Risk Analysis of a Residential Area Close to the
Tailing Dams of an Ex-Foundry
Ma. Cecilia Valles Aragón and Ma. Teresa Alarcón Herrera
Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados. CIMAV., Miguel de Cervantes 120.Complejo Industrial Chihuahua C.P. 31109,
Chihuahua, Chih. Mexico; teresa.alarcon@cimav.edu.mx (for correspondence)
Published online 24 September 2012 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/ep.11701
Several old mining sites in Latin America are unexpectedly
turning into residential areas, posing a high health risk for its
residents. Hence, we address the case of an old mineral proc-
essing plant and foundry, located in Chihuahua, Mexico. This
study comprised site sampling, determination of Pb contents
in the soil, and a risk analysis of the exposed child population
via the Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic Model (IEUBK,
USEPA model). Three exposure scenarios were derived from
the Pb concentrations found in soil and were classified as:
maximum (A), average (B), and minimum (C). The IEUBK
considered two amounts of soil intake: (350 mg/day) for areas
without paved streets and (200 mg/day) for paved streets.
Results show that 62% of the samples exceed the maximum
permissible level recommended for lixiviates, which indicates
the solubility and possible dispersion of metal contents. 90% of
the samples exceed the permissible contents of Pb for residen-
tial use and 85% are above guidelines for industrial use.
Results from the IEUBK model, considering unpaved streets,
show that the average concentration of Pb in blood in scenar-
ios A, B, and C were 79.94, 16.58, and 9.25 lg/dL, respec-
tively. For communities with paved streets and under the same
conditions, the amounts of Pb in blood decreased to 57.75,
11.57, and 4.18 lg/dL respectively. In both cases, the maxi-
mum permissible concentration of Pb in children’s blood is
exceeded. It is imperative to take the appropriate remediation
measures in this site to reduce the Pb contents in the soil and
to minimize the public health risk. Ó 2012 American Institute of
Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 32: 1150–1154, 2013
Keywords: risk analysis, lead, soil, human health, mining
INTRODUCTION
The environmental impact caused by the pollution with
heavy metal depends from their soil complexation capacity
and from the physicochemical and biological conditions of the
environment, which are capable of changing the oxidation
state of the metals [1]. The chemical form of an element has
direct influence in its solubility, mobility, and toxicity in soil.
This toxicity depends on the contamination source and the
environmental factors, along with the chemical characteristics
of the soil at the contaminated site [2]. Metals can reach con-
centration levels that produce negative effects in the physical,
chemical, and biological properties of the soil: reduction in
the amount of organic matter, nutrient reduction, pH variation
generating acidic soils, large temperature fluctuations, and
adverse effects in the number, diversity, and activity of micro-
organisms from the rhizosphere [3]. pH is an essential factor
Ó 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers
1150 December 2013 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.32, No.4) DOI 10.1002/ep
because most metals are prone to be more available to acidic
pH except As, Mo, Se, and Cr, which are prone to alkaline
pH. Adsorption of heavy metals is strongly determined by soil
pH and by the bioavailability of its components [4].
The most common and potentially toxic elements derived
from mining processes in Mexico are Pb, Cd, Zn, As, Se, and
Hg [5], where Pb and Cd are the most commonly found pol-
lutants in Mexican mining areas [6].
Because of its widespread use nowadays, Pb can be
found inside our bodies in far superior levels than those
found in ancient times. These levels cause adverse effects in
the health of adults, especially in children [7–9].
Children are in higher risk of showing elevated Pb levels
because they ingest higher dosages of Pb-contaminated soil
and dust than adults. This behavior is explained by children’s
habit of continuously putting their hands in their mouths and
ingesting objects that are not considered food. Moreover, the
absorption of Pb in the gastrointestinal tract of children is
higher than in adults; it is believed that the development of
the children’s nervous system is more vulnerable to the toxic
effects of Pb than the more mature brain of adults [8, 10].
Neurological damage has been detected at exposure levels
that were not considered harmful before (<10 lg/dL), therefore,
there might not be a minimum threshold for Pb that indicates
the beginning of adverse neurological effects in children [9–16].
