democritus, matter is made of tiny

particles called atom, which comes from the Greek
word ‘atomos”, meaning uncuttable. He believes that
any material can be broken down into smaller pieces
until a point is reached, whereby the smallest can no
longer be broken down further. After 100 years,
Aristotle came and did not believe that vacuum could
not exist in nature, so, he proposed that matter is
continuum and that nature is composed of four

Chapter 3 elements; earth, air, water and fire. Another scientist in

the name of Lucretius proposed that matters are bodies
with valid or empty space that allows movement.
ATOM: a closer view
ATOMIC STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

In 1661, Robert Boyle (The Skeptical Chemist)

rejected Aristotle’s four-element theory, instead he
pushed on the discontinuous view of matter, that matter
is composed of particles. He defined element as simple
substance that cannot be broken to anything simpler by
chemical and physical means which was supported by
Isaac Newton.
 In 18th century, John Dalton proposed the first
detailed description of the nature of matter, late tagges
as DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY. Accordingly:
1. All elements are made up of tiny particle
called atom. In Chemical reaction, atoms
rearranged but they do not break.
2. Atoms of same elements are identical in
physical and chemical properties with the
same mass.
3. Atoms of different elements differ in mass
and property
4. Atoms combined in fix ratio if they form
new compound
5. Atoms of same element can unite in more
than one ratio to form more than one
compound
The problem with Dalton’s theory came up
when scientist invented the ‘atom smashing
machine’ that has enough energy to split
atoms into proton, electron and neutron
( subatomic particles)
ERROR: Dalton’s theory that atoms are
indestructible.
Three (3) Fundamental Particles of an Atom
1. Electron (ē) is a negatively charged particle discovered
by J.J. Thompson. It was named by George J. Stoney in
1881. In 1906 Robert Millikan, found that the charge of
one electron is -1.6x1019 coulomb and has a mass equal
to 9.11x10-31 kilogram based on the ratio of Thompson
2. Proton (p) is a positively charged particle discovered
by Henry Moseley. It has a mass of 1.673x 10 -27
kilogram and the same magnitude of electric charge but
has different sign (-1.6x1019 coulomb). Since they have
equal but opposite electric charges, an atom is
electrically neutral.
3. Neutron (n) was discovered by James Chadwick in
1932. . He identified neutrons from the speculation of
Rutherford in 1917, after he breaks the nucleus of
nitrogen using alpha particles where he identified the
positively charge particle, proton, that there exist a
neutral charge particle in the nucleus. It has a mass
about the same as proton, 1.675x 10-27 kilograms.
RAISIN PUDDING THEORY (by J.J. THOMPSON)
Atom is a mass of positive change with electrons
scattered around it as far as possible. An atom is consisting of
equal positive and negative particles
BOHR’S THEORY
States that the electrons moved around are nuclear of
the atoms in orbits much as the planets move around the sun.
MATTER WAVE THEORY
Louis de Broglie proposed the matter wave theory
wherin his experiments showed that electron have both
properties and a particle property like light waves. His theory
led to the development of the MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
which based on the quatum mechanics by Erwin Schrodinger. 12- mass #
Instead of the circular planetary orbit of Neil Bohr, the solution 6-atomic #
of Schrodinger equation showed a 3-dimensional shape of the
12-6= 6 no. of neutrons
pattern that develops when electron waves are confined by a
6 no. of protons
nucleus. 6 no. of electrons

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER Exercise. Fill the following blanks

The atomic number of every element is equal to its Element Atomic # Mass # Proton # Electron # Neutron#
proton number and electron number. Mass Number is the Sn 50 119
number of protons plus the number of neutrons. Hence the Ga 70 31
number of neutrons is equal to the mass number minus the
Mn 25 30
atomic number.
Zr 40 51
Atomic # =Proton # =Electron #
Mass # = Proton # + neutron #
Neutron # mass #- Atomic # Isotopes are atoms of the same atomic number but different
mass number.
a

z
X
Element Proton Electron Neutron
C-12 6 6 6
where X is the symbol of element
C-13 6 6 7
a is the mass number
z is the atomic number C-14 6 6 8

