IA Theory

INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION 20EC44P 2021-22
Week – 1
Power Electronics is a branch of Electrical Engineering which deals with the power conversion
from one form to another form using Inductors, Capacitors, Semiconductor devices (Diode,
Thyristor, MOSFET, IGBT etc.).
Need for power devices

 To offer efficient protection of components
 To improve performance of the system
 To reduce the chip size
 To improve efficiency
 To reduce weight & cost of components by combining functioning of several IC’s
Features of power diode
 Just like a regular diode, a power diode has two-terminals anode and cathode and conducts
current in one direction.
 A power diode varies in construction from a standard diode to enable higher current rating.
 In regular diodes (also known as “signal diode”), the doping level of both P and N sides is
the same and hence we get a PN junction, but in power diodes, we have a junction formed
between a heavily doped P+ and a lightly doped N– the layer which is epitaxially grown on a
heavily doped N+ layer. Hence the structure looks as shown in the figure below.
 In power diodes, high forward current leads to high ohmic drop which dominates the
exponential growth and the curve increases almost linearly.
 The maximum reverse voltage that the diode can withstand is depicted by V RRM, i.e. peak
reverse repetitive voltage. Above this voltage, the reverse current becomes very high
abruptly.
 There are three types of power diodes
o Standard or general-purpose diodes
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o Fast recovery diodes
o Schottky diodes
 Applications: Three-phase rectifiers, inverters, power controllers, battery chargers, control
panel power supplies, snubber circuits.
Features of power BJT

 Power BJT is a three terminal, four layered semiconductor device.
 Emitter, Base and Collector are the three terminals of BJT.
 There are two types of transistor: npn and pnp
 It has four layers. The first layer is a heavily doped emitter layer (n+). The second layer is
moderately doped the base layer (p). The third region is lightly doped collector drift region
(n-). The last layer is a highly doped collector region (n+).
 There are two junctions in BJT Base Emitter junction and Collector Base junction.
 It has large power handling capability.
 It is large in size so that it can handle large current.
 The thickness of the drift region determines the breakdown voltage of the transistor.
 The V-I characteristics of power BJT is divided into four regions
o Cut-off region: The BE and CB both junctions are reverse bias. The base current
IB=0 and collector current IC is equal to the reverse leakage current ICEO.
o Active region: The BE junction is forward bias and CB junction is reverse bias. The
collector current IC increase slightly with an increase in the voltage VCE if IB is
increased.
o Quasi saturation region: Both junctions are forward biased. The device offers low
resistance compared to the active region. So, power loss is less.
o Hard saturation region: The Power BJT push into the hard-saturation region from
the quasi-saturation region by increasing the base current. The resistance offers in
this region is minimum. The device acts as a closed switch when it operates in this
region.
 Applications: Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS), power amplifiers, AC motor speed
controller, DC/AC converters, power control circuit, audio amplifier in stereo, series pass
transistor in RPS.
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Features of power IGBT
 IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar transistor is the combination of both BJT and MOSFET.
 It has very high input impedance.
 It is a voltage controlled device.
 It is a four layer PNPN device.
 It has three PN junctions.
 It has three terminals Emitter, Collector, Gate.
 It is used in SMPS, UPS, AC and DC motor drives, choppers, inverters, solar inverters,
VFDs and electric cars.
 It has low on-state voltage drop.
 It has fast switching property.
SCR
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Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR): SCR is a three terminal, four layered, unidirectional
semiconductor device.
Describe the construction of SCR.
SCR is an ordinary rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn) combined in one unit to form pnpn
device. The teminals anode (A) is taken from outer p-layer, cathode (K) is taken from outer n-layer
and gate (G) is taken from inner p-layer that is the base of the transistor.
Explain the working principle of SCR.
In SCR, load is connected in series with anode and anode must be positive with respect to
cathode.
When gate is open: When gate is open, junction J2 is reverse biased, while J1 and J3 are
forward biased. Hence the situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is just as in npn transistor
with base open. Therefore, no current flows through the load and SCR is cut-off. However, if
the applied voltage is increased, the junction J2 breaks down and SCR starts to conduct
heavily and is said to be in ON state. The applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily is
called breakover voltage.
When gate is positive with respect to cathode:
When gate is positive, the junction J2 is reverse biased and J3 is forward biased. The
electrons from n-type material start moving towards left across J3 whereas holes from p-
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type layer towards right. Consequently, the electrons from J3 are attracted across J2 and
gate current starts to flow, which increases the anode current. The increased anode current
results in breakdown of junction J2 and SCR starts conducting heavily. Then gate loses all
its control. The applied voltage must be made zero to turn off the SCR.
Explain holding and latching currents of SCR.

Holding current: It is the minimum anode current with gate being open, below which SCR
is turned OFF from its ON condition. If holding current is 5mA, then anode current must be
reduced below 5mA to turn off the SCR.
Latching current: It is the minimum anode current required to turn ON SCR from its OFF
state.
Discuss the V-I characteristics of SCR.

Forward characteristics:
 When anode is positive with respect to cathode, the curve between voltage and current is
called forward characteristics. OABC is the forward characteristic of SCR at I G=0.
 When the applied voltage increased from zero, only leakage current flows in the circuit. This
is the forward blocking mode of SCR
 When the applied voltage reaches the breakover voltage, the SCR starts to conduct heavily
and voltage across SCR suddenly drops as shown by curve AB. This is the forward
conduction mode of SCR.
Reverse characteristics:
 When anode is negative with respect to cathode, the curve between voltage and current is
called reverse characteristics.
 If the reverse voltage is gradually increased, only leakage current flows in the current. This
is the reverse blocking state of SCR.
 At some reverse voltage, avalanche breakdown of junction J2 occurs and SCR starts
conducting heavily denoted by the curve DE.
 The reverse voltage at which SCR starts conducting heavily is called reverse breakdown
voltage.
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List the applications of SCR.
 SCR is used in switching circuits.

 SCR is used for speed control DC shunt motor.
 SCR is used in high voltage power control applications.
 SCR is used to convert AC to DC (rectifier).
 SCR can be used as crowbar.
TRIAC: TRIAC is a three terminal, five layered, bidirectional semiconductor device.
Describe the construction and explain the operation of TRIAC.

Construction:
 TRIAC is a three terminal five layered semiconductor device.
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 It consists of two SCRs connected in anti parallel with a common terminal called
gate.
 It has six doped regions.
 The gate terminal makes ohmic contact with both n and p regions.
 The other two terminals are MT1 and MT2.
Working:
The operation of TRIAC is as follows:
 With S open, there will be no current and TRIAC is cut
off. Even with zero gate voltage, the TRIAC can be
turned on by applying the voltage greater than
breakover voltage of TRIAC.
 When switch S is closed, the gate current starts flowing
in the gate circuit, then TRIAC will start conducting
whether MT2 is positive or negative with respect to
MT1
 If MT2 is positive with respect to MT1, the current will
flow from MT2 to MT1.
 If MT1 is positive with respect to MT2, the current will
flow from MT1 to MT2.
Explain the V- I characteristics of TRIAC.
 When MT2 and gate are positive with

respect to MT1 and the voltage applied
across MT1 and MT2 is increased from zero,
only leakage current flows in the circuit.
 When the applied voltage reaches the
breakover voltage (VBO), the Triac starts to
conduct heavily and voltage across Triac
suddenly drops to minimum value.
 When MT2 and gate are negative with respect to MT 1 and the voltage applied across MT1 and
MT2 is increased from zero, only leakage current flows in the circuit. When the applied voltage
reaches the breakover voltage (VBO), the Triac starts to conduct heavily and voltage across
Triac suddenly drops to minimum value.
List the applications of TRIAC.
 It can be used as a low power ac controlling device.

