Circuit Theory I-Lec-4 - HND

.........................................................................................................................
EED2311 Circuit Theory I .........................................................................................................................
Lecture V : Methods of Circuit Analysis

.........................................................................................................................
Revision : df82f31 - 2023-09-29
.........................................................................................................................
Dr.Serkan Günel
.........................................................................................................................
Dokuz Eylül University

Faculty of Engineering .........................................................................................................................
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department
E-mail:serkan.gunel@deu.edu.tr .........................................................................................................................
September 29, 2023 .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Additional Terminology
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
a e3 b
Definition (Essential Node)
A node where three or more elements joint e2 e9
.........................................................................................................................
is called an essential node. e7 d e8

c e e6 e5 .........................................................................................................................
Definition (Essential Branch) e1 e10
Essential branch is a path that connects e4 .........................................................................................................................
two essential nodes and without passing f g
through any other essential node. b .........................................................................................................................
Definition (Mesh) a
.........................................................................................................................
Mesh is a loop that does not enclose any c d e
other loops. f .........................................................................................................................
g
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
EED2311 Circuit Theory I Rev:df82f31 - 2023-09-29 Dr.Serkan Günel 91
Planar – Non-Planar circuits
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Definition (Planar Circuit)

.........................................................................................................................
A circuit that can be drawn on a plane without any crossing branches is
called a planar circuit.
.........................................................................................................................
a e3 b
.........................................................................................................................
e2 e9
e7 d e8
c e e6 e5 .........................................................................................................................
e1 e10
e4 .........................................................................................................................
f g
Planar Circuit Non-Planar Circuit .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Analyzing Circuits
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Definition (Solving a circuit)
Solving a circuit is to determine all possible voltages and currents in the .........................................................................................................................
circuit.
Observations .........................................................................................................................
▶ To solve a circuit completely, we need to know all branch currents.

.........................................................................................................................
▶ Actually, calculating currents on essential branches is enough.
▶ If we know the voltage differences of essential nodes, we can calculate
.........................................................................................................................
all branch currents.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
How many equations are required to analyze a circuit? I
.........................................................................................................................
KCL provides .........................................................................................................................
n−1
independent .........................................................................................................................
current equations
.........................................................................................................................
L
Circuit with b unknowns b KC .........................................................................................................................
b branches Equations
KV
n nodes to solve L .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
KVL provides
b − (n − 1) .........................................................................................................................
independent
voltage equations .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
How many equations are required to analyze a circuit? II

.........................................................................................................................
KCL provides .........................................................................................................................
ne − 1
independent .........................................................................................................................
current equations
.........................................................................................................................
L
Circuit with be unknowns be KC .........................................................................................................................
be essential branches Equations

ne essential nodes KV
to solve L .........................................................................................................................
be ≤ b
.........................................................................................................................
We only need to solve for essential branches! KVL provides

be − (ne − 1) .........................................................................................................................
independent
voltage equations .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Node Voltage Method
.........................................................................................................................
R1i11v1i13R2i21v2i23R3 .........................................................................................................................
▶ Select an essential node as reference
node. + i12 i22
.........................................................................................................................
vo − R4 R5 Io
▶ Annotate every other essential node
with a unique voltage (e.g. v1 , v2 , ..., .........................................................................................................................
vn−1 ), to remaining n − 1 nodes.

▶ Voltages are referenced with respect i11 + i12 + i13 = 0 .........................................................................................................................
to reference node. v1 − vo v1 v1 − v2
i11 = , i12 = , i13 =
R1 R4 R2
▶ Apply KCL to each non-reference node. .........................................................................................................................
v1 − vo v1 v1 − v2
Use Ohm’s law to express the branch + + =0
R1 R4 R2
currents in terms of node voltages. i21 + i22 + i23 = 0 .........................................................................................................................
▶ Solve the resulting simultaneous v2 − v1 v2

i21 = , i22 = , i23 = −Io
equations to obtain unknown node R2 R5 .........................................................................................................................
v2 − v1 v2
voltages. + − Io = 0
R2 R5
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Node Voltage Method

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
R1 v1 R2 v2 R3
▶ Select an essential node as reference
node. + .........................................................................................................................
vo − R4 R5 Io
▶ Annotate every other essential node
with a unique voltage (e.g. v1 , v2 , ..., .........................................................................................................................
vn−1 ), to remaining n − 1 nodes.

▶ Voltages are referenced with respect v1 − vo v1 v1 − v2 .........................................................................................................................
+ + =0
R1 R4 R2
to reference node.
v2 − v1 v2
▶ Apply KCL to each non-reference node. + − Io = 0 .........................................................................................................................
R2 R5
Use Ohm’s law to express the branch
1 1 1

1 vo
+ + v1 − v2 =
currents in terms of node voltages. R1 R4 R2 R2 R1 .........................................................................................................................