Ex:
12 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF AN ATOM

6
C
What is quantum mechanics? It is a theory of electronic
structure base on the wave properties of the electron.
Where: C- symbol of Carbon
 German physicist Erwin Schrodinger developed a
quantum mechanical treatment for the problem of Bohr’s To designate a particular subshell, write the PQN
theory problem. It shows that the electron may be visualized as followed by AQN.
being in rapid motion within one of the several regions of Example:
space called an orbit or orbital. An atomic orbital is a region in n=2 l=1 2p subshell
space where electrons are most likely to be found. n=1 l=0 1s subshell
For example:H2 e- 1s orbital
1 = energy level AQN describes the shape of orbital.
s = shape of orbital s spherical shape
p dumbbell shape
d clover leaf
Quantum mechanics tell us that the electron wave can f complicated
be characterized by a set of three intgers, quantum number: n, l,
m. MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml)
MQN splits subshells ito individual orbital. It describes
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n) how an orbital is oriented in space relative to the other orbital.
PQN describes the energy and size of orbital and that For s subshell, it has one orbital __
all that has the same value of n are said to be in the same p subshell , 3 orbitals __ __ __
energy level or shell. If n=1, then the electron may be found in d subshell, 5 orbitals __ __ __ __ __
the first shell. Other various shell were identified by letter f subshell, 7 orbitals __ __ __ __ __ __ __
beginning at K (n=1).
All levels except first level have p orbitals.
AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER (l)
AQN divides the shell into smaller groups of orbit ELECTRON SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (ms)
called sublevels. The value of n determines the possible values Electron can spin in either two directions, clockwise or
of l. For a given n, value of l range from l=0 to l=n-1. Letter counterclockwise. The two values of spin, clockwise =+1/2,
code is normally used to specify value of l. counterclockwise = -1/2. Each orbital contains maximum two
Value of l 0 1 2 3 4 electrons.
Letter designation s p d f g
 Each energy level can contain only up to 2n 2 electrons,
where n= number of energy level.
Example: 1st level 2(1)2 = 2e
2nd level 2(2)2 = 8e ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
3rd level 2(3)2 = 18e In writing the electronic configuration of an atom or
ion, it is important to know the sequence of orbital occupancy.
This is in accordance of PAULI’S E4XCLUSION Memorize the following sequence:
RULE, states that no 2 electrons can have the same values of 1s2s2p3s3p4p5s4d5p6s5d4f6p7s6d5f…
the four quantum numbers. And also the maximum number of electron to each
Example: configuration: s=2, p=6, d=10, f=14.
3s n=3 l=0 ml=0 max. of 2 e
2p n=2 l=1 ml=-1 0 +1 max. of 6 e Example: Electronic configuration of Oxygen
1e n=1 l=0 m=0 s=+1/2
2e n=1 l=0 m=0 s=-1/2
SHELL AND SUBSHELL 3e n=2 l=0 m=0 s=+1/2
-also called the energy level and sublevel, are defined 4e n=2 l=0 m=0 s=-1/2
by quantum number, as the distance of its electron from the 5e n=2 l=1 m=-1 s=+1/2
6e n=2 l=1 m=0 s=+1/2
nucleus or the overall energy. Shells overlap when the atoms
7e n=2 l=1 m=+1 s=+1/2
are large. 8e n=2 l=1 m=-1 s=-1/2
A subshell can contain up to 4l + 2 electrons.
A shell can contain up to 2n2, where n= shell number. Therefore, the electronic configuration for the element oxygen
having 8 electrons is: 1s22s22p4.
Shell Subshell Orbital Max. no. of e
n=5 l=0 0 2 Try this!
l=1 -1 0 +1 6
Write the electronic configuration of the following:
l=2 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 10
l=3 -3-2-10+1+2+3 14 Li (3)
l=4 -4-3-2-20+1+2+3+4 18 N (7)
2 6 10 14 18
This information can be written: 5s 5p 5d 4f 4g . S (16)
Ca (20)
Br (35)

Quantum mechanics and electronic configuration play a

vital role on the arrangement of elements in the periodic table.
Quantum description and electronic structure of an atom can
help us to understand the arrangement of these elements. Thus,
we can explain why inert gases are not reactive while some
metals are active.
Evolution of Periodic Table
Many scientists work independently to arrange the
elements in systematic fashion. Many charts were introduced in
which elements with some similarities were grouped together

Chapter 4
for a hope to find a regular pattern.