 It is used to regulate the speed of motor.
 It is used in temperature control circuit.
 It is used in illumination control circuit.
 It is used in phase control circuit.
DIAC: It is two terminal, three layered, bidirectional device, which can be switched from its OFF
state to ON state for either polarity of applied voltage.
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Explain the construction and operation of DIAC.

Construction:
 The diac can be constructed either in PNP or NPN form.
 The two leads are connected to the two p-regions of silicon separated by n-region.
 The structure is similar to that of transistor with base open.
 The three regions are identical in both size and doping concentration.
Working:
 When a positive or negative voltage is applied across the terminals of diac, only small
leakage current will flow through the device.
 As the applied voltage is increased, the leakage current will continue to flow till the
applied voltage reaches the breakover voltage VBO.
 At this point, avalanche breakdown of the reverse biased junction occurs and the device
exhibits negative resistance.
 The voltage across the device then drops to breakback voltage VW.
Explain the V- I characteristics of DIAC.
 For the applied positive voltage less than VBO and

negative voltage less than –VBO, a small leakage current
IBO will flow through the device and diac behaves as an
open circuit.
 When the applied voltage is equal to or greater than
breakover voltage, the diac begins to conduct and the
voltage drop across it becomes few volts. As the applied
voltage is increased further, voltage across the diac
decreases.
 Conduction then continues until the device current drops
below holding current.
List the applications of DIAC.

 It is used for triggering of TRIAC.
 It is used in light dimming circuit.
 It is used in heat control circuit
 It is used in universal motor speed control.
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Week – 2
Triggering The process of turning ON of a thyristor from its OFF state is called
triggering.
Triggering can be achieved by using the following ways

 Thermal triggering If the temperature of the thyristor is high, it results in
increase in the electron-hole pairs. Which in turn increase the leakage current
α1 and α2 to raise. The regenerative action tends to increase (α1 + α2) to
units and the thyristor may be turned on.
 Radiation triggering The rays of light are allowed to strike the junctions of
the thyristor. This results in an increase in the number of electron-hole pair
and thyristor may be turned on. The light-activated SCRs (LASER) are
triggered by using this method.
 Voltage triggering The applied forward voltage is gradually increased
beyond a point known as forward break over voltage VBO to turn ON the
thyristor and gate is kept open.
 Dv/dt triggering If the rate of rise of anode to cathode voltage is high, the
charging current through the capacitive junction is high enough to turn on the
thyristor.
 Gate triggering In this method the SCR is operated with an anode voltage
slightly less than the forward breakover voltage. SCR is triggered into
conduction by applying a low power signal between gate and cathode,
R- Triggering Circuit
 In R firing circuit, the firing angle can vary over a limited range of 0° to
90°.
 Rmin is placed between anode and gate to limit the gate current to a safe
value.
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 The stabilizing resistor RS is used to limit the forward gate voltage value.
 The variable resistance RV is used to control the gate current.
 The blocking diode D prevents the breakdown of gate to cathode junction
during negative half cycle of input.
 During the positive half-cycle input voltage, thyristor T is forward biased, but it
doesn't conduct because of insufficient gate current. Hence, load voltage V L is
zero.
 As the input voltage increases, thyristor and diode both are forward-biased,
and gate current IG flows in the circuit. When gate current IG reaches to value
equal to IG(min), the thyristor is turned-ON and load voltage follows source
voltage.
 During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristor is reverse
biased, and hence it is turned OFF. Thus load voltage V L becomes zero and
voltage across the thyristor VT will be equal to source voltage VS.
R-C triggering
 In R-C triggering circuit, the firing angle can vary over a range of 0° to
180°.
 The capacitor charges to the negative peak of the ac voltage in every
negative half-cycle through the diode D2.
 During the positive half-cycle, it begins to charge through the resistance RV.
 When the voltage across the capacitor reaches the required gate trigger
voltage, the thyristor is fired and the capacitor voltage remains almost
constant.
 The diode D1 prevents the breakdown of the gate-cathode junction during the
negative half-cycle.
 The charging rate of capacitor as well as firing angle can be controlled using
RV.
UJT pulse triggering
 The bridge rectifier converts the ac into full wave rectified output.
 Resistor RS lowers the rectified dc voltage to a suitable value for Zener diode
and UJT.
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 The Zener diode Z is used to clip the rectified voltage to a standard level to
prevent erratic firing.
 Since VZ goes to zero at the beginning of each half-cycle, the synchronization
of the pulse with the supply voltage is achieved.
 VZ is applied to the capacitor C through variable resistor R. current i1 charges
the capacitor C toward VZ at a rate determined by R
 Voltage across the capacitor is marked as VC. when the voltage VC between
the emitter E and base B1 terminals of the UJT reaches the peak voltage V P,
the UJT turns on.
 When the UJT is turned on, the capacitor discharges through the emitter and
a pulse occurs at the primary of the pulse transformer.
 The discharges current is marked as i2. The pulse transformer is used to
isolate the control circuit from the main power circuit.
 The two windings of the pulse-transformer secondary feed pulses to two
thyristors.
 Since pulses appear both in positive and negative half cycle, the thyristor that
is forward biased turns on.
Commutation
The process of turning OFF of a thyristor is called as commutation.
To turn OFF a conducting SCR properly, the following conditions must be
satisfied
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 The anode or forward current of SCR must be reduced to zero or below

the level of holding current and then,
 A sufficient reverse voltage must be applied across the SCR to regain
its forward blocking state.
SCR Turn-OFF methods

 Natural Commutation
 Forced Commutation
Natural Commutation
In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply
source itself. If the SCR is connected to an AC supply, at every end of the
positive half cycle, the anode current naturally becomes zero (due to the
alternating nature of the AC Supply). As the current in the circuit goes through
the natural zero, a reverse voltage is applied immediately across the SCR
(due to the negative half cycle). These conditions turn OFF the SCR.This
method of commutation is also called as Source Commutation or AC Line
Commutation or Class F Commutation.
Forced commutation
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In
such circuits, forward current must be forced to zero with an external circuit
(known as Commutating Circuit) to commutate the SCR. The commutating
circuit consist of components like inductors and capacitors and they are called
Commutating Components. These commutating components cause to apply a
reverse voltage across the SCR that immediately bring the current in the SCR
to zero.
Types
 Class A – Resonant or load commutation
 Class B – Self Commutation
 Class C – Auxiliary or voltage commutation
 Class D – Complementary commutation
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 Class E – External pulse Commutation
Load or resonant or class A commutation
 Load commutation is employed in thyristor circuits supplied from a DC source

where line commutation is obviously not possible.
 The load resistance R is in series with L and C as shown in Fig. (a) so that it
forms an underdamped (oscillatory) circuit and there is a natural tendency for
the load current to become zero.
 When this circuit is energized from dc, current waveform as shown in Fig. (b)
is obtained. It is seen that current iL first rises to maximum value and then
begins to fall.
 Current decays to zero and tends to reverse.
 The thyristor T1 is commutated on its own at instant A as it is in series with
the load.
Week – 3
Auxiliary or voltage commutation

