DC AND AC MACHINERY

Charlie L. Hernandez
 Table of Contents

Module 5: Alternator or AC Generator

Introduction 85
Learning Objectives 85
Lesson 1 Basic Principle of A.C. Generators 86
Lesson 2 Equation of induced E.M.F. 93
Lesson 3 Alternator on Load 95
Lesson 4 Voltage Regulation 102
Lesson 5 Synchronous Impedance Method 105
Lesson 6 Maximum Power Output 107
Assessment Task 5 111
Summary 112
Reference 116
Module 6: Transformer
Introduction 117
Learning Objectives 117
Lesson 1. Transformer Operation and Faraday’s Law 118
Lesson 2 EMF Equation of a Transformer 119
Lesson 3 Transformer Losses 120
Lesson 4 Equivalent Circuits of Ideal Transformer 120
Lesson 5 Tests on Transformer 122
Lesson 6 Transformer Connection 125
Lesson 7 Auto Transformers 127
Lesson 8 Instrument Transformer 128
Assessment Task 6 134
Summary 135
Reference 136

Module 7: Polyphase Induction Motor

Introduction 137
Learning Objectives 137
Lesson 1. MMFs of Armature Windings 138
Lesson 2. Production of Rotating Magnetic fields 141
Lesson 3. Slip; Machine Equivalent Circuits 142
Lesson 4. Calculation from Equivalent circuits 146
Lesson 5. Energy Efficiency Induction Motors 147
Lesson 6. Approximate Equivalent Circuit Parameters from Test Data 150
Assessment Task 7 156
Summary 157
Reference 159
 LIST OF TABLES

6.1 The value of distribution factor of a 3 phase alternator

for different number of slots / pole/ phase 126
7.1 Loss distribution in standard induction motors 147
 LIST OF FIGUREURES

Figureures Description Page Number

5.1 The details of construction of alternator 85

5.2 (a) Wye connection and (b) Delta connection 87
5.3 the coil sides are placed in slots 1 and 7 87
5.4 (a) short pitched by 30°(electrical) and (b) Their resultant
is E 88
5.5 a) 36 stator slots, 4 poles, and (b) 72 stator slots,
6 poles, coils span 1 to 10 89
5.6 end connection of a 3 phase single layer winding for a
4 pole alternator
5.7 (a) e.m.f. induced in one coil side and (b) Their vector sum 90
5.8 the method finding the vector sum of m voltage each
of value ES and having a mutual Phase difference of β 91
5.9 Various types of leakage 96
5.10 Vector diagram 97
5-11 Armature reaction (a) Unity Power Factor (P.F.), (b) Zero
P.F Lagging, (c)Zero P.F. Leading and (d) Intermediate
Power Factor or 0.7 P.F. Lagging 98
5.12 Vector Diagrams of a Loaded Alternator 100
5.13 (a) is shown the case for unity p.f., (b) for lagging p.f.
and (c) for leading p.f. 100
5-14 Phasor 101
5-15 rated current at a load power factor of (a) unity (b) 0.7
lagging and (c) 0.7 leading 103
5-16 the vector sum of V and Zs 104
5-17 (a) Ra and Xs vector diagram and (b) can be drawn for any
load and any power factor 106
5-18 Phasor 107
6-1 A two winding ideal transformer 118
6-2 R1 and R2 are the respective resistances of the primary
and secondary winding 121
6-3 (a) An equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer and
(b)primary and secondary winding are coupled by an ideal
transformer 121
6-4 Equivalent circuits of non-ideal transformer (a) primary
and (b) secondary 122
6-5 Phasor diagram 122
6-6 a very low voltage applied to primary winding 125
6-7 The connection of three identical transformers in delta
wye and shows the voltage phasor diagram 126
6-8 The autotransformer circuit developed from a two
winding transformer the two winding electrically in
series so that the polarities are additive.by connecting 127
6-9 a) A connection diagram of a CT and a PT with an
ammeter, a voltmeter, and a wattmeter and (b) phasor
diagrams 129
7.1 Cage-type machine 138
7.2 Wound-rotor machine 139
7.3 Three-phase winding) 140
7.4 The mmf distribution, (a) it is evident that the machine
has two poles and (b) the mmf per pole is Ni/2 142
7.5 (a) Redraw the circuit and (b) total rotor leakage flux
is denoted by X2 143
7.6 Rotor as being coupled to stator Torque vs. Current
(Series) 144
7.7 All parameters shown are standstill value, (a) exact
equivalent circuit and Figure 3.7 (b) The per phase standstill
rotor resistance 145
7.8 Power flow in an induction motor 146
7.9 A comparison between the efficiencies of energy-efficient
motors and those of standard motors 148
7.10 Equivalent' circuit of the induction motor 150
7.11 The phasor addition of voltages(q = 3) 152
7.12 Full-pitch and a fractional-pitch coil 152
 MODULE 5
AC Generator or Alternators