J.W. Existence of triad, group of three elements

Dobereiner, with similar chemical properties:
PERIODIC TABLE 1817 Li, Na, K- shiny soft metals that react
vigorously with water to form an alkaline
solution
Ca, Sr, Ba- soft metal with, however their
properties are different from Na group
Fe, Co. Ni- hard metals
According to Dobereiner, when elements of
triad were arranged in order of increasing
atomic weight, the atomic weight of the
middle element is equal to the average of
the other elements.
John Proposed the Law of Octaves-elements
Alexander were arranged in increasing atomic weight.
Newlands,186 Every eight elements has similar properties
4 REJECT: It was not applicable beyond Fluorine
calcium.
Dimitri He arranged the elements in the periodic
Ivanovich table based on the increasing atomic weight
Mendeleeve and mostly on the chemical properties of
elements.
Try this.
Lothar Meyer Arranged the elements based on the
increasing atomic weight and physical Atomic No. Symbol Name Atomic
properties. Weight (4 SF)
Both had devised schemes that would 20
systematize to the development of 15
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE. 80
Mendeleeve periodic table was better than 27
Meyer as suggested.
75
Henry Provide solution to the Mendeleeve
Moseley. 1913 periodic table problem. In few exceptions,
arrangement of elements in order of Which symbol is correct?
increasing atomic numbers the same as that
based on the order of increasing atomic a. Copper, Co________________
weight. b. Silicon, Si_________________
Thus, Moseley pointed out that the physical c. Fluorine, Fl________________
and chemical properties of elements vary d. Iron, Fe_________________
periodically with increasing atomic number, e. Gold, Au_________________
the new PERIODIC LAW.

TYPES OF ELEMENTS
MODERN PERIOODIC TABLE
METALS A good conductor of electricity. It shows
9 Atomic Number
metallic luster. It is malleable and ductile ( it
F Symbol can’t be bent or drawn into sheet or wire
without breaking).
18.9984 Atomic Weight H2 is not a metal. It is just located at the
 metal group because of its electronic Elements in the same group tend to have similar
configuration. chemical properties. It attributes to the same number of valence
85 % of the elements are metal electron or electrons in the outermost shell.
NON- A poor conductor of electricity and heat. It
METAL shows no metallic luster and is brittle and Element E.C Valence e
non-ductile in solid state. H(1) 1s1 1
METALLOI B,Si, As, Te, At) separate the elements to Li(3) [He¿ 2s1 1
D metal and non-metal. Elements that posses Na(11) [Ne¿ 3s1 1
some properties of metal and non-metal. K(19) [Ar¿ 4 s1 1
Si- bright metallic luster but not good
conductor of electricity and is brittle
PERIOD OR SERIES

GROUP AND PERIOD It is the horizontal row of element in periodic table that runs
from left to right with increasing atomic number.
Elements in a column or group have similar chemical
properties. Each horizontal row is called PERIOD or SERIES Period 1 has only two elements: H and He
and each vertical row is called GROUP or FAMILY.
Period 2 starts from Lithium to Neon
GROUP OR FAMILY
The two rows below the periodic table are part of Period 6 and
There are 18 columns in the periodic table written in Period 7. They have the same properties but different from
Roman numerals followed by A or B. You may also found elements under Period 6 and Period 7.
them in Arabic numerals (1,2,3,4…). The system of assigning
depends on the date of publication and origin. In USA, the A Period tells the highest main energy level for each element.
families are known as the representative elements and the B
Perio Elemen EC Main E.L
families are known as the transition metals together with the d t
two rows across the bottom which is also name as inner 1 H(1) 1s1 1st
transition elements. 2 Li(3) 1s22s1 2nd
3 Na(11) 1s22s2p63s1 3rd
4 K(19) 1s22s2p63s23p64s1 4th
BLOCK

We have four blocks in the periodic table (s,p,d,f). Each

block is composed of elements with similarities in their
outer shell configuration.

s d p

LOCATING ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Using the atomic number and electronic configuration

notation of every element, we can locate their group, period
and block in the periodic table.

Example: Ca(20)- 1s22s2p63s23p64s2

Electron Notation: 4s2

4 – main energy level (period no.)

s- block
2 – no. of electron (group no.)

Try this!

E.N Group Period Block

K(19)
Al (13)
Zn(30)
S(16)
Br(35)
 We had discussed about elements in our previous
lectures. We cannot find many of them in their free form or
elemental form. Most of them can be found in combination
with other elements. Example: Na combines with Cl forming
NaCl, common component of sea water. Some atoms of
elements are chemically bonded to other atoms of the same
kind and they are called diatomic molecules like N2, H2 and O2
gases.

How do they combine and what are the forces that hold
them together? We will examine two types of chemical bonds

Chapter 5 and how to predict their formation from a consideration of their

electron configuration.

CHEMICAL BONDING Why is there a so called bonding of electrons? Bonding

of electrons is needed to obtain stability of each atom and atom
become stable when they have octet electron in their outermost
energy level. Atom can become stable by transferring or
sharing electron with other atoms that also seek an octet.

OCTET RULE
 Elements bond to form compounds and molecules.
They are trying to be more stable by obtaining eight electrons
in their outermost energy level.

LEWIS SYMBOL Ca + H2 CaH2

It includes the number of valence electron represented

by dots in the symbol.

Rules in Lewis dot diagram Li + O2 Li2O

1. Write the symbol of element.

2. Consider the symbol of element having four sides. Use dot

to represent the number of valence electron.