 The main SCR T1 with load resistance forms the power circuit while the diode
D, inductor L and SCR T2 forms the commutation circuit.
 T1 is the main thyristor and TA is the auxiliary thyristor. Assume that the
capacitor is initially charged to voltage VC with the upper plate positive. The
commutation process can be described by the following modes of operation.
 Mode 1: Main thyristor T1 is triggered by a gate pulse. Load current I L flows

from battery through T1 and load. At the same time capacitor discharges
through T1. The path for this capacitor current is through T 1, diode D and
inductor L. At the end of this mode, the capacitor gets charged to opposite
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polarity (i.e. lower plate positive). The diode D does not allow discharging of
capacitor.
 Mode 2: To turn off the main thyristor, the auxiliary thyristor TA is turned on by
a gate pulse. The capacitor voltage appears as reverse bias across the main
thyristor T1. The capacitor starts discharging through T A and T1. This
discharge current flows from cathode to anode of T 1. When this current
becomes equal to load current, the net current of T 1 becomes zero and it is
turned off. At the end of this mode, T 1 is turned off and capacitor C is charged
with upper plate positive. It is now ready for mode 1 operation. This method
uses the capacitor voltage to be applied as reverse bias across the main
thyristor. Therefore, it is also known as Voltage Commutation.
Complementary Commutation
Fig.shows the circuit for complementary commutation. It uses the main

thyristor T1 and a complementary thyristor T2. The triggering of one thyristor
turns off the other thyristor. The actions can be described in the following
modes:
Mode 1
Thyristor T1 is turned on by a gate pulse. Load current flows from battery to
load 1 through thyristor T1. Along with this, a capacitor charging current flows
from battery through load 2, capacitor C and thyristor T 1. This current charge
capacitor C to the battery voltage V with the polarity shown.
Mode 2
Thyristor T2 is turned on by a gate pulse. The capacitor voltage now appears
as reverse bias across T1 and turns it off. In this mode load current flows from
battery to load 2 through thyristor T2. In addition, a charging current flows from
battery through load 1, capacitor C and T 2. Capacitor C is charged to supply
voltage with reverse polarity. When thyristor T 1 is turned on in the next cycle,
the voltage across C reverse biases thyristor T 2 and turns it off. These events
repeat in subsequent cycles. This method of commutation is used in inverters
Protection of SCR
For the reliable operation of an SCR, it should be ensured that the current and
voltage ratings of the SCR should not exceed their rated values. In case, if
due to any abnormal condition, SCR is subjected to over voltage or over
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current then, it may be damaged. Therefore, SCR's must be protected from

high values of overvoltages and overcurrents. Also, SCR's are the most
sensitive devices.
A snubber circuit is a protective circuit used to protect the SCR from false
triggering and transient overvoltages. It basically consists of a capacitor and a
resistor connected in series.
When the switch is closed, a sudden voltage appears across the SCR which
is bypassed to the RC network. This is because the capacitor acts as a short
circuit which reduces the voltage across the SCR to zero. As the time
increases, voltage across the capacitor builds up at slow rate such that dv/dt
across the capacitor is too small to turn ON the SCR. Therefore, the dv/dt
across the SCR and the capacitor is less than the maximum dv/dt rating of the
SCR.
Normally, the capacitor is charged to a voltage equal the maximum supply

voltage which is the forward blocking voltage of the SCR. If the SCR is turned
ON, the capacitor starts discharging which causes a high current to flow
through the SCR.
This produces a high di/dt that leads to damage the SCR. And hence, to limit
the high di/dt and peak discharge current, a small resistance is placed in
series with the capacitor as shown in above. These snubber circuits can also
be connected to any switching circuit to limit the high surge or transient
voltages.
Protection against Overvoltage
Thyristors are very sensitive to overvoltage which are the main cause of
thyristor failure. Transient overvoltage cause either malfunction of the circuit
by unwanted turn-on of a thyristor or permanent damage to the devices due to
reverse breakdown. The thyristor can be safeguarded against overvoltage by
using shunt-connected nonlinear resistance devices such as voltage
dependent resistors (VDRs). These protective devices will register a fall in
resistance with increase in voltage, and therefore produce a virtual short-
circuit across the thyristor when a high voltage surge is applied. Fuse will blow
out due to high current.
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Single phase half wave controlled rectifier
 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier converts AC input into DC

output only for positive half cycle of the AC input supply.
 Fig. shows the single-phase half-wave-controlled converter circuit
arrangement with resistive load.
 During the positive half cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristor T1 anode
is positive with respect to its cathode. Until the thyristor is triggered by a
proper gate pulse, it blocks the flow of load current in the forward direction.
 When the thyristor is fired at an angle α, the full supply voltage is applied
across the load. Now the load is directly connected across the ac supply.
 As it is a pure resistive circuit, the current waveform will be identical to the
applied voltage waveform.
 By varying the firing angle α, the output voltage can be controlled.
 During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristor T1 blocks
the flow of load current and no voltage is applied across the load
resistance R.
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Single phase full-wave bridge-controlled rectifier (only resistive load)
 Fig. shows the single-phase full-wave bridge controlled converter circuit

with resistive load.
 During the positive half cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristor T1 and T3
are forward biased.
 When these thyristors are fired at an angle α, the full supply voltage is
applied across the load. Now the load is directly connected across the ac
supply.
 As it is a pure resistive circuit, the current waveform will be identical to the
applied voltage waveform.
 During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristor T2 and
T4 are forward biased.
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 When these thyristors are fired at an angle π+α, the full supply voltage is
applied across the load. Now the load is directly connected across the ac
supply.
Importance of freewheeling diode

 Freewheeling diode is used to protect the circuit from unusual damage
caused due to abrupt reduction in the current flowing through the circuit.
 It is connected across the inductive load terminals to prevent the
development of high voltage across the switch. When the inductive circuit
is switched off, this diode gives a short circuit path for the flow
of inductor decay current and hence dissipation of stored energy in the
inductor. This diode is also called Flywheel or Flyback diode.
 Freewheeling diode is used to circulate the load energy in the
load itself. The freewheeling diode gives the path for load
current.
 Consider the circuit shown in Fig. Thyristor T conducts in positive half
cycle of supply. Hence VO=VS. The freewheeling diode FWD does not
conduct because it is reverse biased.
 At the end of the positive half cycle, the supply voltage becomes negative.
Thyristor T turns off due to natural commutation. Inductor opposes sudden
variations in current flowing through it and generates a voltage with the
polarity shown. The voltage across the inductor is given by
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 The induced voltage VL forward biases freewheeling diode and it starts

conducting. The freewheeling current flows due to energy stored in the
load inductance. The output current Io circulates through the FWD and
load and there is continuity in load current. This process is called
freewheeling. If load energy is fed back to the supply mains, then it is
called feedback.
Week – 4
Chopper is a static device that converts fixed DC input voltage to a variable DC
output voltage. It is basically a high speed ON/OFF semiconductor switch.
Working Principle of Chopper
In this circuit, the switch SW is chopper. This switch can be made ON and
OFF at a very high speed. In this way, the load may be connected and
disconnected from the supply source Vs. When the switch is ON, the load
voltage is equal to the source voltage Vs and when the switch is OFF, load
voltage becomes equal to ZERO. Thus, a chopped voltage across the load is
obtained. The output voltage i.e. voltage across the load is shown in figure.
Duty Cycle
Duty cycle of chopper is defined as the ratio of ON time to the total time
period. It is denoted by symbol α. Total time period is the sum of ON and OFF
time.
Duty Cycle = TON / (TON+TOFF)
Assuming (TON+TOFF) = T, duty cycle is given as below.
Duty Cycle, δ = (TON / T)
Chopper Control Schemes

 Time ratio control
 Current limit control
Time Ratio Control
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In time ratio control, a constant k given by TON/T is varied. The constant k is

called duty ratio. Time ratio control can be achieved in two ways –
 Constant Frequency
In this control method, the frequency (f = 1/T 0N) is kept constant while
the ON time T is varied. This is referred to as pulse width
modulation (PWM).
Fig: constant frequency system
Variable Frequency
In variable frequency technique, the frequency f=1/T is varied while the
ON time T is kept constant. This is referred to as the frequency modulation
control.
Fig: Variable frequency system
Current Limit Control