▶ Solve the resulting simultaneous 1 1 1
− v1 + + v 2 = Io
equations to obtain unknown node R2 R2 R5 .........................................................................................................................
voltages.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Node Voltage Method
.........................................................................................................................
▶ Annotate every other essential node R1 v1 R2 v2 R3
with a unique voltage (e.g. v1 , v2 , ...,
.........................................................................................................................
vn−1 ), to remaining n − 1 nodes. vo R4
+
− R5 Io
▶ Voltages are referenced with respect
.........................................................................................................................
to reference node.
▶ Apply KCL to each non-reference node.
Use Ohm’s law to express the branch 1 1 1
!
1 vo
.........................................................................................................................
+ + v1 − v2 =
currents in terms of node voltages. R1 R4 R2 R2 R1
▶ Solve the resulting simultaneous

!
1 1 1 .........................................................................................................................
− v1 + + v 2 = Io
R2 R2 R5
equations to obtain unknown node 
1 + 1 + 1 1
 "v #
− o
voltages.  R1 R4 R2 R2  v1 = R1
− 1 1 + 1 v2 .........................................................................................................................
R2 R2 R5 Io
▶ We can calculate all branch currents 1
v1 R4 (R2 + R5 ) R4 R1 R5
= ×
using node voltages. v2 κ R4 R5 R2 R4 + R5 R1 (R2 + R4 )
.........................................................................................................................
vo
Io
κ = R4 (R2 + R5 ) + R1 (R2 + R4 + R5 )
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Node Voltage Method Example

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
i1 5Ω .........................................................................................................................
+ +
15A v1 60Ω 15Ω 2Ωv2 5A .........................................................................................................................
− −
.........................................................................................................................
Determine v1 , v2 and i1 .
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Node Voltage Method – Special Cases I
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
1 10Ω 2
+ + .........................................................................................................................
+
100V − v1 25Ω v2 50Ω 5A
− − .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Special Case
The voltage of the nodes where a voltage source is between reference node .........................................................................................................................
and the node, is directly determined by the voltage source.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................
1 10Ω 2
.........................................................................................................................
+ +
+ .........................................................................................................................
100V − v1 25Ω v2 50Ω 5A
− − .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
v1 = 100V
v2 − 100 v2 .........................................................................................................................
+ −5=0
10
50
1 1 .........................................................................................................................
+ v2 = 5 + 10
10 50
15 · 50 .........................................................................................................................
v2 = = 125V
6
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
10iϕ
1 5Ω iϕ 2 i 3
−
+
.........................................................................................................................
+ + +
+
50V − v1 40Ω v2 50Ω v3 100Ω 4A
.........................................................................................................................
− − −
.........................................................................................................................
v2 v2 v3
v1 = 50V, + + = 10 + 4
5 50 100
v2 − v1 v2 .........................................................................................................................
iϕ = = − 10 v2 + 2v2 − 100 = v3
5 5 "1 #
1 1
+

v2 − v1 v2 5 50 100 v2 14
+ +i=0 = .........................................................................................................................
5 50 3 −1 v3 100
v3
−i + −4=0 "
22 1
#
100 v2 1400 .........................................................................................................................
=
v2 + 10iϕ = v3 3 −1 v3 100
Solving yields v2 = 60V and v3 = 80V. .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Node Voltage Method – Special Cases II

.........................................................................................................................
10iϕ
5Ω iϕ 2 i Super Node .........................................................................................................................
1 3
−
+
+ + + .........................................................................................................................
+
50V − v1 40Ω v2 50Ω v3 100Ω 4A
− − − .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Definition (Super Node)
When two essential nodes are connected with a voltage source (dependent .........................................................................................................................
or independent), they form a super node.
Remark .........................................................................................................................
▶ Applying KCL at the super node, we can avoid current over the
.........................................................................................................................
source connecting two nodes entering and exiting the equations.
▶ Resulting equation will be the summation of two individual node
.........................................................................................................................
equations forming the super node.
.........................................................................................................................
Node Voltage Method – Special Cases II
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
10iϕ
5Ω iϕ 2 i Super Node
1 3
−
+
.........................................................................................................................
+ + +
+
50V − v1 40Ω v2 50Ω v3 100Ω 4A
.........................................................................................................................
− − −
.........................................................................................................................
Super node equation will be:

.........................................................................................................................
v2 − 50 v2 v3
+ + −4=0
5 50
100
.........................................................................................................................
1 1 1
+ v2 + v3 = 14
5 50 100
.........................................................................................................................
v2 + 10iϕ = v3
Therefore solution is the same. .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Mesh Current Method

.........................................................................................................................
▶ Annotate every mesh with a unique i1 R1 i2 R2

.........................................................................................................................
i3
current (e.g. ia , ib , ...). + +
v1 − ia R3 ib − v2
▶ Apply KVL to each of the meshes, .........................................................................................................................
using the mesh currents. Use Ohm’s

Law to express the voltages in terms .........................................................................................................................
−v1 + R1 ia + R3 (ia − ib ) = 0
of mesh currents.
R3 (ib − ia ) + R2 ib + v2 = 0
▶ Solve the resulting simultaneous .........................................................................................................................
equations to get the mesh currents. Rearranging yields

(R1 + R3 ) −R3 ia v1
▶ Use mesh currents to calculate branch =
−R3 (R2 + R3 ) ib −v2 .........................................................................................................................
currents.
Solving yields
" # .........................................................................................................................
R2 + R3 −R3

ia 1 v1
=
ib κ R3 − (R1 + R3 ) v2
.........................................................................................................................
κ = R2 R3 + R1 (R2 + R3 )
i1 = ia , i2 = ib , i3 = ia − ib
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Mesh Current Method Example
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
ia
10Ω 4.3id ic
.........................................................................................................................
id 25Ω
100Ω
ib ie .........................................................................................................................
+
200V − 50Ω
.........................................................................................................................
10Ω
.........................................................................................................................
Find the branch currents.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Mesh Current Method Example

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
10Ω     
9 0 −3 1 ia 100
 0 6 −2 −1  ib  = −50
   
.........................................................................................................................
ic

3Ω 2Ω −3 −2 15 0   ic   0 
−1 1 0 0 v 5
+ .........................................................................................................................
+ + Ax = b
100V − ia v 5Aib − 50V
x = A−1 b
− 3 3 1
.........................................................................................................................
− 25 7
   