Introduction

A simple AC generator consists of: (a) a strong magnetic field, (b) conductors rotating
through that magnetic field, and (c) a means of providing the conductors with a continuous
connection as they rotate (Figureure 3). The strong magnetic field is produced by the flow of
current through the rotor's field coil. By the use of slip rings and brushes, the field coil in the
rotor receives excitation. To provide a continuous connection between the field coil and the
external excitation circuit, two brushes are spring-held in contact with the slip rings. The
armature is contained within the stator's windings and is linked to the output. One complete
cycle of AC is created each time the rotor makes one complete revolution. A generator has
many wire wound transitions into the rotor slots (DOE Fundamental Handbook, 1992).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Explain the differences, including advantages and disadvantages of each type,

between a wye-connected and delta-connected AC generator.
2. Describe the conditions that must be met before two AC generators are parallel to
each other, including the consequences of not meeting those conditions.
3. Determine the efficiency of an AC generator, given the prime mover input and
generator output.

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 4. Describe the difference between a stationary field, rotating armature AC generator
and a rotating field, stationary armature AC generator (DOE Fundamental Handbook,
1992).

Lesson 1 Basic Principle of A.C. Generators

A.C. Generators or alternators operate on the same electromagnetic induction

principle as D.C. Generators. They also consist of the winding of the armature and the
magnetic field. But between the two, there is one significant difference. Whereas he was in
D.C. Generators are rotating the armature and the field is stationary; the alternator
arrangement is just a reverse of it. In their case, the standard design consists of the armature
winding mounted on a stationary element called the stator and the field winding on a rotating
element called the rotor. Construction details are shown in Figure. 5.1 (Theraja & Theraja,
2005).

Figure.5.1 The details of construction of alternator (Theraja & Theraja, 2005)

1.1 Wye and Delta Connection

For Y connection R1, Y1, and B1 are joined together to form star points. Then, ends
R2, Y2, and B2 are connected to the terminals. For Delta connection, R2, and Y1, Y2 and B1
B2 and R1 are connected together and terminal leads are brought out from their junction as
shown in Figure. 5.2 (a) and (b) (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

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 Figure. 5.2 (a) Wye connection and (b) Delta connection Theraja & Theraja, 2005)

1.2 Short pitch winding: Pitch factor/Chording factor

We have discussed full pitch coils so far, i.e. coils with a span equal to one pole, i.e.
over 180 ° (electric) pitch (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

When the coil sides are placed in slots 1 and 7, as shown in Figure 5.3, then it is fully
pitched. If the coil sides are placed in slots 1 and 6, because of the coil span, the short pitch
or fractional pitch is equal to 5/6 of a pole pitch. The pitch of 1/16 pole or 180 ° / 6 = 30 ° is
short. Because of the following benefits, short pitch coils are intentionally used:
1. They save copper from the final links.
2. The wave form of the generated e.m.f. can be improved, i.e. the generated e.m.f.
can be more easily approximated to a sine wave and the distorting harmonics can
be reduced or completely eliminated.
3. Because of the elimination of harmonics at high frequency. Losses of Eddy
currentand hysteresis are thus decreased to increase efficiency (Theraja &
Theraja, 2005).

Figure. 5.3 the coil sides are placed in slots 1 and 7 (Theraja & Theraja, 2005)

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 But the benefit of using short pitch coils is that there is some reduction in the total
voltage around the coils. Because the voltages induced are slightly out of phase on the two
sides of the short pitch coil, their vector sum is lower than their arithmetic sum (Theraja &
Theraja, 2005).

The pitch factor or coil span factor KP and KC is defined as

𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒.𝑚.𝑓𝑠.𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
=
𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒.𝑚.𝑓𝑠.𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

It is always less than unity.