The EPA classified elemental Pb and inorganic Pb com-
pounds as belonging in Group B2: probable human carcino-
gens [8].
The Avalos metallurgical plant and foundry was estab-
lished in the southeast area of Chihuahua City, Mexico
(located in a semidesertic region) and started operating in
1908. During the 1950s, it was considered to be one of the
most important companies in Latin America, and eventually
worldwide. The company ceased its activities in 1993, pro-
ducing around 250 tons of Pb per day during its last years of
operation [17].
During the last 5 years, there has been a residential growth
in the area close to the tailing dams of the foundry, represent-
ing a health risk for the population established there. The
objective of this study was to conduct a sampling and general
analysis to determine the degree of Pb contamination present
in the soil, as well as a risk analysis for the infant population
living in this area via the IEUBK, Version 1.1. [18].
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Sampling
Sampling was carried out in accordance with the require-
ments of the Mexican regulations [19] in the residential area
Figure 1. Location of sampling points of the site. [Color fig-
ure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
close to the tailing dams of a metal foundry out of service in
the southeastern part of Chihuahua City. 39 samples were
collected within a 1-km radius (for an area of 60 ha) with a
sample distance of 132 m. The samples were extracted from
a depth of 10 cm or less and were taken to the laboratory for
preparation and analysis. The coordinates of each sampling
point were located in situ using a Thales MobileMapper de-
vice (GPS) model 2004 (Figure 1).
Soil Characterization
Mineralogical Soil Composition
To determine the main mineralogical components, a soil
fraction was pulverized, placed in a sample holder, and
inserted in an X-Ray diffraction equipment. The analysis was
carried out using PANalytical X’Pert Pro equipment CuK radi-
ation from 5 to 808 in the 2y scale with a step of 0.5 and
time of 5 s.
pH Measurement
pH measurement was performed using a CORNING pH/
ion meter 450 potentiometer. Distilled water and soil were
mixed in a 1:1 ratio, in accordance to the Mexican regulation
NOM 147 [20].
Amount of Organic matter
The Walkley and Black method was followed to deter-
mine OM, in accordance with Mexican regulations [21]. This
procedure was performed through the oxidation of organic
carbon in the soil via a carbon potassium dichromate solu-
tion (K2Cr2O7). Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) was added to avoid
interferences. Between 70 and 84% of the total organic car-
bon was detected with this procedure. To obtain the OM,
this value was multiplied with a correction factor of 1.298 (1/
0.77), which is recommended for Mexico [21].
Cation-Exchange Capacity
Sodium acetate method was used [22] to determine the
CEC. The amount of sodium in the obtained mixture was
determined in a GBC Avanta Sigma atomic absorption spec-
trophotometer.
Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.32, No.4) DOI 10.1002/ep
Figure 2. Flow chart of data suministred to the IEUBK
model.
Determination of Total and Soluble Lead in the Soil
The extraction method for soluble Pb in soil samples was
carried out according to the procedures described by the Mex-
ican Regulations (NOM 053; 1993), which allows to determine
the mobility of pollutants in the environment [23]. The method
to obtain the total Pb concentration in the soil samples was
performed in accordance to the procedures in NOM 147.
Digestion of leachates was obtained by the TCLP method
(Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure) for metal extrac-
tion. The digestions were carried out in a microwave
(MARSXpress) and subsequently read in a GBC Avanta Sigma
atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The minimum Pb
detection limit of the equipment was 0.1 mg/kg.
Risk Analysis
The risk analysis was performed using the IEUBK model
[18], which allows to predict the Pb concentration in the
blood of infant population. Two runs of each setting were
made (taking into account the areas with paved or unpaved
streets). The model parameters and considerations used on
this study are shown in Figure 2. Three scenarios were con-
sidered for this study, derived from the total amount of Pb in
the soil from the recently inhabited area (15 ha, Triangle
marked in Figures 1, 4, and 5).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mineralogical Soil Composition
Soil is primarily composed of gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O), quartz
(SiO2) K2Ca Mg (SO4)3, and to a lesser extent, of basic hydrous
sulfate of potassium and iron, Jarosite (KFe3 (OH)6(SO4)2).