40 40 40 4
6Ω 4Ω 3 3 1 3   27 
A−1 =
 40 40 40 5 
 4
Mesh Equations:

1 1 3
⇒ x =  
5
.........................................................................................................................
 40 40 40
0 
 4
6ia − 100 + 3(ia − ic ) + v = 0 2
− 53 0 18
88
5 5 .........................................................................................................................
−v + 2(ib − ic ) + 50 + 4ib = 0
10ic + 2(ic − ib ) + 3(ic − ia ) = 0
.........................................................................................................................
ib − ia = 5
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Mesh Current Method – Special Cases I
.........................................................................................................................
10Ω Mesh Equations: .........................................................................................................................
−100 + 3(ia − ic ) + 2(ib − ic ) + 50 + 4ib + 6ia = 0

3Ω ic 2Ω Super Mesh 10ic + 2(ic − ib ) + 3(ic − ia ) = 0 .........................................................................................................................
+ ib − ia = 5
+ +     
100V − ia v 5Aib − 50V 9 6 −5 ia 50 .........................................................................................................................
−3 −2 15   ib  =  0 
− −1 1 0 ic 5
.........................................................................................................................
6Ω 4Ω Ax = b
3 1
− 25
    7
40 40 ia 4 .........................................................................................................................
Definition (Super Mesh) A−1 =  40
3 1
40
3 
5
⇒  ib  =  27
4

1 3 ic 5
When two (or more) meshes share a 40 40
0 4
.........................................................................................................................
(dependent or independent) current source The result is the same, but we have less equation
on their edges they form a super mesh to solve.
.........................................................................................................................
which is the loop which is the union of the
meshes except the connecting current
.........................................................................................................................
source.
.........................................................................................................................
Which of Node Voltage – Mesh Current Methods?

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
▶ Compare number of unknown node voltages to number of unknown

mesh currents. .........................................................................................................................
▶ Check if the requested unknown is determined by a node voltage or a

mesh current. .........................................................................................................................
▶ Check if there exists any super nodes or super meshes.

.........................................................................................................................
▶ Node voltage method is especially effective when most of the nodes
are referenced to an essential node.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Remarks
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
▶ When using the node voltage method, select the essential node with .........................................................................................................................
most number of branches connected to it.

▶ Remember that super nodes are formed only if two nodes connected .........................................................................................................................
with a (dependent or independent) voltage source. NOT with current

sources. .........................................................................................................................
▶ Remember that super meshes are formed only if two meshes share a
(dependent or independent) current source. NOT with voltage .........................................................................................................................
sources.
▶ Two methods are completely equivalent, and results in same branch .........................................................................................................................
currents.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Matrix Representation of Circuit Equations I

.........................................................................................................................
Observation I
Node voltage method results in the node equations for N non reference .........................................................................................................................
nodes that can be represented in following matrix form

.........................................................................................................................
    
G1 1 G1 2 · · · G1 N v1 i1
 G2 1 G2 2 · · · G2 N   v2   i2 
.........................................................................................................................
..   ..  =  ..  (44a)
    
 .. .. ..
 . . . .  .   . 
GN 1 GN 2 ··· GN N vN iN .........................................................................................................................
G · v = i (44b)
.........................................................................................................................
where G is called the conductance matrix with elements

Gk k : Sum of conductances connected to node k, k = 1, . . . , N , .........................................................................................................................
Gk j = Gj k : Negative of the sums of the conductances directly

connecting nodes k and j, k ̸= j, .........................................................................................................................
vk : Unknown voltage at node k,

ik : Sum of all independent current sources directly connected to node k, .........................................................................................................................
currents entering the node treated positive.
.........................................................................................................................
Matrix Representation of Circuit Equations II
.........................................................................................................................
Observation II
Mesh current method results in the node equations for M meshes that can .........................................................................................................................
be represented in following matrix form

.........................................................................................................................
    
R1 1 R1 2 · · · R1 M i1 v1
 R2 1 R2 2 · · · R2 M   i2   v2 
.........................................................................................................................
..   ..  =  ..  (45a)
    
 .. .. ..
 . . . .  .   . 
RM 1 RM 2 ··· RM M iM vM .........................................................................................................................
R · i = v (45b)
.........................................................................................................................
where R is called the resistance matrix with elements

Rk k : Sum of resistances in mesh k, k = 1, . . . , N , .........................................................................................................................
Rk j = Rj k : Negative of the sum of the resistances in common with

meshes k and j, k ̸= j, .........................................................................................................................
ik : Unknown mesh current for mesh k in the clockwise direction,

vk : Sum taken clockwise of all independent voltage sources in mesh k .........................................................................................................................
with voltage rise treated as positive.
.........................................................................................................................
Remarks
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
▶ In node voltage case, we assumed that the circuit consists of only .........................................................................................................................
independent current sources and all circuit elements are linear.

▶ If it is not, then the i vector will contain linear combination of .........................................................................................................................
voltage sources and current sources, and the element of the G matrix
will have terms that contains coefficients of dependent sources. .........................................................................................................................
▶ Similarly, in mesh current case, we assumed that the circuit consists

of only independent voltage sources. .........................................................................................................................
▶ If it is not, then the v vector will contain linear combination of

voltage sources and current sources, and the element of the R matrix .........................................................................................................................
will have terms that contains coefficients of dependent sources.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Linearity
.........................................................................................................................
▶ A circuit consists of only linear circuit elements is a linear system.