Let the induced e.m.f. in each coil be E S. If the coil had been fully pitched, i.e. if its two
sides were one pole pitch apart, then the total e.m.f. induced in the coil would have been =
2ES shown in Figure. 5.4, point (a). If it is short pitched by 30 ° (electrical), then as shown in
Figureure 5.5 (b), the result is E, which is the vector sum of two 30 ° (electrical) voltages apart
(Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

Figure. 5. 4 (a) short pitched by 30°(electrical) and (b) Their resultant is E (Theraja & Theraja, 2005)

In general, if the coil span drops by an angle ⁇ (electrical) short of full pitch, then KC
= cos ⁇ / 2. Similarly, KC = cos 60 ° / 2 = cos 30 ° = 0.866 for a coil having a span of 2/3
pole pitch. It is lesser than the value in the first case (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 2𝐸𝑆 cos 15°

E = 2 ES cos 30 Cos 30 KC = = = cos 15° = 0.966
𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 2𝐸𝑆

Hence, pitch factor, KC = 0.966

Note: The value of ∝ will usually be given in the question, if not, then assume K C = 1

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 Example 1 Calculate the pitch factor for the under given winding: (a) 36 stator slots. 4
poles, coil span, 1 to 8 (b) 72 stator slots, 6 poles, coils span 1 to 10 and (c) 96 stator slots,
poles, coil span 1 to 12, Sketch the three coil spans (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

Figure. 5.5(a) 36 stator slots, 4 poles, and (b) 72 stator slots, 6 poles, coils span 1 to 10
(Theraja & Theraja, 2005)

Solution:
(a) Here, the coil span falls short by (2/9) x180°= 40° ∴ KC = cos 40°/ 2 = cos 22.5
° = 0.924
(b) Here ∝ = (3/12) x180° = 45° ∴ KC = cos 45°/ 2 = cos 22.5° = 0.924
(c) Here ∝ = (5/12) x180° = 56° 16’ ∴ KC = cos 56°16’/ 2 = cos 28.8° = 0.882

1.3 Distribution or breadth factor or Winding factor or spread Factor

Just in Figure. 5.6 for a 4-pole alternator, the end connection of a 3-phase single layer
winding is shown. It has 36 armature slots in total, i.e. 9 slots per pole. There are obviously 3
slots / phase / pole. Coils 1 , 2 and 3, for example, belong to the R phase. Now, these three
coils are not bunched in one slot, but in three different slots, making up one polar group.
Angular displacement = 180 ° /9 = 20 ° (electrical) between any two adjacent slots. If the three
coils were bundled together in one slot, then the total amount of e.m.fs. I.e. 3 ES, where ES
is induced on one side of the coil by e.m.f. Figure. 5.7(a) (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

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 Figure.5.6 end connection of a 3 phase single layer winding for a 4 pole alternator
(Theraja & Theraja, 2005)

Since the coils are distributed, there is a phase difference of 20 ° between the
individuals e.m.f.s. As can be seen from Figure.5.7 (b), their vector sum is
E = ES cos 20° + ES + ES Cos 20°
= 2 ES cos 20° + ES
= 2 ES x 0.9397 + ES = 2.88ES

The distribution factor (Kd) is defined as

𝑒.𝑚.𝑓.𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
=
𝑒.𝑚.𝑓. 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
In the present case
𝑒.𝑚.𝑓. 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 3 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠⁄𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒⁄𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐸 2.88𝐸𝑠
𝐾𝑑 = = = = 0.96
𝑒.𝑚.𝑓.𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠⁄𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒⁄𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 3𝐸𝑆 3𝐸𝑆

Figure.5.7. (a) e.m.f. induced in one coil side and (b) Their vector sum (Theraja & Theraja, 2005)
1.4 General Case

Let the angular displacement value between the slots be β. Its value is that of
180° 180°
𝛽= =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠⁄𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛

90
Let m = No of slots /phase/pole
M𝛽 =Phase spread angle

Figure.5. 8 the method finding the vector sum of m voltage each of value ES and having a mutual
Phase difference of 𝜷 (Theraja & Theraja, 2005)
Then, m ES would be the resulting voltage induced in one polar group.where the
voltage induced from one coil side is E S. The method of finding the vector sum of m voltage
each of ES value and having a muatual Phase difference of β is illustrated in Figure 5.8 (if m
is large, then the ABCDE curve becomes part of a circle or radius, r (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).
AB = ES + 2r sin 𝛽/2
Arithmetic sum is = mES + m x 2r sin 𝛽/2
Their vector sum = AE + Er = 2r sin 𝑚𝛽/2

𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓𝑠.