Remember: No. of valence electron = group number

Covalent bonding- sharing of electrons which occur between
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A two non-metal elements. A single pair of electron is called
single bond, two pairs is double bond and three pairs is triple
Li Be B C N O F Ne
bond.

H + H H2
TYPES OF BONDING

Ionic bonding- transfer of electrons which occurs between

metal and non-metal elements.

Na + Cl NaCl O + O O2
 Covalency is the number of covalent bonds formed by
an atom. The covalency of an atom is equal to the number of
electron the atom needed to become isoelectronic with a noble
gases to become stable.
The number of covalent bond that an atom can form can
often be predicted from the number of electrons needed to fill H
its valence shell to become isoelectronic with noble gases .. ..
termed as COVALENCY. H—N---H H—O—H H—C—H
..
H H

2 Types of Covalent bond

Covalencies greatly simplify the writing of structural formula.
1. Polar Covalent Bond- unequal sharing of electrons
Ex. CH4O
2. Non-polar Covalent Bond-0 equal sharing of
electrons. H
..
Electronegativity difference shows the type of H—C---O—H
bonding occur in a compound. ..
H
Greater than 1.7 Ionic bond
Lower than 1.7 Polar covalent bond
0-0.4 Non-polar covalent bond Formal Charge= no. of valence electron- no. of bonds -
unshared electrons
Check the type of bonding.
1. NaCl H +
2. HCl ..
3. O2 H—N—H + H+ H—N---H

H H

Formal Charge FC of N= 5-4-0= +1

FC of H=1-1-0= 0
 ---------- Cl=3x8 =24
+1 34 electrons

3. no. of bonding electrons

LEWIS STRUCTURE 34-26 =8 electrons

It represents the structural formula of polyatomic ions 4. no. of bonds

and molecules. In writing the Lewis structure, we 8/2 =4
usually show the correct arrangement of each atom and
its neighbor wherein the shared electron is represented 5. no. of unshared electrons
by line and the unshared line is dot. 26- 8 =18 electrons

Rules in writing the Lewis structure of molecule Cl

1. Compute for the total available electrons
2. Required number of valence electrons H-------C------Cl
3. Number of bonding electron
4. Number of bonds Cl
5. Number of unshared electrons
6. Compute for the total formal charge
6. Formal Charge
Example: HCCl3 FC of H 1-1-0 =0
FC of C 4-4-0 =0
1. available electrons H= 1x1 =1 FC of Cl 7-1-6 =0(3) =0
C= 1x4 =4 0
Cl=3x7 =21
26 electrons
Try this!
2. required electrons H= 1x2 =2
C= 1x8 =8 1. PCl5
2. Xe F6
3. H3O+
4. SO4-2

Chemical formula tells us the relative numbers of atoms

that bind to form molecules of elements or compounds.

FORMULA WRITING

For ionic compounds

1. Symbol of the positive element is written first,

followed by the negative element

2. Subscripts are used to indicate the number of ions

needed to produce electrically neutral compound

Chapter 6 Mg+2 F-1 MgF2 Magnesium fluoride

CHEMICAL FORMULA Na+1 Cl-1 NaCl Sodium chloride

For covalent compounds

1. The first element in the formula is named first wiyh

a Greek prefix indicating the number of atoms if
the number is greater than one.

2. The stem name of the second element in the

formula is mentioned next.
 Acids- compounds containing weakly bonded H atom.

CO Carbon monoxide HBrO3 bromic acid

CO2 Carbon dioxide HClO3 chloric acid
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide HIO3 iodic acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid

For polyatomic ions: HClO4 perchloric acid

HClO3 chloric acid
Mg+2NO3- Mg(NO3)2 Magnesium nitrate HClO2 chlorous acid
HClO hypochlorous acid
K+ NO3- KNO3 Potassium nitrate HCl hydrochloric acid

Ca+2PO4-3 Ca3(PO4)2 Calcium phosphate

Salts-formed when the weakly bonded H atom of an acid are
Metallic ions with variable oxidations replaced by metallic atoms.
Sn+2 Tin (II) or stannous
Sn+4 Tin (IV) or stannic KClO3 Potassium chlorate
Hg+ Mercury (I) or mercurous NaNO3 Sodium nitrate
Hg+2 Mercury (II) or mercuric
Cu+ Copper (I) or cuprous
Cu+2 Copper (II) or cupric NaClO4 sodium perchlorate
Au+ Gold (I) or aurous NaClO3 sodium chlorate
Au+3 Gold (III) or auric NaClO2 sodium chlorite
Pb+2 Lead (II) or plumbous NaClO sodium hypochlorite
Pb+4 Lead (IV) or plumbic
NaCl Sodium chloride