▶ Whenever a linear system is excited, or driven, by more than one .........................................................................................................................
independent energy source, the total response is the sum of the

individual responses. An individual response is the result of an .........................................................................................................................
independent source acting alone, and all others are kept zero.
+ .........................................................................................................................
V1 −
Voltage Sources
−
+ K
X M
X
+
V2 −
io = ak Vk + bk I k .........................................................................................................................
.. io k=1 k=1
VK
+
−
Linear K M .........................................................................................................................
Circuit
X X
Vo = ck Vk + dk Ik
Current Sources
I1
k=1 k=1 .........................................................................................................................
+
.. vo ex
IM −
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Superposition
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
▶ We can set all except one independent source to zero in the circuit
.........................................................................................................................
and analyze its effect on the investigated circuit variable.
▶ After analyzing the effect of each source individually we can add
.........................................................................................................................
individual responses to get the response when all sources are present.
▶ This technique is especially useful when circuit is symmetric with .........................................................................................................................
respect to individual sources.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Superposition Example
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
i1 6Ω ai3 2Ω b
i2 i4
+ .........................................................................................................................
120V − 3Ω 4Ω 12A
.........................................................................................................................
i′1 6Ω ′
ai3 2Ω b i′′1 6Ω ′′
ai3 2Ω b .........................................................................................................................
i′2 i′4 i′′2 i′′4

+
3Ω 4Ω 12A 120V − 3Ω 4Ω .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
i1 = i′1 + i′′1 i2 = i′2 + i′′2

.........................................................................................................................
i3 = i′3 + i′′3 i4 = i′4 + i′′4
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Remark
.........................................................................................................................
i1 6Ω ai3 2Ω b .........................................................................................................................
i2 i4
+
120V − 3Ω 4Ω 12A .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
i′1 6Ω ′
ai3 2Ω b i′′1 6Ω ′′
ai3 2Ω b
i′2 i′4 i′′2 i′′4
.........................................................................................................................
+
3Ω 4Ω 12A 120V − 3Ω 4Ω
.........................................................................................................................
Observation .........................................................................................................................
Although currents and voltages are linearly dependent to independent

voltage and current sources in the circuits, the powers are NOT! .........................................................................................................................
2 2
P6Ω = 6i21 = 6(i′1 + i′′1 )2 ̸= 6i′1 + 6i′′1 = P6Ω
′ ′′
+ P6Ω .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Nonlinear Circuits and superposition
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Important
.........................................................................................................................
The superposition principle DOES NOT APPLY in nonlinear circuits.
However, in certain cases, we can use a linear approximation of nonlinear
.........................................................................................................................
elements in order to calculate approximate responses.
1kΩ Consider the case where Is = 25nA. We have
.........................................................................................................................
studied the case vAC = 0 and found that
iDC + iAC
iDC ≈ 4.73mA and vD ≈ 0.32V.
+
vAC = 0.1 sin(100t)V .........................................................................................................................
vD
.........................................................................................................................
+ !
VD
vDC = 5V
e 26 · 10−3 −1
−
− iD = Is .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Nonlinear Circuits and Superposition

.........................................................................................................................
The incremental conductance GQ around vD ≈ 0.32V can be found using .........................................................................................................................
VD

iD = Is e 26 · 10−3 − 1 .........................................................................................................................
∂iD Is vD 25 · 10−9 0.32

∴ GQ = = e 26mV = e 26 · 10−3
∂vD vD =0.32V 26mV vD =0.32V 26 · 10−3 .........................................................................................................................
≈ 0.21℧
.........................................................................................................................
Hence RQ ≈ 4.67Ω. Killing constant sources yields following circuit:
1kΩ
0.1 sin(100t) .........................................................................................................................
iAC ≈ ≈ 99.53 sin(100t)µA
iAC 1000 + 4.67
0.1 sin(100t)V 4.67Ω Therefore, using superposition on linearized .........................................................................................................................
model:
.........................................................................................................................
iD ≈ iDC + iAC
−3 −6
= 4.73 · 10 + 99.53 · 10 sin(100t)A
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Characterizing an Independent Source by Measurements I
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Question
Suppose that we have been given a circuit in which there is a non-ideal .........................................................................................................................
voltage source. Can we determine the parameters of the source by

measurements at the terminals of the circuit? .........................................................................................................................
Assumptions .........................................................................................................................
Rs a ▶ We can measure the voltage

+ and current at the output .........................................................................................................................
+
vs − terminals, but we have no
access to internal circuit. .........................................................................................................................
−
▶ Measurements are assumed to
b
be ideal, i.e. the voltmeter and .........................................................................................................................
ammeter used are ideal.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Characterizing an Independent Source by Measurements II

.........................................................................................................................
Consider we have done the following tests: .........................................................................................................................
Test 1: Open Circuit Test

.........................................................................................................................
Connect an ideal voltmeter to the
output terminal and measure open
Rs a isc circuit voltage, voc . We have, .........................................................................................................................
+ vs = voc (46) .........................................................................................................................