𝐾𝑑 =
𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓𝑠.

2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝛽 ⁄2 sin 𝑚𝛽 ⁄2
𝑘𝑑 = 𝑚 𝑥 2𝑟 sin 𝛽⁄2
= 𝑚 sin 𝛽 ⁄2

Table 6.1 The value of distribution factor of a 3 phase alternator for different number of slots
/ pole/ phase (Theraja & Teraja, 2005)
Slot per pole m 𝛽 Distribution factor Kd
3 1 60 1,000
6 2 30 0.966
9 3 20 0.960
12 4 15 0.958
15 5 12 0.957
18 6 10 0.956
24 8 7.5 0.955
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 In general when 𝛽is samll, the above ratio approches
𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 sin m 𝛽⁄2 𝛽
= = angle m 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠.
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑚𝛽 ⁄2
Example 1 calculate the distribution factor for a 36 slots, 4 pole, single layer three
phase winding.

Solution: n = 36/4 = 9; 𝛽= 180°/9 = 20°; m = 36/4 x 3 =3

sin 𝑚𝛽 ⁄2 sin 3 𝑥 20°⁄2
𝐾𝑑 = 𝑚 sin 𝛽 ⁄2
= 3 sin 20° ⁄2
= 0.96

Example 2 A part of an alternator winding consists of six coil in series, each coil having
an e.m.f. of 10 V r.m.s induced in itt. The coil are placed in successive slots and between each
slots and the next ther is an electrical phase displacement of 30°. Find graphically or by
calculator the e.m.f. of the six coils in series .

Solution : Here 𝛽 180°/9 = 20°and values of m i.e. number of slots in agroup are 9, 6 and
3 respectively.

sin 9 𝑥 20°⁄2
(a) m = 9, 𝛽 = 20°, 𝐾𝑑 = or 𝐾𝑑 = (sin 2𝜋 ⁄ 2) ⁄ (𝜋 ⁄ 2)= 0.637
9 sin 20° ⁄2
sin 6 𝑥 20°⁄2
(b) m = 6, β = 20°, 𝐾𝑑 = 6 sin 20° ⁄2
or 𝐾𝑑 = (sin 2𝜋 ⁄ 3) ⁄ (𝜋 ⁄ 3)= 0.827
sin 3 𝑥 20°⁄2
(c) m = 3, β = 20°, 𝐾𝑑 = 3 sin 20° ⁄2
or 𝐾𝑑 = (sin 2𝜋 ⁄ 6) ⁄ (𝜋 ⁄ 6)= 0.955

Lesson 2 Equation of induced E.M.F. (Theraja & Teraja, 2005)

Let z = No. of conductors or coilside in series/ phase

2T where T is the No.of coils or turns per phase(remember one turn
or coil has two sides)
P= No. of poles
F = frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz
Φ= flux /pole in weber

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 sin m 𝛽⁄2
Kd = distribution factor =
𝑚𝛽⁄2
K c or K P = pitch or coil span factor = cos 𝛼/ 2
K f = from factor =1.11 - if e.m.f. is assumed sinusoidal
N = rotor r.p.m.

In one revolution of the rotor (i.e. in 60/N second) each stator conductor is cut by a flux
of ΦP webersn (Theraja & Teraja, 2005).
∴ dΦ =ΦP and dt = 60/N second
𝑑𝛷 𝛷𝑃 𝛷𝑁𝑃
∴ Average e.m.f. induced per conductor = = =
𝑑𝑡 60⁄𝑁 60
Now, we know that f =PN/120 or N = 120f/ P
Sustituting this value of N above, we get
𝛷𝑃 120𝑓
Average e.m.f. per conductor = x 2𝑓𝛷 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
60 𝑃

If there are Z conductors in series/phase, then Average e.m.f./ phase = 2f ΦZ volts =4f
ΦT R.M.S. value of e.m.f./phase = 1.10 4f ΦT =4.44f ΦT volts (Theraja & Teraja, 2005).