 In a DC to DC converter, the value of the current varies between the
maximum as well as the minimum level for continuous voltage.
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 In this technique, the chopper switch is switched ON and then OFF to

ensure that current is kept constant between the upper and lower
limits.
 When the current goes beyond the maximum point, the chopper goes
OFF.
 While the switch is at its OFF state, current freewheels via the diode
and drops in an exponential manner.
 The chopper is switched ON when the current reaches the minimum
level. This method can be used either when the ON time T is constant
or when the frequency f=1/T.
Chopper classification
Step-down Chopper
Step down chopper is also known as a buck converter. In this chopper, the
average voltage output VO is less than the input voltage VS. When the chopper
is ON, VO = VS and when the chopper is off, VO = 0.
 Fig (a) shows the circuit of a
step-down chopper that
makes use of a thyristor as
an on/off switch. It applies a
train of pulse of a dc voltage
to the load.
 During the period Ton,
when the thyristor T1 is on,
the supply terminals are
connected to the load
terminals.
 During the period Toff,
when the thyristor T1 is off,
load current flows through
the freewheeling diode
FWD and the load terminals
are shorted.
 The function of the FWD (freewheeling diode) in a chopper is to protect the
SCR from high voltage that may be induced when the inductive circuit is
interrupted.
 It helps to maintain constant current through the load and to commutative
the main SCR.
 The chopper produces output voltages less than the input and hence the
name step-down chopper.
Step up chopper
The average voltage output (Vo) in a step up chopper is greater than the voltage
input (Vs). The figure below shows a configuration of a step up chopper.
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 When the thyristor T1 is on, the inductor is connected to the supply VS

and energy is stored in it.
 When the thyristor T1 is off, the inductor current is forced to flow through
the diode and load.
 The induced voltage across the inductor VL adds to the source voltage VS
to force the inductor current into the load.
 Thus the energy stored in the inductor is released to the load.
 The output voltage is given by V0 = VS + VL.
 The chopper produces output voltages more than the input and hence the
name step-up chopper.
Type A Chopper or First–Quadrant Chopper

This type of chopper is as shown in the figure. It is known as first-quadrant
chopper or type A chopper. When the chopper is on, V0 = VS. As a result, the
current flows in the direction of the load. But when the chopper is off V 0 is zero
but I0 continues to flow in the same direction through the freewheeling diode FD,
thus average value of voltage and current say V0 and I0 will be always positive as
shown in the graph.
Fig: Type A Chopper or First–Quadrant Chopper

It is also called the step-down chopper as the average value of Vo is always
lower than the source voltage Vs and the current flows from the source to load.
Type B Chopper or Second-Quadrant Chopper

Type B chopper operates in quadrant II. VO is positive and IO is negative as
shown in Fig. (a). Fig.(b) shows the circuit diagram of Type B chopper. When T2
is on, VO = 0, but the generated voltage E drives current through inductance L
and T2. Inductance L stores energy during Ton of T2. When T2 is off, VO = (E + L d
22
IO /dt) exceeds source voltage VS. As a result, D2 is forward biased and begins
conduction, thus allowing power to flow to the source. Current I O flows out of the
load irrespective of whether T2 is turned on or off. Therefore, current IO is treated
as negative. Since VO is always positive and IO is negative, power flow is always
from load to source. As the load voltage VO = (E + L d IO /dt) is more than source
voltage, type B chopper is also called step-up chopper.
Fig: Type B Chopper or Second-Quadrant Chopper

Week - 5
Type -C chopper or Two-quadrant type-A Chopper

Type C chopper can operate in quadrants I and II as shown in Fig. (a). The
power flow in this chopper is either from source to load or from load to source.
VO is positive and IO is either positive or negative.
Fig: Type -C chopper or Two-quadrant type-A Chopper

Type C chopper is obtained by connecting type A and type B choppers in
parallel as shown in Fig. (b). Output voltage Vo is always positive because of
the presence of freewheeling diode across the load. When T2 is on or D1
conducts, Vo = 0 because a short is presented across the load. If T1 is on or
D2 conducts, output voltage Vo = VS. Load current Io is positive if T1 or D1 is
on and T2 is off. Load current Io is negative if T2 is on or D2 conducts. In
other words, T1 and D1 operate together as type A chopper. T2 and D2
operate together as type B chopper. Care should be taken to ensure that T1
and T2 are not triggered simultaneously as this would lead to a direct short
23
circuit on the supply lines. Type C chopper configuration is used for motoring
and regenerative braking of dc motors.
Type D Chopper or Two-Quadrant Type –B Chopper

Type D chopper can operate in quadrants I and IV as shown in Fig. (a).
Power flow is always from the source to load. Vo is either positive or negative
and the current Io is always positive.
Fig: Type D chopper

Fig. (b) shows circuit diagram of type D chopper. When both T1 and T2 are
on, the output voltage Vo = Vs. When both T1 and T2 are off, the output
voltage Vo = –VS and both diodes D1 and D2 conduct. Average output
voltage Vav is positive when Ton > Toff for T1 and T2. Average output voltage
Vav is negative when Ton < Toff for T1 and T2. The direction of load current is
always positive because SCRs and diodes can conduct current only in the
direction of arrows.
Type –E chopper or the Fourth-Quadrant Chopper

Type E chopper can operate in quadrants I, II, III and IV as shown in Fig(a). It is
used for both motoring and regenerative braking. The power flow in this chopper
is either from source to load or from load to source. Vo and Io are either positive
or negative. Fig(b) shows circuit diagram of type E chopper. It consists of four
SCRs T1 to T4 and four diodes D1 to D4 in antiparallel. Its operation is explained
below:
1. First Quadrant: Here both load voltage and load current are positive. For
first-quadrant operation, T1 and T4 are kept on and T3 is kept off. Load
voltage Vo = Vs and load current Io begins to flow. Here both Vo and Io
are positive. When T1 is turned off, positive current freewheels through T4
and D2.
2. Second Quadrant: Here load voltage is positive and load current is
negative. T1, T3 and T4 are kept off. With T2 on, negative current flows
through L, T2, D4 and E. Inductance L stores energy. When T2 is turned
24
off, current is fed back to source through diodes D1 and D4. Here (E + L
dIo/dt) is more than the source voltage VS. As load voltage Vo is positive
and Io is negative, it is second quadrant operation. Power is fed back from
load to source.
3. Third Quadrant: Here both load voltage and load current are negative. For
third-quadrant operation, T1 is kept off, T2 and T3 are kept on. Load gets
connected to source Vs so that both Vo and Io are negative leading to
third quadrant operation. When T3 is turned off, negative current
freewheels through T2 and D4.
4. Fourth Quadrant: Here load voltage is negative and load current is
positive. T4 is turned on and other devices are kept off. Positive current
flows through T4, D2, L and E. Inductance L stores energy. When T4 is
turned off, current is fed back to source through D2 and D3. Power is fed
back from load to source.
Fig: Four quadrant chopper (Type E)
Inverters
An inverter is a power electronics device which is used to convert DC voltage
into AC voltage.
Working principle of inverter
As shown in Fig (a), if switch S is connected alternately to positions 1 and 2 at

a rapid speed, then an alternating voltage will appear across the primary
winding even though the supply voltage is dc. This can be explained by the
25
direction of current flow in the primary winding. When S is connected to