+
vs
A
−
− .........................................................................................................................
Test 2: Short Circuit Test
b
Connect an ideal ammeter to the
voc : Open circuit voltage output terminal and measure short
.........................................................................................................................
isc : Short circuit current circuit current, isc . Clearly,

.........................................................................................................................
vs voc
isc = , ∴ Rs = (47)
Rs isc .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Characterizing a Circuit by Measurements I
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Now assume that we have a linear circuit consists of resistors, dependent

and/or independent sources and a pair of terminals. .........................................................................................................................
a Rth a .........................................................................................................................
+ +
+
? ≡ vth − .........................................................................................................................
− −
.........................................................................................................................
b b
.........................................................................................................................
Applying the same tests, we can obtain an equivalent circuit consists of a
single voltage supply and a resistor, and which behaves identical as the
black box at the terminals. .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Thévenin’s Theorem I
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Theorem (Thévenin’s Equivalent)
Every linear circuit that consists of voltage and/or current sources .........................................................................................................................
(dependent and/or independent), and/or resistors, can be represented as a

single source series to a single resistor, independent of the circuit’s .........................................................................................................................
topology.
The voltage source is called a Thévenin Voltage Source and the resistor is .........................................................................................................................
called the Thévenin Resistance.
a Rth a .........................................................................................................................
+ +
Linear ≡ vth
+
−
.........................................................................................................................
Circuit − −
.........................................................................................................................
b b
.........................................................................................................................
Léon Charles Thévenin (1857-1926)

.........................................................................................................................
Thévenin’s Theorem II
.........................................................................................................................
Proof. .........................................................................................................................
Assume that the linear circuit has N independent voltage sources (V1 ,
V2 ,..., VN ) and M independent current sources (I1 , I2 ,..., IM ). If we .........................................................................................................................
connect a current source to the terminals we have,

a Rth a .........................................................................................................................
+ +
Linear v I0 vth
+
v I0
− .........................................................................................................................
Circuit − −
b b .........................................................................................................................
By super position theorem we have

.........................................................................................................................
M
X N
X
v = A0 I 0 + Ak I k + Bk Vk = A0 I0 + C0 (48) .........................................................................................................................
k=1 k=1
= Rth I0 + vth , ∴ Rth = A0 , and vth = C0 . (49)
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Remarks
.........................................................................................................................
▶ Theorem is valid for only linear circuits. Keep in mind that most of
the circuits are linear for some defined range of circuit variables, .........................................................................................................................
therefore the theorem is useful in those ranges.

▶ The circuits are equivalent only at the terminals. Theorem tells .........................................................................................................................
nothing about the internal structure of the circuits that has the same
Thévenin Equivalent. .........................................................................................................................
▶ The power dissipated at the Thévenin equivalent is not necessarily
equal to the power dissipated at the real system. However, the power
.........................................................................................................................
dissipated by a load resistor between the output terminals is the same.
▶ The short circuit and open circuit tests to find the Thévenin
.........................................................................................................................
resistance is hypothetical. In practice, it can be very dangerous to
short circuit the terminals of a voltage supply or to open circuit a
.........................................................................................................................
current source, especially if it contains powerful sources.
▶ Power of the theorem is that it allows us to replace complicated
circuit with equivalent ones and study their interactions without .........................................................................................................................
bothering the internal details.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Norton’s Theorem I
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Theorem (Norton’s Equivalence)

.........................................................................................................................
Every linear circuit that consists of voltage and/or current source(s)
(dependent and/or independent), and/or resistor(s), can be represented as
a single current source parallel with a single resistor. The current source is .........................................................................................................................
called a Norton Current Source and the resistor is called the Norton
Resistance. .........................................................................................................................
a a .........................................................................................................................
+ +
Linear ≡ in Rn .........................................................................................................................
Circuit − −
b b .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Edward Lawry Norton (1898–1983)

.........................................................................................................................
Norton’s Theorem II
.........................................................................................................................
Proof.
We already know that every linear circuit has a Thévenin’s Equivalent. .........................................................................................................................
Therefore, all we need to do is to establish the equivalence between the

Thévenin’s Equivalent and Norton’s Equivalent. .........................................................................................................................
Rth a a
+ + .........................................................................................................................
+
vth − ≡ in Rn
.........................................................................................................................
− −
b b .........................................................................................................................
vth
vth = voc = vab = in Rn in = (50)
Rth .........................................................................................................................
Rth = Rn Rn = Rth
.........................................................................................................................
Therefore, both representations are equivalent. The circuits seen from
terminals a and b are indistinguishable.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Method’s of calculating Thévenin’s Equivalent I
.........................................................................................................................
Direct Method
▶ Find open circuit voltage voc a .........................................................................................................................
+
▶ Find the short circuit current isc
? voc isc .........................................................................................................................
▶ Then use,
−
voc
vth = voc , Rth = (51) b
isc .........................................................................................................................
Example .........................................................................................................................
2kΩ 2kΩ 10 · 2 · 103

voc =
a 2 · 103 + 2 · 103 .........................................................................................................................
+ vth = 5V
10V − 2kΩ isc isc =
1 10 5
= mA
.........................................................................................................................
2 2kΩ + 2kΩ∥2kΩ 3
b voc
Rth = = 3kΩ .........................................................................................................................
isc
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Method’s of calculating Thévenin’s Equivalent II

.........................................................................................................................
Test Resistor Method

▶ Find open circuit voltage voc .........................................................................................................................
▶ Connect a test resistor calculate the +

voltage over it ? v Rtest .........................................................................................................................
▶ Then use, −
Rtest (voc − v)
vth = voc , Rth = .........................................................................................................................
v
(52)
10 · 2 · 103 .........................................................................................................................
Example vth = voc = = 5V
2 · 103 + 2 · 103
10
2kΩ i 2kΩ i = = 3mA .........................................................................................................................
2 · 103 + 2 · 103 ∥4 · 103
a
+ iT i · 2 · 103 1
+ iT = = 3 · 10−3 = 1mA .........................................................................................................................
10V − 2kΩ vT 2kΩ 2 · 103 + 4 · 103 3
vT = 2 · 103 · 1 · 10−3 = 2V
− .........................................................................................................................
b 2 · 103 (5 − 2)
Rth = = 3kΩ (Checks!)
2
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Method’s of calculating Thévenin’s Equivalent III
.........................................................................................................................
Test Voltage Method