NAMING COMPOUNDS Bases- group of compounds identified by the presence of

hydroxide group (OH).
 NaOH sodium hydroxide PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
Fe(OH)2 iron (II) hydroxide or ferrous hydroxide A. Calculate the molecular mass.
Fe(OH)3 iron (III) hydroxide or ferric hydroxide

H2O H 2x1 = 2
O 1x16 = 16
------------
MOLECULAR MASS OR WEIGHT 18 g/mole
This refers to the total of the atomic masses of each
atom present in a compound. B. Compute for the percentage of each atom

Ex. AgCl Ag 108 g

Cl 35 g %H 2/ 18 x 100 =11%

143 g/mole %O 16/18 x 100 =89%

------------
100%

THREE KINDS OF FORMULA

Ca(OH)2
Structural Formula shows how elements linked to
Ca 1x40=40 each other and how they are oriented in the space. It shows the
O 2x16=32 stereoisomer of compounds.
H 2x1 =2___

74 g/mole Empirical formula shows the elements present in the

compound in their simplest whole number ratio.

Molecular formula identifies the actual number of

H2O H 2x1 = 2 atoms of each element in a molecule of a substance.
O 1x16 = 16
------------
18 g/mole DERIVATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA
1. A nine gram unknown liquid sample was found to
contain 1g of H and 8 g of O, what is the empirical
formula of the compound?
4. An agricultural fungicide has an empirical formula
ofC3Cl2O. Analysis of the compound shows that it
contains four atoms of chlorine per molecule. What
is the molecular formula and molecular mass of the
compound?

2. A compound was found to contain the following

percentage composition: %Ca= 40, %C = 12, %O=
48, what is the empirical formula of the compound?

3. The empirical formula of a compound is CH. If its

molecular mass is 78g/mole, what is the molecular
formula?
 Chemical reaction is a process that results to the
interconversion of chemical substances. When a chemical
change occurs, a chemical reaction takes place. These are
represented by a chemical equation where the starting materials
are called reactants and the resulting materials as products.

NaCl + H2SO4 HCl + NaHSO4

H2 + O2 H2O

Energy changes accompany a chemical change. Energy

absorbed is written on the reactant while energy released on the
product.

CO2 + H2O + energy O2 + sugar

Chapter 7 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION

CHEMICAL REACTION
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE
In balancing chemical equations, we do not
change the subscript instead we place a number called
coefficient. 1. Law of Mass Conservation
-masses of each atom are conserved. The total
Molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a mass of the reactant is equal to the mass of the
compound that can have a stable existence product.

Coefficient could also be read as number of moles 2H2 + O2 2H2O

instead a molecule.
4g H 32g O 36 g H2O
Mole is the chemistry dozen where a mole of molecule 2. Law of definite composition
is exactly 12 grams of C12.. According to Amadeo Avogadro, -states that a pure substance is always composed
mole of molecule contains 6.022x1023 molecules. of the same elements combined in a definite
proportion by mass.

Balance the following chemical equations. CO

%C= 12 g x100 =42.9%
1. H2 + O2 H2O --------
12+16

2. NaCl + H2SO4 HCl + NaHSO4 %O= 16g x100 =57.1%

--------
12+16
3. Fe + O2 Fe2O3
CO2
%C= 12 g x100 =27.3%
4. C3H9 + O2 CO2 + H2O --------
12+32

5. Ca(HCO3)2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + Na HCO3

%O= 32g x100 =72.7%
--------
 12+32 2. No. of mole of NaCl

3. Law of multiple proportion =35g x 1mol NaCl

- when 2 elements combined to form more than 58g
one compound, the different mass of element
that combine with a fixed mass of another =0.60 moles
element is in the simplest whole ratio.

STOICHIOMETRY Ex. How many grams of MgCl2 is equivalent to 0.75 moles.

It is the chemical relationship between the quantitiesof 1. MW: Mg= 1x24= 24

reactants and products based on the mole relations given in a Cl= 2x35 =70
balance chemical equation. 94g/mole