position 1, the direction of current flow is from top to bottom. When S is
connected to position 2, current flows from bottom to top. The frequency of
the alternating voltage will depend on how rapidly the switch positions are
interchanged. As shown in Fig(b), an alternating emf is induced in the
secondary winding which is connected to the load. Transistors and thyristors
are used as switching elements.
Single phase half bridge inverter
 Single phase half bridge inverter consists of two SCRs, two diodes and a
three wire supply as shown in Fig(a). During the period 0 to T/2, T1
conducts and the load is subjected to a voltage Vs/2 (load terminal B is
positive with respect to A) due to the upper voltage source Vs/2. Load
current Io flows through the following path:
Vs+/2 – T1 – Load (B to A) – Vs–/2
This constitutes the positive half cycle of the output.
 At t = T/2, thyristor T1 is commutated and T2 is gated on. During the
period T/2 to T, thyristor T2 conducts and the load is subjected to a
voltage –Vs/2 (load terminal A is positive with respect to B) due to the
lower voltage source Vs/2. Load current Io flows through the following path
Vs+/2 – Load (A to B) – T2 – Vs–/2
This constitutes the negative half cycle of the output.
 Thus, the two SCRs are alternately triggered and commutated and an
output ac voltage of amplitude Vs/2 and frequency 1/T Hz is obtained as
shown in Fig(b). Diodes D1 and D2 are connected antiparallel with T1 and
T2 respectively to carry reactive power from load to source. These diodes
are called feedback diodes as energy is fed back to the dc source when
they conduct.
Full bridge inverter
26
 Full bridge inverter consists of four SCRs and four diodes When T1 and T2
conduct, load current Io passes through the following path.
Vs+ – T1 – Load (A to B) – T2 – Vs–
This constitutes the positive half cycle of the output (load terminal A is positive
with respect to terminal B).
 When T3 and T4 conduct, load current Io passes through the following path
Vs + – T3 – Load (B to A) – T4 – Vs–
This constitutes the negative half cycle of the output (load terminal B is
positive with respect to terminal A).
 Frequency of the output voltage can be controlled by varying the time period
T.
 Diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are connected antiparallel with T1, T2, T3 and T4,
respectively, to carry reactive power from load to source. These diodes are
called feedback diodes as energy is fed back to the dc source when they
conduct.
(a) Circuit diagram
Series inverter
27
 In series inverter, the commutating components L and C are connected in

series with the load therefore, this inverter is called as SERIES INVERTER
 Fig. (a) shows the simple series inverter. The load resistance R is in series
with commutating components L and C so that it forms an underdamped
(oscillatory) circuit and there is a natural tendency for the load current to
become zero.
 The SCR is commutated as it is in series with the load. Since the SCRs turn
off by themselves when the current becomes zero, this inverter is classified as
a self-commutated inverter.
 When T1 is turned on, capacitor C gets charged with the polarity shown. The
waveform for current IL will be as in Fig. (b). At point 1 of the waveform, the
load current IL is zero and T1 is turned off. Duration 1-2 is the off period when
the load is open-circuited and the load current is zero. Capacitor retains the
voltage Vc as there is no discharge path. At point 2, T2 is fired and the
capacitor discharge current flows in the opposite direction through the load. At
point 3, T2 is turned off since the capacitor discharges completely and current
through it becomes zero.
28
Week – 6
Variable DC link inverter
The output voltage of an inverter can be controlled by varying the duty cycle
which introduces harmonic distortion at different frequencies. To overcome
this problem DC link inverters are used, in which pulse amplitude is varied
instead of pulse width. Fig. shows the block diagram of single-phase variable
DC link inverter. An input voltage Vs is given to the chopper. The duty cycle of
the chopper is varied to generate a variable DC voltage at the input of
inverter. Switching elements of the inverter conduct for fixed period.
Therefore, harmonic content of output does not change.
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
The voltage source inverter maintains a constant ac output voltage
independent of the load. It is fed from a constant dc voltage source of
negligible impedance. For this purpose, a large capacitor is connected at the
dc input side of the inverter. The VSI circuit has direct control over output ac
voltage. The output voltage can be controlled by changing power factor,
frequency or pulse width of the inverter. Half-bridge and full-bridge inverters
are examples for voltage source inverter.
Current Source Inverter (CSI)
The current source inverter maintains a constant ac output current
independent of the load. It is fed from a constant dc current source of high
impedance. The CSI circuit directly controls output ac current. It is also called
a dc-link inverter.
Difference between VSI and CSI

Sl
Voltage source inverter (VSI) Current source inverter (CSI)
No.
The energy is stored in the
1 The energy is stored in the inductance
capacitance
The commutation of the inverter A minimum load at the output is
2
takes place independently of the required and
29
load. load becomes a part of the

commutation circuit.
VSI can be considered as an CSI can be considered as an
3 alternating voltage source with alternating current source with variable
variable frequency and amplitude. frequency.
The dc supply of CSI has a high
The dc supply of VSI has low
4 impedance due to the link inductance
impedance at all frequencies.
holding the current constant.
Current in the load depends upon the
Current in the load depends upon
5 inverter operation and the voltage
the load impedance.
depends on load impedance
PWM technique
PWM techniques are characterised by constant amplitude pulses. The width
of these pulses is varied to obtain inverter output voltage control. Fig. (a)
shows sinusoidal pulse modulation technique in which several pulses are
used per half cycle. The pulse width is varied sinusoidally depending on the
angular position of the pulse. A high frequency triangular wave is compared
with a sinusoidal reference wave of the desired frequency. The intersection of
these two waves determines switching instants. The carrier and reference
waves are mixed in a comparator. When sinusoidal wave has magnitude
higher than the triangular wave, the comparator output is high, otherwise it is
low. The comparator output is processed in a trigger pulse generator in such a
manner that the output voltage wave of the inverter has a pulse width in
agreement with the comparator output pulse width as shown in Fig. (b).
Cycloconverters
Cycloconverter is AC to AC converter which converts AC power of one
frequency to AC power of another frequency without using any intermediate
DC link.
Based on output frequency, the cycloconverters are classified as
 Step Up cycloconverter This type uses natural commutation and give an
output at higher frequency than that of the input.
30
 Step Down cycloconverter This type uses forced commutation and

results in an output with a frequency lower than that of the input.
Based on number of phases in input AC, the cycloconverters are classified as

 Single-Phase to Single-Phase Cycloconverter
 Three-Phase to Single-Phase Cycloconverter
 Three-Phase to Three-Phase Cycloconverter
Single phase to single phase midpoint cycloconverter
 Fig(a) shows the circuit of mid-point cycloconverter with a pure resistive

load.
 It has two sets of SCRs- positive (P1 & P2) and negative (N1 and N2).
 Depending upon the polarities of the points A and B, SCRs are gated.
 Natural commutation process is used
for turning off the SCRs.
 Single-phase 50 Hz AC is applied to
the primary of the transformer.
 During positive half-cycle (no.1),
when point A is positive and B is
negative, SCR P1 is gated. The
current passes through the path A -
P1 – load (Y to X) - C.
 During negative half-cycle (no. 2), when point B is positive and A is

negative, P1 is automatically turned off and P2 is triggered simultaneously.
The current passes through the path B - P2 – load (Y to X) - C.
 At the beginning of the next half cycle (no. 3), A becomes positive and B
becomes negative. P2 is line commutated and P1 is gated simultaneously.
The direction of flow of current through the load remains same in all these
three half cycles (1, 2 and 3). In other words, the first three half cycles of
the input produce positive voltage across the load (load terminal Y is
positive with respect to X).
 During next negative half-cycle (no. 4) of the ac input when B is again
positive and A is negative, P1 is automatically switched off. Now, N1 is
gated. The direction of flow of current through the load is reversed. The
current passes through the path C – load (X to Y) – N1 - A.
 During the next positive half cycle (no. 5), A is positive and B is negative.
N1 is line commutated and N2 is gated simultaneously. The current
passes through the path C – load (X to Y) - N2 - B.
31
 At the beginning of the next half cycle (no. 6), B is positive and A is
negative. N2 is line commutated and N1 is gated simultaneously. The
direction of flow of current through the load remains the same in all these
three half cycles (4, 5 and 6). In other words, the second set of three half
cycles of the input produces negative voltage across the load (load
terminal X is positive with respect to Y).
 The input and output waveforms are shown in Fig(b). The firing sequence
of the SCRs to produce 16.66 Hz output is summarised in table.
Fig(a) Midpoint cycloconverter Fig(b) Step-down cycloconverter

waveforms
Applications of Cycloconverters
 Speed control of high-power ac drives
 Induction heating
 Power supply in aircraft and shipboard
 Electric traction.
 HVDC transmissions, etc.
 Cement mill drives
 Ship propulsion drives
 Rolling mill drives
 Ore grinding mills
 Mine winders, etc
32
Week – 8
Photo-electric Control of SCR