.........................................................................................................................
▶ Find open circuit voltage voc
▶ Kill all independent sources (if any exists)
.........................................................................................................................
in the circuit (hypothetically).
▶ Replace voltage source with short
.........................................................................................................................
circuit, current sources with open
circuit iT
+
▶ Do not touch dependent sources, if ? − vtest .........................................................................................................................
there is any!
▶ If the circuit do not have any dependent
.........................................................................................................................
sources calculate the equivalent resistance
seen at the terminals, i.e. Rth .
▶ If it has dependent sources apply a test .........................................................................................................................
voltage, and calculate

vtest
vth = voc , Rth = (53)
itest .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Thévenin’s Equivalent – Test Voltage Method IV

.........................................................................................................................
By killing all the sources we have,

itest
M
X N
X .........................................................................................................................
voc = vth = A k Ik + Bk Vk + Rth +
k=1 k=1 vth − − vtest
.........................................................................................................................
Ik = 0 Vk = 0, ∀k
Therefore, we set the Thévenin Voltage to zero,
.........................................................................................................................
since it is a linear combination of the sources in
the circuit, i.e. itest
vth = 0
Rth + .........................................................................................................................
Hence, − vtest
vtest − vth vtest vtest
itest = = , ⇒ Rth = .........................................................................................................................
Rth Rth itest
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Test Voltage Method Example I
.........................................................................................................................
i∆ 1kΩ 1kΩ a i∆ 1kΩ 1kΩ a

.........................................................................................................................
+ +it
+ +
10V − 0.5i∆ 0.5i∆ − vt .........................................................................................................................
− i∆ it −
b b .........................................................................................................................
Using mesh current method seems suitable due to super mesh. We can assign mesh
currents as shown and solving mesh currents directly yields i∆ and it .
.........................................................................................................................
For open circuit case, i∆ = 0.5i∆ implies i∆ = 0. Therefore, vth = voc = 10V.
.........................................................................................................................
i∆ · 1000 − it 1000 + vt = 0
i∆ + it = 0.5i∆
.........................................................................................................................
i∆ = −2it
−2it · 1000 − it 1000 + vt = 0
.........................................................................................................................
−3000it = −vt
vt
Rth = = 3kΩ
it .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Test Voltage Method Example II

.........................................................................................................................
1kΩ a i∆ 1kΩ a
.........................................................................................................................
i∆ +it
+ .........................................................................................................................
1kΩ 1.5i∆ 1kΩ 1.5i∆ − vt
i∆ it − .........................................................................................................................
b b
i∆ = 1.5i∆ implies i∆ = 0. Therefore, vth = voc = 0V.
.........................................................................................................................
1000i∆ − 1000it + vt = 0, (Using Supermesh equation)

.........................................................................................................................
i∆ + it = 1.5i∆ , it = 0.5i∆ , i∆ = 2it
2000it − 1000it + vt = 0, 1000it = −vt , ⇒ Rth = −1kΩ
.........................................................................................................................
Observations .........................................................................................................................
▶ Notice that Rth < 0! This is possible if the circuit contains dependent sources.
▶ Note that first two methods would fail in this case! .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Remarks
.........................................................................................................................
▶ If circuit is completely resistive Thévenin Equivalent consists of a .........................................................................................................................
single resistor which we called equivalent resistance before.

▶ Determining Thévenin Equivalent is done by hypothetical tests. In .........................................................................................................................
live circuits, trying to find Thévenin Equivalent by means of Method I

or Method III can cause damage and can be dangerous. .........................................................................................................................
▶ Method II is less invasive, and by selecting a proper resistor we can

determine the equivalent just by two voltage measurement. .........................................................................................................................
▶ Method I and II will fail, if the circuit consists of resistors and

dependent sources but does not contain any independent sources. .........................................................................................................................
▶ If the circuit has dependent sources the Thévenin resistance can be

negative. .........................................................................................................................
▶ If the circuit has no independent sources the Thévenin source is zero.

.........................................................................................................................
▶ In analysis, using Thévenin’s Equivalent results in simplified circuits
and allows us to behave them as black boxes and focus on the
.........................................................................................................................
interactions.
.........................................................................................................................
Exercise
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
ib 980Ω a
.........................................................................................................................
+ +
540µA 100Ω − 5 · 10−2 v2 40ib v2 40kΩ .........................................................................................................................
−
b .........................................................................................................................
Find the Thévenin equivalent with respect to terminals a and b.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Source Transformations
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
In the view of Norton’s Theorem, every Thévenin circuit has a Norton

.........................................................................................................................
Equivalent and vice versa. We can use this fact to simplify circuits.
Rs
a a Vs .........................................................................................................................
isc = ie = (54a)
+ Rs
vs − ≡ ie Re Re = Rs (54b) .........................................................................................................................
b b
Re .........................................................................................................................
a a
voc = ve = Is Rs (55a)
+
Is Rs ≡ ve − Re = Rs (55b) .........................................................................................................................
b b
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Source Transformations Example

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
i 4Ω 6Ω 5Ω i 4Ω 6Ω
+ + + .........................................................................................................................
6V − 30Ω 20Ω 40V − 6V − 30Ω 4Ω 8A
10Ω 10Ω
.........................................................................................................................
i 4Ω i 4Ω i 4Ω 12Ω .........................................................................................................................
+ 20Ω + + + +
6V − 30Ω 32V − 6V − 12Ω 1.6A 6V − 19.2V − .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
6 − 19.2
i= = −0.825A
4 + 12 .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Remarks
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
▶ The sources must be in either Thévenin or Norton form.
Rs1 Rs2
.........................................................................................................................
+ +
v1 − v2 − Rs3 Is2 .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
You CAN NOT use transformation here!