If all the coils in a stage were (a) full pitch and concentrated or bunched in one slot
(instead of being distributed under poles in several slots), this would have been the actual
value of the induced voltage. But if this is not so, the voltage actually available in the ratio of
two of these variables is reduced (Theraja & Teraja, 2005).
∴ Actually available voltage /phase = 4.44 KcKdf ΦT = 4 KfKcKd f ΦT volts if the alternator
is star connected then the line voltage is√3 times the face voltage.(Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

Effect of Harmonic on pitch and Distribution Factor

(a) If the short pitch angle or chording angle is 𝛼 degrees (elecrical) for the fundamental
flux wave, then its value for different harmonic are
for 3rd harmonic = 3𝛼; for the 5th harmonic = 5 𝛼 and so on (Theraja &
Theraja, 2005).
∴ pitch factor KC = cos 𝛼/2 - for fundamental
KC = cos 3𝛼/2 - for 3rd harmonic
KC = cos 5𝛼/2 - for 5th harmonic etc.
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 (b) Similarly, the distribution factor is also different harmonics. Its value becomes Kd =
sin 𝑚𝛽 ⁄2
𝑚 sin 𝛽 ⁄2
where m is the number of harmonic

sin 𝑚𝛽 ⁄2
For fundamental n=1 𝐾𝑑1 = 𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽⁄2
sin 3𝑚𝛽 ⁄2
For 3rd harmonic n=3 𝐾𝑑3 =
𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝛽 ⁄2
sin 5𝑚𝛽 ⁄2
For 5th harmonic n=5 𝐾𝑑5 = 𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝛽 ⁄2

(c) Frequency is also change. If fundamental frequency is 50 Hz i.e. f1= 50 Hz then the
other frequencies are:
3rd harmonic, f3 = 3 x 50 = 150 Hz, 5th harmonic, f5 = 5 x 50 =250Hz etc.

Example 1 an alternator has 18 slot/ per pole and the first coil lies in slot 1 to 16.
Calculate the pitch factor for (a) fundamental (b) 3rd harmonic (c) 5th harmonic (d) 7th harmonic.

Solution: Here, coil span is = (16 -1) = 15 slots, which fall short by 3 slots.
3
Hence, 𝛼 = 180 𝑥 18 = 30°
(a) KC1 = cos 30°/2 = cos 15° = 0.966 (b) KC3 = cos 3 x 30°/2 = 0.707
(b) KC5 = cos 5 x 30°/2 = cos 75° = 0.259 (d) KC7 = cos 7 x 30°/2 = cos 105 = cos
75 = 0.259

Example 2 A 3 phase, 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots
and 10 conductors per slots. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb. Sinusoidally distributed and the
speed is 375 r.p.m. Find the frequency r.p.m and the phase and line e.mf. Assume full pitch
coil

Solution: f = PN/ 120 = 16x 375/120 = 50 Hz

Since KC is not given, it would be taken as unity.
N = 144/16 = 9; 𝛽 = 180° /9 = 20°; m 144/16 x 3 = 3
Kd = sin 3 x(20°/2)3sin (20°/2) = 0.96
Z = 144 x 10/3 = 480; T = 480/2 = 240/phase
EPh = 1.44 x 1 x 096 x 50 x 0.03 x240 = 15.34 V
Line Voltage, EL = √3 EPh = √3 x 1534 = 2658 V

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 Example 3 An alternator on open circuit generates 360 V at 60 Hz when the field
current is 3.6 A. Neglecting saturation, determine the open circuit emf when the frequency is
40 HZ and the field current is 2.4 A.

Solution: As seen from the e.m.f. equation of an alternator,

𝐸1 𝛷1 𝑓1
E=Φf ∴ =
𝐸2 𝛷2 𝑓2
Since saturation is neglected, Φ ∝ If where If is the field current
𝐸1 𝐼𝑓1 𝑓1 360 3.6 𝑥 60
= or = ; E2 = 160 V
𝐸2 𝐼𝑓1 𝑓1 𝐸2 2.4 𝑥 40

Lesson 3. Alternator on Load (Theraja & Teraja, 2005)

As the load on an alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to vary as in
D.C. generators. This variation in terminal voltage V is due to the following reasons:

1. Voltage drop due to armature resistance Ra

A voltage drop / phase with the armature current I is caused by the armature
resistance / phase Ra. This voltage drop, however, is practically insignificant (Theraja &
Theraja, 2005).

2. Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance X L

Fluxes are set up when current flows through the armature conductors, which do
not cross the air gap, but take various paths. These fluxes are known as fluxes of leakage.
The various leakage types shown in Figure. 5.9 (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

The leakage flux is practically saturation-independent, but depends on I and its

terminal voltage V phase angle. This leakage flux sets up an e.m.f. of self-inductance
that is known as reactance e.m.f. and 90 ° ahead of I. Therefore, armature winding is
assumed to have leakage reactance X L (also known as Potier reactance XP) such that
the voltage drop is IXL due to this. A portion of the e.m.f. generated is used to overcome
this e.m.f. reactance (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).
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 ∴ E = V + I(R +jXL)
This fact is illustrated in the vector diagram of 5.10

Figure 5.9 Various types of leakage (Theraja & Teraja, 2005)

Figure.5.10 Vector diagram (Theraja & Teraja, 2005)

3. Voltage drop due to armature reaction

As a d.c. The armature reaction of generators is the effect of armature flux on the main field
flux. The power factor of the load has a considerable effect on the armature reaction in the
case of alternators. We will consider three instances: (a) when p.f. is loaded. Is unity (b) if p.f.
Lagging is zero and (c) when p.d. Loading is zero (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

Summarize briefly the flux rather than m.m.f. waves

1. Unity Power Factor

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 Figure 5.11(The armature flux is cross-magnetizing in this case. The result is that the
flux is reduced at the leading tips of the poles while it increases at the trailing tips. However,
these two effects offset each other nearby, leaving the constant average field strength. In
other words, the unity armature reaction p.f. is distortional (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

2. Zero P.F. lagging

As seen by Figure. 5.11(b), the armature flux is in direct opposition to the main flux here
(whose wave has moved backwards by 90 °). The primary flux is therefore reduced. It is
therefore found that, in this case, the armature reaction is entirely demagnetizing, resulting in
less e.m.f. being generated due to the weakening of the main flux. The same field excitation
will have to be enhanced to compensate for this weakening in order to maintain the value of
generated e.m.f. (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

3. Zero P.F leading

In this case, illustrated in Figure. 5.11(c) The armature flux wave, with the main flux
wave, has moved forward by 90 ° so that it is in phase. This results in primary flux being
added. In this case, therefore, the reaction of the armature is entirely magnetizing, resulting
in higher induced e.m.f. Field excitation will have to be reduced somewhat in order to keep
the value of generated e.m.f. the same (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

4. For intermediate power factor

The effect is partially distortional and partially demagnetizing (because p.f is
lagging) of the intermediate power factor shown in Figure 5.11(d) (Theraja & Theraja,
2005).

97
 Figure. 5.11 Armature reaction (a) Unity Power Factor (P.F.), (b) Zero P.F Lagging, (c)Zero P.F.
Leading and (d) Intermediate Power Factor or 0.7 P.F. Lagging

Synchronous Reactance

It is clear from the above discussion that the terminal voltage is reduced from its no-
load value Eo to V (for lagging power factor) for the same field excitation. Drop due to armature
resistance, IRa.
1. Drop due to leakage reactance, IXi
2. Drop due to armature reaction (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

The voltage drop due to the reaction of the armature can be accounted for by assuming
the presence of a fictitious reactance Xa in the winding of the armature. Xa values are such
that the voltage drop due to the armature reaction is represented by I Xa (Theraja & Theraja,
2005).
The leakage reactance XL (or Xp) and the armature Xa may be combined to give
synchronous reactance Xs.

98
 Hence Xs = XL + Xa

Total voltage drop in an alternator under load is therefore IR = jIXs = I(Ra + jXs) = IZc
w here Zs is referred to as the armature synchronous impedance, the word synchronous being
used merely as an indication that it refers to the working conditions (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

Therefore, as shown in Figure 5.122, we learn that the vector difference between no-
load voltage Eo and terminal voltage V is equal to IZs (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

The voltage drop due to the reaction of the armature can be accounted for by assuming
the presence of a fictitious reactance Xa in the winding of the armature. Xa 's value is such
that the voltage drop due to armature reaction is represented by IXa (Theraja & Theraja,
2005).

In order to give synchronous reactance Xs, the leakage reactance XL (or XP) and the
armature reactance Xa may be combined (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

Hence XS = XL + Xa

"Therefore, in an alternator under load, the total voltage drop is = IRa + jIXS =
I(Ra+jXs) = IZS where Zs is referred to as the armature 's synchronous impedance, the word"
synchronous "is used merely as an indication that it refers to the working conditions (Theraja
& Theraja, 2005).