December 2013 1151

Figure 3. Curves of isoconcentration of total Pb (mg/kg) in
the site. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue,
which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
pH
The results of the pH measurement in characterized soil 5
are classified according to NOM-021, 18% of the samples
have acidic pH, 38.5% neutral and 43.5% alkaline. The pH in
soil can induce toxicity by influencing the bioavailability of
hazardous substances to plants and animals [24]. As pH
decreases, metal solubility is increased [25], as well as its
infiltration to subsoil and possible entrance to groundwater.
Organic Matter
According to the soil classification dictated by the criteria
of NOM-021, and taking into account the classification for
volcanic soil [21], 100% of the analyzed samples are classified
Figure 4. Isoconcentration curves of soluble Pb (mg/L) in
the site. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue,
which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
1152 December 2013 Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.32, No.4) DOI 10.1002/ep
Figure 5. pH values results in the sampling site. [Color fig-
ure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
as having a low amount of OM. The deficient levels of OM
are characteristic of arid and semiarid soils [26].
Cation-Exchange Capacity
According to NOM-021, the average values of CEC, and
considering the fertility and composition of soil, the results
indicate a low or very low fertility in the soil, which limits
the natural growth of vegetation.
Lead Concentrations in Soil
According to the reference levels (NOM-147), 90% of the
samples exceed the total lead concentration in soil for resi-
dential use (400 mg/kg), and 85% are above the reference
level for industrial use (750 mg/kg) (Figure 3).
Totally, 62% of the samples exceed the maximum permis-
sible concentration for lead in leachate (6 mg/L, NOM-053)
extracted by the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
(TCLP). Pb solubility in the samples that exceed the permissi-
ble levels show that the solubility of the metal in this area is
high; the higher the solubility of a compound the greater its
bioavailability is [6]. This greater bioavailability indicates that
Pb can potentially enter the food chain and affect human
health [27].These values agree with the pH values; in the
areas where pH is acidic, Pb solubility is higher (Figures 4
and 5).
Risk Analysis
The IEUBK model can use different values of soil inges-
tion. This study used two values for the children’s soil intake:
200 and 350 mg/day, corresponding to communities with
paved and unpaved streets respectively [28].
The results of the model, obtained for communities with
unpaved streets (350 mg/day), as well as the Pb concentra-
tions in the soil of the site are as follows. In exposure sce-
nario A, which corresponds to the highest concentrations of
Pb in soil, the population exposure risk is high. Results indi-
cate that the concentrations of Pb in blood for children
between the ages of 6 and 7 could be 72.7 lg/dL; for chil-
dren younger than 1 year it would increase to 98.6 lg/dL,
being 79.94 lg/dL the geometric mean (Table 1). With levels
of Pb in blood like these, children may show: poor muscle
Table 1. Geometric mean of Pb in blood according to the Pb concentration in soil.
Soil Intake 350mg/dia
concentration Blood concentration
Scenarios (mg Pb/kg) mean (lg Pb/dL)
A 9646 14 79.94
B 642.41 16.58
C 103.80 5.43
development, lack of coordination, premature anemia, hemo-
globin decrease, tiredness and somnolence (40 lg/dL); pain
and abdominal cramps, anemia, destruction of red blood
cells, and brain damage (50 lg/dL); difficulties in cell growth,
problems in the development of bones and teeth (>62 lg/
dL) and encephalopathy (70–80 lg/dL) [8].
In exposure scenario B, results from the model estimate
Pb concentrations in blood of 14.6 lg/dL for children who
are between 6 and 7 years old, 20.8 lg/dL for children 1
year old and younger, the geometric mean was 16.58 lg/dL
(Table 1). At these concentrations, children may show a
decrease in their intelligence quotient (IQ), hyperactivity,
short attention spans; learning, speech, and talk problems;
slower reflexes (10 a 50 lg/dL); also hearing impairment and
growth disorders (10 a 30 lg/dL) [13, 18].
In exposure scenario C, estimated values of Pb in blood
of 4.4 lg/dL were obtained for children who are between 6
and 7 years old. 7.5 lg/dL was obtained for children younger
than 1 year. The geometric mean was 5.43 lg/dL (Table 1).
In this case, children may present cavities; motor, visual, and
behavioral problems; as well as lack of appetite [9, 13, 29].