▶ A resistor parallel to an ideal source or series with an ideal current .........................................................................................................................
source does not affect the transformations.

Rs Rs Rs .........................................................................................................................
+ +
vs − Rp ≡ vs − Is Rp ≡ Is Rp .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Maximum Power Transfer I

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Rs b
Question .........................................................................................................................
Consider a non-ideal source connected to a +

variable load represented by RL . For which vs − RL .........................................................................................................................
value of RL maximum power is transferred

from source to load? a .........................................................................................................................
Remarks .........................................................................................................................
▶ We have no access to internal variables of the source, i.e., vs and Rs

is fixed. .........................................................................................................................
▶ The source block may be a Thévenin equivalent.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Rs biL vs .........................................................................................................................
iL (RL ) =
Rs + RL
+
+ vs RL
vs − vL RL vL (RL ) = RL iL = .........................................................................................................................
Rs + RL
− vs2 RL
PL (RL ) = vL iL = .........................................................................................................................
a (Rs + RL )2
.........................................................................................................................
PL (RL )[W] ∗
RL = arg max P (RL )
∗) RL
P (RL .........................................................................................................................
dP (RL )
∴ = 0,
dRL ∗
RL =RL .........................................................................................................................
RL [Ω] d2 P (RL )
2
<0 .........................................................................................................................
∗
RL dRL ∗
RL =RL
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Maximum Power Transfer II

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
vs2 RL
PL (RL ) = (56)
(Rs + RL )2 .........................................................................................................................
(Rs + RL )2 − 2RL (RL + Rs )

dP (RL )
= vs2 (57)
dRL (Rs + RL )4 .........................................................................................................................
Rs − RL 2
= v (58)
(RL + Rs )3 s
.........................................................................................................................
dP (RL )
∴ = 0 ⇒ RL = Rs (59)
dRL
.........................................................................................................................
d2 P (RL ) −(RL + Rs )3 − 3(Rs − RL )(RL + Rs )2 2
2
= vs (60)
dRL (RL + Rs )6 RL =Rs
RL =Rs
.........................................................................................................................
d2 P (R L) v2
2
= − s3 <0 (61)
dRL 8Rs
RL =Rs .........................................................................................................................
Therefore, for maximum power transfer from source the load resistor RL must be equal
to the Thévenin resistance Rs ! .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Maximum Power Transfer III
.........................................................................................................................
For RL = Rs ,
.........................................................................................................................
v 2 Rs v2
PL (Rs ) = s 2 = s (62)
(2Rs ) 4Rs
.........................................................................................................................
The power generated by the source is

.........................................................................................................................
vs2
Ps (RL ) = (63)
RL + Rs
.........................................................................................................................
At maximum power transfer, RL = Rs
vs2 .........................................................................................................................
Ps (Rs ) = (64)
2Rs
.........................................................................................................................
The ratio of transferred power to generated power is
PL (Rs ) v 2 2Rs 1
= s = (65) .........................................................................................................................
Ps (Rs ) 4Rs vs2 2
Hence, we can transfer only half of the generated power to the load at the best. In
.........................................................................................................................
other words, the efficiency is 50%.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Question
Rs
We have investigated the case where Rs is b .........................................................................................................................
fixed but RL allowed to vary. Suppose that
the load resistor RL is fixed, but we are vs
+
− RL .........................................................................................................................
allowed to vary the source (Thévenin)
resistance Rs . What is the optimal (best)
value of Rs to transfer maximum power to a .........................................................................................................................
the load?
PL (Rs )[W] .........................................................................................................................
2
vs
RL
vs2 RL
PL (Rs ) = .........................................................................................................................
(Rs + RL )2
Rs [Ω]
.........................................................................................................................
Remember that, monotonously decreasing or increasing functions attain

their minimum and maximums at their domain boundaries. Hence, .........................................................................................................................
maximum power transfer occurs when Rs → 0.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Maximum Power Transfer Example
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
i∆ 2Ω 4Ω
+ v −
∆ .........................................................................................................................
5Ω
+ .........................................................................................................................
100V − v∆ Ro
+
− 13i∆ .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Find value of Ro for which maximum power is delivered.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Substitution Theorem
.........................................................................................................................
Consider a circuit consists of well–defined resistive (possibly nonlinear and

time–varying) elements, that can be divided two sub–circuits NR and NL .........................................................................................................................
at a common one–port as depicted.