Fig. shows automatic street lighting circuit using LDR and SCR. It
automatically turns on a lamp when sunlight is absent. The mains ac supply is
rectified by means of a full-wave bridge rectifier consisting of four diodes D1,
D2, D3 and D4. A part of this rectified dc voltage is fed to the gate of the
thyristor T by means of a potential divider consisting of resistor R1 and a
potentiometer R2. During the day when the LDR receives enough light, its
resistance becomes very low. In this condition no signal will be available at
the gate of T and it will remain in the off state. The lamps connected in the
circuit will not be energised.
On the other hand, towards evening, when the intensity of light falling on the
LDR reduces, its resistance will increase gradually and in total darkness its
resistance will reach the maximum. The signal available at the gate of T is
sufficient to turn it on immediately. The lamp connected in the circuit will be
energised. The potentiometer can be adjusted to switch on the SCR at a
predetermined illumination level. In this circuit the LDR works as a triggering
agent for the SCR which in turn acts as an automatic switch for the lamp. LDR
33
should be mounted in such a position that no shadow is cast on its surface

during day time.
Fig: Photoelectric control of SCR
Light Dimmer circuit using DIAC and TRIAC

Fig. shows the circuit for light dimmer using diac and triac. At that start of
positive half cycle (before triac is fired), the ac voltage causes C to charge
through the potentiometer resistance R and the lamp load. The diac abruptly
conducts full current as soon as voltage across capacitor rises above the
breakover value and discharges C through the gate of triac. Triac conducts for
the rest of the half cycle and voltage is applied across the lamp load. During
the negative half cycle, C charges in the opposite direction. The diac is
triggered at the same breakover value, firing the triac at the same phase delay
as in the positive half cycle. If the potentiometer resistance R is increased, C
charges more slowly. Capacitor voltage reaches the breakover point later in
each half cycle and triac gets the trigger late. A smaller portion of the ac
voltage is applied to the lamp and hence the lamp glows dimmer.
Fig: Light dimmer using diac and triac
Burglar alarm circuit

Fig. shows a simple burglar alarm circuit which makes use of SCR. This
circuit is incorporated on the door for the purpose of protection against
burglary. Limiting resistor R and the micro-switch are connected at the gate of
34
thyristor T. The door (micro) switch remains off when the door is closed. It
turns on automatically when the door is opened. Reset switch S is a normally
closed push-button switch.
Condition 1: When the door is closed
The dc supply is available at the input terminals of the alarm. The micro
switch, being off, does not allow any signal at the gate of thyristor T. It does
not conduct in this condition and hence the alarm is not energised.
Condition 2: When door is opened
The micro switch, being on, allows the required signal at the T gate. Resistor
R is used for limiting the gate current. As soon as the gate signal is received,
thyristor T starts conducting and the alarm is energised. The alarm is turned
off by closing the door and pressing the reset switch S momentarily.
Fig: Burglar alarm using SCR
Armature Voltage Control method for speed control of DC shunt motor

In this method, the field of the motor is excited by a constant dc source and
the armature voltage is varied to obtain variable motor speeds. Motor speed is
directly proportional to the armature voltage Va. This method produces speed
below the base speed and is generally used for dc shunt motors. The block
diagram consists of the following functional stages:
1. Potentiometer
2. Ramp unit (soft-start circuit)
3. Tacho-generator
4. Comparator, Error amplifier and Phase shifting circuit
5. Thyristor bridge
35
Fig: Armature voltage control method for speed control of DC motor

 Potentiometer The dc reference voltage is obtained through a
potentiometer.
 Ramp Unit (Soft-Start Circuit) It is an RC integrator which accepts a
step input reference voltage and converts it into a ramp output thereby
providing soft start.
 Tacho-generator It is an integrator which converts any step change
(sudden change) in the reference voltage into a ramp (gradual and
smooth change). The function of a ramp generator is to provide a
controlled acceleration of dc motor irrespective of set speed.
 Feedback Voltage The speed of the motor is converted into equivalent
voltage signal by means of a tacho-generator mounted on the motor
shaft. This feedback voltage is applied to the comparator circuit to
provide an error signal.
 Comparator, Error Amplifier and Phase Shifting Circuit The
feedback voltage from the tacho-generator output is compared with
reference voltage in the comparator. The output of the comparator is
called the error. It is applied to the phase shifting circuit through an
error amplifier. The phase shifting network decides the firing angle of
the thyristor bridge rectifier depending on the nature of error. If the
error is positive, firing of the thyristor-bridge is quickened; If the error is
negative, it is delayed. The change in firing angle compensates for the
difference in speed.
 Thyristor Bridge Three phase thyristor bridge rectifier is used for
converting ac into variable dc output voltage. Output of the thyristor-
bridge is connected to the motor armature. The thyristor-bridge
changes the armature voltage Va according to the firing angle to
control the speed of the dc motor.
36
Field Control Method for speed control of DC shunt motor

This method is used for achieving speed control of dc motor above the base
speed. In this method, the armature voltage is kept constant and the field
current is varied. Motor speed is inversely proportional to the field current If.
The block diagram representation for this scheme of speed control is shown in
Fig. It consists of the following functional stages
1. Potentiometer
2. Ramp unit (soft-start circuit)
3. Tacho-generator
4. Comparator, Error amplifier and Phase shifting circuit
5. Thyristor bridge
Fig: Field control method for speed control of DC motor

 Potentiometer A potentiometer has been used to fix the reference dc
voltage to a value corresponding to the field current.
 Ramp Unit (Soft-Start Circuit) It is an RC integrator which accepts a
step input reference voltage and converts it into a ramp output thereby
providing soft start.
 Tacho-generator The speed of the motor is converted into equivalent
voltage signal by means of a tacho-generator mounted on the motor
shaft. This feedback voltage is applied to the comparator circuit to
provide an error signal.
 Comparator, Error Amplifier and Phase Shifting Circuit The
feedback voltage from the tacho-generator output is compared with
reference voltage in the comparator. The output of the comparator is
called the error. It is applied to the phase shifting circuit through an
error amplifier. The phase shifting network decides the firing angle of
the thyristor bridge rectifier depending on the nature of error. If the
error is positive, firing of the thyristor-bridge is delayed; If the error is
37
negative, it is quickened. The change in firing angle compensates for

the difference in speed.
 Thyristor Bridge Three phase thyristor bridge rectifier is used for
converting ac into variable dc output voltage. The output of the
thyristor-bridge is connected to the motor field. The thyristor-bridge
changes the field current If according to the firing angle to control the
speed of the dc motor.
Week – 8
38
Speed control of DC motors using dual converters
Fig: Speed control of DC motor using dual converter