Mole of A = mass of A x 1 mol A 2. Mass of MgCl2

grams A =0.75mole x 94 g
I mole

Mass of A = mole of A x grams A =70.5 g

1 mol A

THEORETICAL YIELD and ACTUAL YIELD

Ex. How many moles of NaCl are in 35g NaCl?
Theoretical yield is the amount of products obtained
1. MW: Na= 1x23= 23
based on the assumption that no substances have been lost in
Cl= 1x35= 35
-------- the system.
58g/mole Actual yield is the mass of product obtained after the
reaction. It is usually less than the theoretical yield.
 Let us say that there are 4g H and 30g O are available,
Percent yield = Actual yield x100 which is the limiting reactant?
Theoretical yield
4g = Xg H
Example: ------------- ------------------
The vinegar used for cooking is produced by 32g O 30 g O
fermenting nipa sap which contains glucose sugar C 6H12O6 by
yeast and acetobacter. The overall reaction is:
X= 4g H (30g O)
C6H12O6 + 2O2 2CH3COOH + 2CO2 + 2H2O ----------------
32g O
If 90 g C6H12O6 is fermented, how many grams of CH3COOH X= 3.75 g H
would be produced? If only53.5 g of acetic acid is collected
what is the percent yield? Unreacted H: 4.00g – 3.75g = 0.25 g

REDUCTION-OXIDATION REACTION

Oxidation

Any chemical change in which a substance loses

LIMITING REACTANT
electrons and thus increases in oxidation state. For
It is the reactant that is consumed completely after the
example, when a Zn atom loses two electrons to
reaction.
become a Zn2+ ion, the Zinc has increased in oxidation
state (from 0 to +2).
2H2 + O2 2H2O
2 moles 1 mole
Zn Zn2+ + 2e –
4g H 32g O
2. Reduction
 A chemical change in which a substance gains
electrons and thus decreases in oxidation state. For
example, when a sulfur atom gains two electrons to
become a sulfide(S2-) ion, it decreases in oxidation state
(from 0 to -2).
 The Zn is in reducing agent and the S is the oxidizing
agent. Important to keep in mind when considering
equations of this type that there must be both oxidation
and reduction taking place.

S + e- S-2
GEROA – gain electrons undergo reduction to yield
Whenever one substance is oxidized, it loses electrons
oxidizing agent.
to another substance, which is thereby reduced; that is,
oxidation is always accompanied by reduction. Hence, these
LEORA – loss electrons undergo oxidation to yield
equations are called oxidation – reduction equations.
reducing agent.
Reducing Agent
Ex.
 The substance that is oxidized and since it LEORA
causes something else to be reduced.
1. Zn 0 + Ag+1N5O-2 Zn+2(N+5O3-5)2 +Ag0
Oxidizing Agent
GEROA
 The substance that is reduced causes
something else to be oxidized.
Ag NO3
Example: 1(1) + 1(x) + 3(-2) = 0
(LEORA) 1+ x + (-6) = 0
Oxidation x = 6-1
x = +5
Zn + S Zn+2 S-2

Reduction
(GEROA)
 Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two
substances. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another
substance, known as a solvent. The solvent does the dissolving.

Types of Solutions

 Gas
 If the solvent is a gas, only gases are
dissolved under any given set of
conditions. An example of a gaseous
solution is air (oxygen and other gases
dissolved in nitrogen.
 Liquid
 If the solvent is a liquid, then gases,

Chapter 8  Solid
liquids, and solids can be dissolved.

 If the solvent is a solid, then gases,

SOLUTION
liquids, and solids can be dissolved.

Solubility
The ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound
is called solubility. When a liquid is able to completely
dissolve in another liquid the two liquids are miscible.
Two substances that can never mix to form a solution are
called immiscible
Concentration is the measure of how much of a
given substance there is mixed with another substance.
This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most
frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions,
where it refers to the amount of solute in the solvent.
It can be expressed in terms of molarity, molality
percentage by mass and volume and normality.
Percentage by mass denotes the mass of a substance
in a mixture as a percentage of the mass of the entire
mixture.
%m/m = mass of solute x 100
mass of solution
Liter of solution
Molality (mol/kg, molal, or m) denotes the number
of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent (not solution).
The term molal solution is used as a shorthand for a "one
molal solution", i.e. a solution which contains one mole of
the solute per 1000 grams of the solvent.
Molality = mole of solute
Kilogram of solvent
Normality of a solution is the number of gram
equivalent weight of a solute per liter of its solution. The
definition of normality depends on the exact reaction
intended. A normal is one gram equivalent of 5 solutes per
liter of solution.
Normality = Molarity x No. of moles or N=M.n

Percentage by volume, abbreviated as % v/v,

describes the volume of the solute in mL per 100 mL of the
resulting solution. This is most useful when a liquid - liquid
solution is being prepared.

%v/v = volume of solute x 100

volume of solution

Molarity (in units of mol/L, molar, or M) or molar

concentration denotes the number of moles of a given
substance per liter of solution. A capital letter M is used to
abbreviate units of mol/L.