.........................................................................................................................
a
i(t) +
NL v(t) NR .........................................................................................................................
−
a′ .........................................................................................................................
If the circuit has a unique solution for all t, the sub–circuit NR can be .........................................................................................................................
replaced by a voltage source v(t) or a current source i(t) without changing
voltage and current values inside NL .
.........................................................................................................................
a a
i(t) + + .........................................................................................................................
NL − v(t) NL v(t) i(t)
−
a′ a′ .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
2Ω a 3Ω iα b .........................................................................................................................
2Ω a 3Ω iα b 1Ω
+ −
+ − vα
vα + − +
18
+ − 2V 2vα 11
V .........................................................................................................................
2V − 2vα 2Ω 1A −
+
−
+
.........................................................................................................................
Clearly, Again,
18 .........................................................................................................................
va = −2vα vb = V
11
vb = −3vα
vb 6 .........................................................................................................................
⇒ vα = =−
Using KCL at node b −3 11
vα 2
vb − va vb ∴ iα = =− A .........................................................................................................................
+ −1=0 3 11
3 2
Therefore all currents and voltages remains the
−3vα + 2vα 3vα
− =1 same. .........................................................................................................................
3 2
6 2 18
⇒ vα = − V, ⇒ iα = − A ⇒ vb = V .........................................................................................................................
11 11 11
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
2Ω a 3Ω iα b .........................................................................................................................
2Ω a 3Ω iα b 1Ω
+ −
+ − vα
vα + − 2
+ − 2V 2vα 11
A .........................................................................................................................
2V − 2vα 2Ω 1A −
+
+
.........................................................................................................................
Clearly, Again,
2 .........................................................................................................................
va = −2vα iα = − A
11
vb = −3vα
6 .........................................................................................................................
⇒ vα = 3iα = − V
Using KCL at node b 11
18
vb − va vb vb = −3vα = V .........................................................................................................................
+ −1=0 11
3 2 Therefore, again all currents and voltages remains
−3vα + 2vα 3vα the same.
− =1 .........................................................................................................................
3 2
6 2 18
⇒ vα = − V, ⇒ iα = − A ⇒ vb = V .........................................................................................................................
11 11 11
.........................................................................................................................
Remarks
.........................................................................................................................
▶ Substitution of current or voltage source do not change the sum of .........................................................................................................................
the voltages in the loops containing the substituted element.

− + ′ − + ′
v2′ vN −1 v2′ vN −1
.........................................................................................................................
+ − + −
− + − +
v1′ ′
vN v1′ ′
vN .........................................................................................................................
i′1 i′1
+ i− + −
+ − + −′
+
−
v1 + − i′N vN v1 iN vN .........................................................................................................................
E iN iNi
− + − E +
+ − + i1 − .........................................................................................................................
v2 vN −1 v2 vN −1
− + − +
.........................................................................................................................
▶ The theorem holds for nonlinear and/or time–varying circuits, too.
▶ Note that it is impossible to know the voltage/current across the .........................................................................................................................
replaced element before analyzing the circuit, therefore the use of the
theorem might be limited when simplifying analysis. .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Reciprocity Theorem
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Consider a linear resistive network N with a voltage source E on one of

the branches. Assume that the current through a second branch is I. .........................................................................................................................
When the voltage source is removed and placed on the second branch then
the current through the first branch will be exactly I. .........................................................................................................................
a b a b
.........................................................................................................................
+ +
E − N I I N E − .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
a’ b’ a’ b’
The obtained circuits are called to be reciprocal. .........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Reciprocity Theorem
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
.........................................................................................................................
1Ω 1Ω
.........................................................................................................................
+
1V − 2Ω I1′ 2Ω
+ .........................................................................................................................
I1 1V −
.........................................................................................................................
2Ω 1V 2Ω 1V
I1 = I1′ = .........................................................................................................................
2Ω + 1Ω + 1Ω 1Ω + 2Ω ∥ (1Ω + 1Ω) 2Ω + 1Ω 1Ω + 1Ω + 2Ω ∥ 1Ω
21 23
= = 0.25A = = 0.25A .........................................................................................................................
42 38
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................

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.........................................................................................................................

EED2311 Circuit Theory I .........................................................................................................................

Lecture V : Methods of Circuit Analysis

Dokuz Eylül University

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

September 29, 2023 .........................................................................................................................

is called an essential node. e7 d e8

Definition (Planar Circuit)

▶ To solve a circuit completely, we need to know all branch currents.

KCL provides .........................................................................................................................

How many equations are required to analyze a circuit? II

KCL provides .........................................................................................................................

be essential branches Equations

We only need to solve for essential branches! KVL provides

vn−1 ), to remaining n − 1 nodes.

▶ Solve the resulting simultaneous v2 − v1 v2

Node Voltage Method

vn−1 ), to remaining n − 1 nodes.

▶ Solve the resulting simultaneous

Node Voltage Method Example

and the node, is directly determined by the voltage source.

Node Voltage Method Example

Solving yields v2 = 60V and v3 = 80V. .........................................................................................................................

Node Voltage Method – Special Cases II

Super node equation will be:

Therefore solution is the same. .........................................................................................................................

Mesh Current Method

▶ Annotate every mesh with a unique i1 R1 i2 R2

using the mesh currents. Use Ohm’s

equations to get the mesh currents. Rearranging yields

Mesh Current Method Example

10Ω Mesh Equations: .........................................................................................................................

−100 + 3(ia − ic ) + 2(ib − ic ) + 50 + 4ib + 6ia = 0

Which of Node Voltage – Mesh Current Methods?

▶ Compare number of unknown node voltages to number of unknown

▶ Check if the requested unknown is determined by a node voltage or a

▶ Check if there exists any super nodes or super meshes.

most number of branches connected to it.

with a (dependent or independent) voltage source. NOT with current

Matrix Representation of Circuit Equations I

nodes that can be represented in following matrix form

where G is called the conductance matrix with elements

Gk j = Gj k : Negative of the sums of the conductances directly

vk : Unknown voltage at node k,

be represented in following matrix form

where R is called the resistance matrix with elements

Rk j = Rj k : Negative of the sum of the resistances in common with

ik : Unknown mesh current for mesh k in the clockwise direction,

independent current sources and all circuit elements are linear.

▶ Similarly, in mesh current case, we assumed that the circuit consists

▶ If it is not, then the v vector will contain linear combination of

will have terms that contains coefficients of dependent sources.

▶ A circuit consists of only linear circuit elements is a linear system.

independent energy source, the total response is the sum of the

i′2 i′4 i′′2 i′′4

i1 = i′1 + i′′1 i2 = i′2 + i′′2

Although currents and voltages are linearly dependent to independent