Fig. shows the circuit diagram for speed control dc motor using a single-phase
dual converter. As the name suggests, it uses two converters: (1) P-converter
and (2) N-converter. These converters are used for rectifying the single-phase
ac into pulsating dc. An LC filter is used to remove the ripples. P-converter is
constituted by SCRs T1, T2, T3 and T4. N-converter is constituted by SCRs
T5, T6, T7 and T8. A dual-converter may be used to obtain the following
controls of a dc motor
1. Reversible speed control
2. Plugging
3. Regenerative braking.
Reversible Speed Control
To start with, consider that the N-converter is switched off and the P-converter
is gated. SCRs T1 and T2 conduct during positive half cycles whereas SCRs
T3 and T4 conduct during negative half cycles of ac input. The direction of
flow of armature current I is clockwise. The motor is running in say clockwise
direction. The speed of the motor can be controlled by changing the firing
angle of P-converter.
To run the motor in the opposite direction, P-converter is kept off and N-
converter is gated. SCRs T5 and T6 conduct during positive half cycles
whereas SCRs T7 and T8 conduct during negative half cycles of ac input. The
direction of flow of armature current I is anticlockwise. The motor runs in the
anticlockwise direction. The speed of the motor can be controlled by changing
the firing angle of N-converter.
Plugging
Assume that the P-converter is originally gated and the motor is running in the
clockwise direction. If P-converter is commutated and N-converter is gated,
the direction of armature current is reversed and the motor tries to rotate in
39
the opposite direction. The inertia would oppose the torque developed in the
anticlockwise direction. When the two opposing torques become equal, the
motor stops, provided N-converter is also commutated. This process of
stopping the motor is called Plugging.
Regenerative Braking
In regenerative braking, kinetic energy of the motor is converted into electrical
energy. It is fed back to the supply system thereby saving energy. Dual
converter can be used for achieving regenerative braking. Assume that the P-
converter is originally gated and the motor is running in the clockwise
direction. If P-converter is commutated and N-converter gated, the counter-
emf generated in the armature acts as a dc input for N-converter which works
as an inverter. The single-phase ac output of N-converter may be fed back to
the mains supply. Thus P-converter acts as a rectifier and N-converter acts as
an inverter.
Speed Control of Induction Motor
Fig: Single phase induction motor

A single phase induction motor consists of stator winding and rotor as shown
in Fig. Stator is the stationary part and rotor is the rotating part. The most
common method for speed control of a single phase induction motor is the
stator voltage control method in which the stator voltage is varied. Speed of
the motor changes as per stator voltage.
Speed Control of Single-Phase Induction Motor

With the help of an inverter circuit, we can obtain fixed-frequency and
variable-voltage ac supply which can be fed to the motor for speed control.
Fig. shows the block diagram representation for this scheme.
Fig: Speed control of a 1-φ induction motor using 1-φ inverter
40
Single-phase ac is converted into dc with the help of a single-phase full wave

rectifier. It is then filtered to minimise the ripple. By varying the firing angle of
the single-phase full-wave rectifier, variable dc voltage can be developed. The
phase control circuit is used for controlling the firing angle of single-phase
rectifier bridge. Variable dc output of single-phase rectifier is the input for the
inverter bridge whose output is variable ac. The fixed-frequency and variable-
voltage inverter output is fed to the motor whose speed is to be controlled.
Introduction to PLC
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a user-friendly computer that
executes a predefined program stored inside its non-volatile memory. Its
purpose is to monitor crucial process parameters and adjust process
operations accordingly as shown in Fig.
Fig: Concept of PLC

The greatest advantage of a PLC is that changes in the control sequence can
be done by just modifying the program. No hardware changes are required.
The programming can be done by using hand held programmer or personal
computer. The PLC can be operated on the input side by analog or digital
input devices. Field devices such as level switches, pressure switches, flow
meters etc are connected to the system inputs. PLC can drive analog or
digital output devices. Motors, solenoid valves and other electric devices are
connected to the outputs. The programming is done using a special technique
called ladder logic, which allows sequences of logical actions to be set up,
inter-linked and timed. PLC is the most commonly used industrial automation
technique in the world. It is universally applied for factory automation, process
control and manufacturing systems.
Block Diagram of overall PLC System
41
Fig: Block diagram of overall plc system

 PLC consists of an input module, a Central Processing Unit (CPU) and an
output module as shown in Fig. Input module accepts a variety of digital or
analog signals from various field devices (sensors) and converts them into a
logic signal that can be used by the CPU.
 A sensor is a device that converts a physical condition into an electrical signal
for use by the PLC. Sensors are connected to the input of a PLC. A discrete
(digital) input is an input that is either in an ON or OFF condition.
Pushbuttons, toggle switches, limit switches, proximity switches, and contact
closures are examples of discrete sensors which are connected to the PLCs.
 An analog input is a continuous variable signal. Typical analog inputs may
vary from 0 to 20 milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps, or 0 to 10 volts.
 The CPU makes decisions and issues control instructions based on
memory resident program.
 Output module converts control instructions from the CPU into a digital or
analog signal that can be used to control various field devices (actuators).
 Actuators convert an electrical signal from the PLC into a physical
condition. Actuators are connected to the PLC output. A discrete output is
an output that is either in an on or off condition.
 Solenoids, contactor coils, and lamps are examples of actuator devices
connected to discrete outputs. Discrete outputs may also be referred to as
digital outputs. A lamp can be turned on or off by the PLC output.
 An analog output is a continuous variable signal. The output may be as
simple as a 0-10 VDC level that drives an analog meter. Examples of
analog meter outputs are speed, weight and temperature. The output
signal may also be used on more complex applications such as a current-
to-pneumatic transducer that controls an air-operated flow-control valve. A
42
motor starter is one example of an actuator. Depending on the output PLC

signal the motor starter will either start or stop the motor.
 A programming device is used to input the desired program. The program
determines what the PLC will do for a specific input. An operator interface
device allows process information to be displayed and new control
parameters to be entered.
PLC Scanning
Fig: PLC scan

The PLC program is executed as part of a repetitive process referred to as a
scan. A PLC scan starts with the CPU reading the status of inputs. The
application program is executed using the status of the inputs. Once the
program is completed, the CPU performs internal diagnostics and
communication tasks. The scan cycle ends by updating the outputs. This
cycle repeats as shown in Fig. The cycle time depends on the size of the
program, the number of I/Os, and the amount of communication required.
Difference between PLC and Relay Logic Panel
Programmable Logic Controller Relay Logic Panel

1 Flexible, easier and faster to make Not flexible. Relay logic panel is
changes. Same PLC can be used dedicated for a particular sequence
with any application. only.
2 Applications/alteration can be Program alterations require time for
immediately documented. No wire rewiring panels and devices.
tracing is needed for verification
3 PLC is compact, rugged and less Relay logic panel is more expensive.
expensive Relay logic panels are very large in
size requiring more floor space.
4 PLC is easy to install. Relay logic panels take more time for
installation
5 A PLC programmed circuit can be Conventional relay systems are tested
pre-run and evaluated in the office on the factory floor which can be time
43
or lab. This saves Valuable factory consuming.

time.
6 PLCs are more reliable than Relays are less reliable.
mechanical systems or relays.
7 Maintenance costs and downtime Maintenance costs are higher and
are minimal. downtime is more.
8 Troubleshooting is simple as Troubleshooting is difficult and time
indicating lights are provided at consuming.
important diagnostic points and less
time consuming
9 PLCs provide unlimited number of To increase the number of switching
NO/NC contacts for any logic coil.contacts, additional relays and circuitry
are needed.
10 In PLC, the execution is sequential In relay panel all sequences are
(one rung after another) and is executed in parallel at same time.
repeated in cycles – namely the
PLC scan.
Internal architecture of PLC

 Figure shows the basic internal architecture of a PLC.
 It consists of a central processing unit (CPU) containing the system
microprocessor, memory, and input/output circuitry.
 The CPU controls and processes all the operations within the PLC.
 It is supplied with a clock with a frequency of typically between 1 and 8
MHz. This frequency determines the operating speed of the PLC and
provides the timing and synchronisation for all elements in the system.
 The information within the PLC is carried by means of digital signals.
44
CPU consists of
 An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) which is responsible for data manipulation
and carrying out arithmetic operations and logic operations.
 Memory, termed registers, located within the microprocessor are used to store
information involved in program execution.
 A control unit which is used to control the timing of operations.
Buses
 The buses are the paths used for communication.