Molarity = mole of solute

 The early gas laws were developed at the end of the 18 th
century, when scientist began to realize that relationship between the
pressure, volume and temperature of a sample of gas could be
obtained which would hold for all gases. Gases behave on a similar
way over a wide variety of conditions because to good
approximation they all have module which are widely spaced, and
nowadays the equation of state for an ideal gas equation, with one or
more of the variables held constant.

Boyle’s law

Boyle’s law shows that, at constant temperature, the product

on an ideal gas’s pressure and volume is always constant.

As a mathematical equation, Boyle’s law is:

PV=k or V = k 1/P

Chapter 9 Problem Example

GAS LAWS
 A sample of gas occupies a volume of 225 ml at a pressure Where T is the absolute temperature of the gas and k 2 is the constant
of 720 torr and temperature of 20˚C. Calculate the new pressure if produced.
the volume is increased to 350ml, at constant temperature.
Problem Example;
Solution:
A sample of gas occupies a volume of 275 ml at 20˚C and 1 atm
In working these problems, arrange the data in an orderly form such pressure. Calculate the volume of the gas at 0˚C and 1 atm pressure.
as
Solution:
P1 = 720 torr P2 =?
V1 = 275 ml V2 =?
V
V1 = 225 ml 2 =?
T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 K T2 = 0 + 273 = 273 K
(T is constant)

P2 = P1 x Vfactor
Since the temperature is decreasing, the volume must also decrease.
The volume has increased from 225 to 350 ml; hence the pressure Therefore, the temperature factor is set up as a
will be decreased, and the volume factor must be written so that the fraction less than one, and the new volume is
new pressure will be less than the initial pressure. Thus, the volume calculated as;
factor is written as a fraction less than one, and is therefore, 225 ml /
350 ml. thus, the new pressure is calculated as;

P2 = 720 torr x 225 / 350 ml = 463 torr V2 = 275 X 273 K/ 293 K = 256 ml

Charles’s law Gay- Lussac’s law

Charles’s law, or the law of volume, was found in 1678. it says that,
for an ideal gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature. This can be found using the
kinetic theory of gases or a heated container with a variable volume.
Formula:
The pressure law was found by Joseph Louis Gay- Lussac’s in 1809.
it states that the pressure exerted on a container’s sides by an ideal
gas is proportional to the absolute temperature of gas. This follows
from the kinetic theory- by increasing the temperature of the gas, the
molecule’s speeds increase meaning an increased amount of
collisions with the container walls.

V = k 2T As a mathematical formula, this is:

 P = k3T first consider how the volume would changed as the temperatures,
considering the pressure to be constant. Then we consider the
Problem Example: volume would change as the pressure changes, considering the
pressure to be constant.
A sample of gas 25˚C has a pressure of 1.2 atm. Calculate the final
pressure in atmospheres if the temperature is changed to 100˚C, at Problem Example
constant volume.
A sample of gas occupies a volume of 12.5 L at 625 torr
Solution: pressure and 150˚C. What would the pressure be, in torr, if the
volumes were increased to 15.0 L and the temperatures were
P1 = 1.20 atm P2 =?
increased to300˚C?
T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K T2 = 100 + 273 = 373 K

Since the temperature is increasing, the pressure will also increase.

Solution:
Therefore the temperature factor is set up as a fraction greater than
one, and the new pressure is calculated as: We first set up ouf list of original and new conditions.
P2 = 1.20 atm X 373 K / 273 K = 1.64 atm P1 = 625 torr P2 =?

V1 = 12.5 L V2 = 15.0 L
Combined gas laws T1 = 150 + 273 = 423 K T2 = 300 + 273 = 573 K
We can combine these gas laws to do calculations, using the
following relationships:
When we consider each factor individually; that is, we consider first
V2 = V1 x Tfactor x Pfactor what will happen to the pressure if the volume is increased and then
we determine what will happen to the pressure if the temperature is
P2 = P1 x Vfactor x Tfactor
increased. Therefore, the overall change is calculated as
T2 = T1 x Vfactor x Pfactor
P2 = 625 torr x 12.5 L/ 15.0 L x 573 K/ 423 K = 706 torr
In doing calculations involving more than one change, we must
Ideal gas law
consider each change individually. For example, to calculate the new
volume as the temperature and the pressure are both changed, we
 Combining the relationships between the volume and P = nRT = (1.2 mol) (373 K) (0.082) L atm / 10.0 L
temperature, volume and pressure, and volume and number of moles mol K = 3.7 atm
gives
This equation is very useful for gas calculations if the correct value
V = R (T) (1 / P) (n) of R is used. From this we can also derive another equation to use for
any gas law calculation.
Where R is proportionally constant. This equation written as
R1 = R2 or P1V1 / n1T1 = P2V2 / n2T2
PV = nRT.