Several studies have shown that the strongest effects of Pb
which affect IQ are due to the first micrograms of Pb in the
blood [13].
The results of the model, obtained for communities with
paved streets (200 mg/day), are as follows. In exposure sce-
nario A, the results obtained from the model for this daily
soil intake indicate that the concentration of Pb in the blood
of children between 6 and 7 years old could be of 53.4lg/
dL, for children under 1 year of age it would rise up to 69.9
lg/dL. The geometric mean was 57.75 lg/dL (Table 1).
In exposure scenario B, results of the model indicate that
the estimated concentrations of Pb in blood are 9.8 lg/dL for
children between 6 and 7 years old, 15.0 lg/dL for children
younger than 1 year the geometric mean was 11.57 lg/dL
(Table 1).
In exposure scenario C, estimated values of Pb in blood
of 3.3 lg/dL for children between 6 and 7 years old, and 5.8
lg/dL for children under 1 year of age were obtained. The
geometric mean was 4.18 lg/dL (Table 1).
With these levels of Pb in blood, children may show the
aforementioned symptoms and disorders for an intake of 350
mg/day. Although the probable concentration values of Pb in
blood for children decrease, they are still high values to con-
sider and remain at the same concentration ranges that mani-
fest the disorders described in each scenario, with the excep-
tion of the risk of encephalopathy in exposure scenario A.
A relationship between the three scenarios, in terms of
concentration of Pb in blood, was observed. According to
the model, higher Pb concentrations in soil lead to higher Pb
concentration in blood. Australian studies have shown the
association of Pb concentration in soil with Pb concentration
in blood [13]. Previous studies have also revealed that the
soil provides 98% of the total intake dose of Pb [17, 30]. An
exposure reduction to the environmental Pb source proves
to be substantial in decreasing the levels of Pb in blood.
These three settings show that there is a high risk of Pb
exposure for children and adults living near the contami-
nated area; they may show several physical, neurological,
Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy (Vol.32, No.4) DOI 10.1002/ep
Intake 200mg/dia
Above 10 lg/dL Blood concentration Above 10 lg/dL
probability (%) mean (lg Pb/dL) probability (%)
100 57.75 99.99
85 9 11.57 62.19
97 4.18 3.16
and behavioral disorders [15, 31]. The behavioral deficits
among exposed children seem to be equal to those among
children who suffer attention deficit disorder and hyperactiv-
ity [14]. Fraser proved that Pb is a neurotoxin that may have
a direct impact on impulsive behavior and activity levels of
children [14]. All of this can be not just a public health issue,
but also a social one, due to the link between criminal
behavior in adulthood to Pb exposure during childhood [12,
31]. Nevin (1999) states that even though delinquency rates
and out-of-wedlock pregnancies are clearly affected by sev-
eral factors, the temporary tendencies of exposure to Pb
seem to be a noteworthy factor associated with later tenden-
cies of these undesired social behaviors [32].
Pb has neurochemical effects at different molecular, cellu-
lar and intracellular levels. At lower dosages, it causes the
interruption of the neurotransmitters. The most affected neu-
rotransmitters are noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin and
acetylcholine; which are essential for the regulation of emo-
tional, cognitive and locomotor responses. This demonstrates
that the relationship between exposure to Pb and the behav-
ior of children can be linear [14]. In addition to this, the dam-
age caused to the nervous system by lead is irreversible and
may become permanent [10, 16].
CONCLUSIONS
The soil in this site is highly contaminated with Pb. The
desertic climate of Chihuahua fosters the pollution of the ad-
jacent populated area due to winds and hydrological disper-
sion. There is metal solubility; hence, making the Pb leach-
able and environmentally bioavailable to enter the food
chain.
This area represents a high public health risk, especially
for children because the adverse effects can be severe and
range from behavioral to neurological disorders and cancer.
It is therefore necessary to reduce the Pb levels in the soil to
minimize the risk and it is imperative to take prevention and
exposure control measures for the inhabitants of the area.
The results of this study show that it will be essential to
work in a complete characterization of the site, to target all
pollution sources and contaminants that have being affecting
the population, and to research for an adequate alternative
of remediation.
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