 The formation is transmitted in binary form.
 The CPU uses the data bus for sending data between the constituent
elements, the address bus to send the addresses of locations for accessing
stored data and the control bus for signals relating to internal control actions.
 The system bus is used for communications between the input/output ports
and the input/output unit.
Memory
 System read-only-memory (ROM) to give permanent storage for the operating

system and fixed data used by the CPU.
 Random-access memory (RAM) for the user’s program.
 Random-access memory (RAM) for data. This is where information is stored
on the status of input and output devices and the values of timers and
counters and other internal devices.
Input/output unit
 The input/output unit provides the interface between the system and the
outside world, allowing for connections to be made through input/output
channels to input devices such as sensors and output devices such as motors
and solenoids.
 The input/output channels provide isolation and signal conditioning functions.
PLC memory organization
 PLCs have two different memory structures identified by the terms rack-based
systems and tag based systems.
 The memory space can be divided into two broad categories: program files
and datafiles.
45
 Program files are the part of the processor memory that stores the user ladder
logic program. The program accounts for most of the total memory of a given
PLC system. It contains the ladder logic that controls the machine operation.
This logic consists of instructions that are programmed in a ladder logic
format. Most instructions require one word of memory.
 The data files store the information needed to carry out the user program.
This includes information such as the status of input and output devices, timer
and counter values, data storage, and so on. Contents of the data table can
be divided into two categories: status data and numbers or codes. Status is
ON/OFF type of information represented by 1s and 0s, stored in unique bit
locations. Number or code information is represented by groups of bits that
are stored in unique byte or word locations.
Week – 9
PLC input devices

An input device is a hardware used to provide data, and control signals to a
Processor/PLC. Some of the input devices are
a. Switches and Push buttons g. Photoelectric Sensors/switches
b. Limit Switches h. Encoders
c. Proximity Sensors i. Temperature Sensors
46
d. Position/Displacement Sensor j. Strain Gauges

e. Pressure Switches k. Fluid Flow Measurement
f. Liquid Level detectors l. Smart Sensors
Switches
switches consist of one or more pairs of contacts which can be mechanically
closed or opened and in doing so make or break electrical circuits. Thus 0 or
1 signals can be transmitted by the act of opening or closing a switch.
 The push button switch can complete basic controls such as start,
stop, forward and reverse rotation, speed change and interlock.
Usually, each push button switch has two pairs of contacts. Each pair
of contacts consists of a NO contact and a NC contact. When the
button is pressed, the two pairs of contacts act simultaneously, the NC
contact is disconnected, and the NO contact is closed.
 A toggle switch or tumbler switch is a class of electrical switches that

are manually actuated by a mechanical lever, handle, or rocking
mechanism.
Limit switches are electromechanical devices consisting of an actuator

mechanically linked to an electrical switch. When an object contacts the
actuator, the switch will operate causing an electrical connection to make
or break.
Proximity sensor
47
Proximity sensor is non contact sensor which converts movement or presence of

an object into an electrical signal. Inductive, capacitive and magnetic proximity
sensors are the types of proximity sensors
Inductive Proximity Sensors
Figure shows the block diagram of inductive proximity sensor. It consists of a coil
wound round a core. When there is a metal object in close proximity to this coil
end, the inductance changes. A resonance circuit may be connected to this coil
for monitoring the effect of this inductance change. At some preset level, this
change can be used to trigger a switch. It canonly be used for the detection of
metal objects and best suited for detecting ferrous metals.
Photoelectric sensor
A photoelectric sensor basically comprises a light beam transmitter (light-
emitting diode) and a light-sensitive detector (photo-transistor). A light-
emitting diode is an electronic semiconductor component that emits light when
an electric current flows through it. This light can be visible or invisible,
depending on the transmission wavelength.
Liquid level sensor
48
Hall Effect Fluid Level Sensor: In this

method Hall-effect sensor is used for
determining the height of a float thereby
the liquid level in the tank is measured.
The figure illustrates an arrangement of
float and Hall-effect element in a tank.
The float is attached with a magnet
such that its actuation varies the
magnetic field distance far or near to the
Hall-element.
Temperature sensors
Temperature Sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness that is
generated by an object or system, allowing us to “sense” or detect any physical
change to that temperature producing either an analogue or digital output. Ex.
Thermistor, thermocouple
49

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INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION 20EC44P 2021-22

Need for power devices

Features of power diode

Features of power BJT

Features of power IGBT

When gate is positive with respect to cathode:

Explain holding and latching currents of SCR.

Discuss the V-I characteristics of SCR.

List the applications of SCR.

 SCR is used in switching circuits.

TRIAC: TRIAC is a three terminal, five layered, bidirectional semiconductor device.

Describe the construction and explain the operation of TRIAC.

 TRIAC is a three terminal five layered semiconductor device.

 When MT2 and gate are positive with

List the applications of TRIAC.

 It can be used as a low power ac controlling device.

Explain the construction and operation of DIAC.

Explain the V- I characteristics of DIAC.

 For the applied positive voltage less than VBO and

List the applications of DIAC.

Triggering can be achieved by using the following ways

 The anode or forward current of SCR must be reduced to zero or below

SCR Turn-OFF methods

 Class E – External pulse Commutation

Load or resonant or class A commutation

 Load commutation is employed in thyristor circuits supplied from a DC source

Auxiliary or voltage commutation

 Mode 1: Main thyristor T1 is triggered by a gate pulse. Load current I L flows

Fig.shows the circuit for complementary commutation. It uses the main

current then, it may be damaged. Therefore, SCR's must be protected from

Normally, the capacitor is charged to a voltage equal the maximum supply

Single phase half wave controlled rectifier

 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier converts AC input into DC

Single phase full-wave bridge-controlled rectifier (only resistive load)

 Fig. shows the single-phase full-wave bridge controlled converter circuit

Importance of freewheeling diode

 The induced voltage VL forward biases freewheeling diode and it starts

Working Principle of Chopper

Duty Cycle = TON / (TON+TOFF)

Assuming (TON+TOFF) = T, duty cycle is given as below.

Duty Cycle, δ = (TON / T)

Chopper Control Schemes

Time Ratio Control

In time ratio control, a constant k given by TON/T is varied. The constant k is

Fig: constant frequency system

Fig: Variable frequency system

Current Limit Control

 In this technique, the chopper switch is switched ON and then OFF to

 When the thyristor T1 is on, the inductor is connected to the supply VS

Type A Chopper or First–Quadrant Chopper

Fig: Type A Chopper or First–Quadrant Chopper

Type B Chopper or Second-Quadrant Chopper

Fig: Type B Chopper or Second-Quadrant Chopper

Type -C chopper or Two-quadrant type-A Chopper

Fig: Type -C chopper or Two-quadrant type-A Chopper

Type D Chopper or Two-Quadrant Type –B Chopper

Fig: Type D chopper

Type –E chopper or the Fourth-Quadrant Chopper

Fig: Four quadrant chopper (Type E)

Working principle of inverter

As shown in Fig (a), if switch S is connected alternately to positions 1 and 2 at

direction of current flow in the primary winding. When S is connected to