It is possible to use this equation to calculate molecular weight bu

substituting grams divided by molecular weight of the gas for n: that
is,

PV = g RT / mw or mw = g RT / PV

This equation of state is not necessary for calculations involving

gases. Any problem involving gases can be solved without it, but it is
a useful equation and you should learn to use it along with other
types of gas law calculations. If this is used, it is essential to
understand how it is derived; that is, how it is related to the varios
gas laws and what the value of R is with the units that are being
used.

Problem Example

Calculate the pressure in the atmospheres, using PV = nRT

Solution:

If we want to express, the pressure in atmospheres, we use o.082 L-

atm / mol-K

for R.
 Organic chemistry is the chemistry of compounds
which contain carbon -- which is a vast number of
compounds. Carbon forms more compounds than any other
element except hydrogen.

Hydrocarbons are organic compound composing of

carbon and hydrogen. It can be classified as aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons. Aromatic hydrocarbon contains a

No. of
carbon Alkane Alkene Alkyne Cycloalkane Alkadiene
atoms

Chapter 10
1 Methane – – – –

2 Ethane Ethene Ethyne – –

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 3 Propane Propene Propyne Cyclopropane Propadiene

4 Butane Butene Butyne Cyclobutane Butadiene

5 Pentane Pentene Pentyne Cyclopentane Pentadiene

6 Hexane Hexene Hexyne Cyclohexane Hexadiene

7 Heptane Heptene Heptyne Cycloheptane Heptadiene

8 Octane Octene Octyne Cyclooctane Octadiene

9 Nonane Nonene Nonyne Cyclononane Nonadiene

10 Decane Decene Decyne Cyclodecane Decadiene

benzene (C6H6) compound while aliphatic does not.
Aliphatic hydrocarbon can be further classified as acyclic, a
chain of hydrocarbon-normal or branched chain) and Chemical Formul Structural
Group Prefix Suffix Example
class a Formula
cyclic, a hydrocarbon forming a polygon or ring. Acyclic
hydrocarbon can be alkane, alkene and alkyne and cyclic
hydrocarbon can be cycloalkane, cycloalkene and
Hydrox hydrox
cylcloalkyne. Hydrocarbons of purely single bond are called Alcohol
yl
ROH
y-
-ol

saturated while those compound having double and triple

Methanol
bonds are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons can be presented into three types of
structural formula. It can be in form of expanded structural
formula, condensed structural formula and bond-line Ketone
Carbony
RCOR'
keto-,
-one
l oxo- Methyl ethyl
structure
ketone
(Butanone)
Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds .
Containing only carbon and hydrogen, they can be straight-
chain, branched chain, or cyclic molecules. Carbon tends to
Aldehyd
form four bonds in a tetrahedral geometry. Hydrocarbon Aldehyde
e
RCHO aldo- -al
derivatives are formed when there is a substitution of a Acetaldehyde
functional group at one or more of these positions . A (Ethanal)
functional group is a reactive portion of a molecule. The
combinations of functional groups with hydrocarbons
produce a vast number of compounds. Particular types of
Carboxylic Carboxy carboxy -oic
reactions are associated with the functional groups with acid l
RCOOH
- acid
different structural attachments, giving rise to names Acetic acid
(Ethanoic acid)
associated with such compounds.

Ether Ether ROR' alkoxy- -ether

 Diethyl ether
(Ethoxyethane)
References
alkyl
Tyrone R. Chanco and Christine R. Chanco, Physical
Ester Ester RCOOR' alkano Ethyl butyrate science copy right 2005
ate (Ethyl
butanoate) Fundamentals of College Chemistry Third Edition by
Jesse H. Wood, Charles W. Keenan,William E. Bull

General Organic,and Biological Chemistry, by George

Amine Amine RNH2 amino- -amine Odian, Ira Blei
Methylamine
(Methanamine) Organic Chemistry, by: Bernaldez - Cañizares-
Guevarra, 2nd edition (1983)

Hipolito, M., S. Lazaro and L. Quitos,. 2009. Laboratory

Amide Amide R2NH amino- -amide
Manual and Workbook in Chem 101.
Dimethylamine
Padolina M.C., et.al. 2004. Conceptual and Functional
Chemistry. Third Series. Quezon City: Vibal Publishing House,
Inc.

Rafael, R.., D. Romano, M.J. Dela Cruz, A. Valdez, C.

Ortinero and R. Rafael. 2008. Chemistry Made Easy, First
Edition, Love Printing Press.

Torres L., M. Umagat, M. Perez, M. Hipolito, D.

Peñaloza Jr., and S. Lazaro. 2008. Organic Chemistry.
Cabanatuan City: Love Printing Press.