Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology

EGE 2204 Tacheometry Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

TACHEOMETRY

This is a technique of surveying which involves the use of angle measurements and
distances to define the location of possible details with reference to some specific
point. In this method of surveying, distances and heights are determined from
instrumental readings alone. The readings are taken by aid of a conventional
theodolite or specially adopted one depending on the technique adopted, to a levelling
staff.

The theodolite gives the horizontal and vertical angular measurements. The
combination of theodolite and levelling staff gives the distances. The requirement is
that the assistant who carries the staff should be able to reach the points to be
surveyed and levelled and that a clear line of sight exists between the instrument
and the staff.

Optical distance measurement (also known as Tacheometry) is useful in broken

terrain and where obstacles such as rivers, roads and crops occur.

In recent years due to the drop in price and improving capabilities of Electronic
Distance Measurement (EDM) equipment, optical distance measurement equipment is
tending to be replaced by EDM equipment and total stations.

There are 3 methods of Optical distance measurement

1) The stadia system which uses standard theodolite or level with stadia hairs
engraved on the telescope diaphragms to view the standard staff.
2) The subtense system in which an accurate theodolite reading to 1” of arc and
special horizontally-mounted bar of fixed length are used.
3) The optical wedge system, which in general uses special theodolites with a
measuring device in front of the telescope and a special staff.

1) STADIA TACHEOMETRY
Stadia tacheometry may be used to undertake a rapid survey of a small area with an
acceptable accuracy for most general purposes and even in difficult terrain. The cost
of surveying is considerable low.

In stadia tacheometry, a levelling staff is held vertically at one end of the line being
measured and a level or theodolite is set up correctly above the other.

The field of view through the telescope of a typical theodolite shows the two
additional horizontal lines (hairs) engraved on diaphragm called stadia hairs, that
intersect the image of a staff. The staff is read using the stadia lines as shown
below.
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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Tacheometry Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

The view of a Staff through Telescope

The angle of inclination of the line of sight is also recorded. If a level is used, the
line of sight will be horizontal, assuming that the level has no collimation error.

If a theodolite is used, the line of sight can be either horizontal or inclined. The
altitude bubble or the vertical compensating system must be in correct adjustment,
since vertical angles are read on one face only.

Principle of Stadia Tacheometry

This is a method which involves the use of optics based on the external focussing
systems where the distance is derived from intercept measured on a vertical staff
(S) and the angle observed by the tacheometer.

External focussing telescope

Instrument
axis
A
Objective
lens
b
O X
i S
a

c f
d B
D

f = focal length of the objective lens

O = focal point of the objective lens
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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Tacheometry Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

i = stadia interval ab
S = staff intercept.
c = distance from the objective lens to the instrument axis
d = the distance from the staff to the focal point of the objective lens
D = the desired horizontal distance

From the diagram

d f

S i

but d = D – (f + c)

f D  ( f  c)
therefore 
i S

Sf
thus D   ( f  c)
i

We know that i is fixed. Therefore f/i is a constant and (f + c) is also a constant

Thus the formula could be rewritten as:
D = KS + C
Where K = f/i, C = f + c

A telescope with this property is usually called annallactic telescope and the constant
K (e.g. 100) is known as the multiplying constant. C is known as the additive constant.

To determine K and C several distances from the instrument are measured and staff
intercept measured for each pair of observation one solution for K and C can be
determined. If more than two are taken mean values may be determined or
observation equations may be solved by the method of least squares.

The above formula only applies to the external focusing telescope. Modern
theodolites utilise the internal focusing telescope whose focal length varies with the
separation between the two lenses. This distance is affected by the distance of the
object from the telescope. Thus the multiplication constant K becomes a variable. It
is however possible for a telescope to be constructed such that the angle subtended
by the staff at the mechanical centre of the instrument to be very nearly constant.
In effect, the anallactic point is made to coincide with the mechanical axis. The
internal focussing telescope is rarely perfectly annallactic but it is constructed so
that the additive constant C can be ignored and any variations in the multiplying
constant K are less significant than the error in the field methods used.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Tacheometry Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

Within the ranges of about 6 to 300 m the internal focussing telescope of modern
design has a multiplying constant correct to 1 part per 1000. For all practical
purposes thus, C is usually assumed to be 0 and K to be 100 or (any other convenient
value).

Thus, D = 100 S

Inclined Sights

For an annallactic telescope it is usual to find that K is 100 and that when the sight
is horizontal the distance is 100 x S.

When the sight is inclined tacheometric sights may be taken. The following cases are
considered.

(i) Staff held vertical (ii) staff normal to the line of sight.

Staff Held Vertical

S is staff intercept at staff (AB). If this staff was normal to the line of sight
readings A´CB´ would be read and the staff intercept A´B´ would be AB cosΘ = S
cosΘ

A’ A

S
C
L B’
M
B
V
X


HI Δh

Y
H

Thus L = K S cosΘ
H = L cosΘ = KS cos2Θ
V = L sin Θ = KS cosΘ sinΘ
= ½KS Sin2Θ

Note: elevations (uphill sights) are booked with +ve Θ while depression (downhill
sights) are booked with -ve Θ

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Tacheometry Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

If we let CX = M (CX =mid-hair reading)

Then the difference is level between Y and X maybe given as:

Elevation
∆h = height of instrument + V – reading CX
= HI + V- M

Depression
∆h = height of instrument – V- reading CX
= HI – V- M

Staff Inclined Normal to the Collimation Axis

In this method the staff is held perpendicular to the line of sight .This may be done
using a special sighting tube (diopter sight) attached at right angles to the staff or
the staff maybe swung back and forth to obtain a minimum reading.

Staff intercept S = AB
Mid-hair reading CX = M

E
C
L 
B
V

 X

HI
Δh

Y
H

CE = M sinΘ
EX = M cosΘ
V =KS sinΘ

H = L cosΘ + CE
= L cosΘ + M sinΘ

For a depression: the staff would incline away from the instrument. Thus for a
downhill sight H = L cosΘ - M sinΘ.

Thus this difference in elevation between Y and X would be.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Tacheometry Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

Elevation:
∆h = height of instrument + V – EX
= HI + V- M cos Θ

Depression:
∆h = Height of instrument - V – EX
= HI - V – M cos Θ

The equations above are used in detail surveying and contouring to obtain spot
heights of points. Since many of these may be taken when locating detail, special
booking forms are normally used.

Sources of Error in Stadia Tacheometry

(i) Reading of the staff
(ii) Measurement of the vertical angle
(iii) Non-verticality of the staff.

Applications of Stadia Tacheometry

Optical distance measurement on engineering sites nowadays consists only of the
occasional use of stadia tacheometry. The other-methods of ODM requiring
specialized equipment, such as self-reducing tacheometers and Subtense bars, have
been superseded almost completely by EDM equipment.

Stadia tacheometry can be used to measure horizontal and vertical distances.

However, because its relative precision is low; usually only 1 in 500, the uses of stadia
tacheometry in engineering surveying are restricted to the following:
i. the survey of natural features such as trees, hedges, river banks and so on,
ii. the production of site plans,
iii. topographic detailing at small scales (not larger than 1:1000),
iv. obtaining spot heights for estimating earthwork quantities, and
v. obtaining spot heights for contouring.

2) THE SUBTENSE SYSTEM

This entails the use of a horizontally mounted subtense bar of accurately known
length and offers some advantages where space permits the use of such bars.

The figure below shows the principle of the system. Length H (T1 T2) is required and
the subtense bar has been set normal to this line T1 T2 using the directing telescope
mounted on the bar near the hinge. A theodolite, preferably reading to 1” of arc, has
been set up at T2 and the horizontal bar subtended there by the target on the bar
at T1 is then measured.

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Tacheometry Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

b/2

T1 α /2
T2
α/2
b/2

Since the bar is mounted horizontally, refraction has an equal effect on both
readings. Since the angle α is measured in the horizontal plane, the horizontal
distance H is obtained directly from:

𝑏/2 𝑏
𝐻= α = α
tan (2) 2tan⁡(2)

There are several patterns for subtense bar measurements including the one bar
(single base) method, double bar method and auxiliary base methods.

Sources of error in Subtense bar measurements

(i) Observation of the angle α
(ii) variation in the length of the subtense bar
(iii) Error in setting out of length at 90° to the line of sight, and horizontally

To avoid errors in the observation of the horizontal angle θ, it is necessary to carry

out several observations until a consistent set of readings is obtained.

In a single bar observation the error in α is given by:

𝑏 α 𝛿α
𝛿α = ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( )
2 2 2
and the error ratio
𝛿𝐻 𝛿α
=
𝐻 α
where α is in radians.

Uses of subtense tacheometry

i. measure legs of a traverse inside triangulation points
ii. measure baselines for small independent triangulations
iii. fix control points in aerial photogrammetry

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Surveying Techniques II Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2204 Tacheometry Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

3) THE OPTICAL WEDGE SYSTEM

The method uses special theodolite with a measuring device in front of the telescope
and a special staff. The optical wedge system facilitates the precise measurement
of horizontal and vertical angles by manipulating the path of light passing through
the telescope using a wedge prism

Figure: Sketch of a Wild DM1 Distance Measuring Wedge

If the line of sight of the theodolite is directed to the zero of a horizontal staff
and then a wedge placed in front of the objective lens, the vertical line of the
graticule will be shifted to give a different staff reading. The amount of the shift
depends upon the deflection angle between the incident and refracted (emergent)
ray.

The surveyor looks through the telescope at a target placed at a known location. The
light from the target passes through the telescope, where it encounters the wedge
prism. Depending on the angle at which the prism is set, the light is deviated by a
specific amount. The prism can be rotated or tilted within the telescope to control
the amount of deviation applied to the light passing through it. By observing the
position of the target image through the telescope and knowing the settings of the
wedge prism, the surveyor can calculate the horizontal and vertical angles between
the instrument and the target using trigonometric principles.

Better accuracy is obtained by use of a parallel plate micrometer which ensures that
a vernier division is brought into coincidence with a main division.

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