Therefore, as shown in Figure 5.12., we learn that the vector difference between no-
load voltage Eo and terminal voltage V is equal to IZS (2005 Theraja & Theraja).

99
 Figure. 5.12. Vector Diagrams of a Loaded Alternator (Theraja & Theraja, 2005)

Before discussing the diagrams, following symbols should be clearly kept in mind.
EO = No-load emf. This is the induced voltage in the armature of the armature in the
absence of three variables. It therefore represents the maximum value of the e.m.f induced.
E = e.m.f induced load. It is the e.m.f induced after the reaction of the armature is allowed. E
is less vectorial than EO by IXa. It is written, sometimes, as Ea. (Ex.4) (Theraja & Theraja,
2005).

In Figure.5.13(a) is shown the case for unity p.f., (b) for lagging p.f. and (c) for leading p.f.
(Theraja & Theraja, 2005)

V = Terminal voltage, It is vectorially less than EO by IZS or it is vectorially less than E by I z

where

Z =√(𝑅𝑎 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ). It may also be written as Za

I = armature current/phase and Φ = load p.f. angle
In Figure.5.13(a) is shown the case for unity p.f., in Figure.5.13 (b) for lagging p.f. and in
Figure. 5.27 (c) for leading p.f. All these diagrams apply to one phase of a 3-phase machine.
Diagrams for the other phases can also be drawn similary (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).
100
 Example 1 A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a load of 10 MW at p.f. 085
lagging and at 11kV (terminal voltage).Its resistance is 0.1 ohm per phase and synchronous
reactance 0.66 ohm per phase. Calculate the line value of e.m.f. generated.

Solution:

Figure. 5.14 Phasor (Theraja & Teraja, 2005)

10𝑥106
F.L. output current = = 618A
√3𝑥11,000𝑥0.85
IRa drop = 618 x 0.1 = 61.8 V
IXs drop = 618 x 0.66 = 408 V
Terminal voltage/phase = 11,000 √3 = 6,350 𝑉
Φ = cos-1(0.85) = 31.8°; sinΦ = 0.527

As seen from the vector diagram of Figure. 5.14 where I instead of V has been taken
along reference vector.
EO = √(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅𝑎 )2 + (𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ + 𝐼𝑋𝑠 )2
= √(6350 𝑥 0.85 + 61.8)2 + (6350𝑥0.527 + 408)2
= 6.625V

Line e.m.f. = √3 x 6.625 = 11,486 volts

Lesson 4. Voltage Regulation

101
 It is clear that there is a change in the terminal voltage of an alternator when
the load changes. This change 's magnitude depends not only on the load but also on
the power factor of the load (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

"An alternator's voltage regulation is defined as" the increase in voltage divided
by the rated terminal voltage when full load is removed (full excitation and speed
remaining the same) "(Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

𝐸𝑜 −𝑉
% regulation “up” = 𝑥 100
𝑉

Determination of Voltage Regulation

The regulation can be found in the case of a small machine by direct loading. The
procedure is as follows:
𝐸𝑜 −𝑉
% regulation “up” = 𝑥 100
𝑉

1. Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F. Method. It is due to Behn Eschenberg.

2. The Ampere turn or M.M.F. Method. This method is due to Rothert
3. Zero Power Factor or Potter Method .As the name indicates, it is due to Potter all these
method require (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

1. All Armature (or stator) resistance Ra

2. Open Circuit/ No load characteristic
3. Short circuit characteristic (but zero power factor lagging characteristics for Potter
Method
Now, Let us take up each of these methods one by one (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

Example1 (a). The effective resistance of a 220V,50Hz,440 KVA, 1-phase, alternator

is 0.5ohm. On short circuit, a field current of 40A gives the full load current of 200A. The
electromotive force on open-circuits with same field excitation is 1160V. Calculate the
synchronous impedance and reactance.

102
 Solution. For the 1-ph alternator, since the field current is same for ).C and S.C.
conditions
1160
Zs = = 5.8 ohms
200
Xs =√5.82 − 0.52 = 5.7784 ohms
Example 2 (b). A 60-KVA, 220V,%0Hz,1-Φ alternator has effective armature
resistance of 0.016 ohm and an armature leakage reactance of 0.07 ohm. Compute the
voltage induced in the armature when the alternator is delivering rated current at a load
power factor of (a) unity (b)0.7 lagging and (c) 0.7 leading.

Solution: Full load rated current I= 60,000/220 = 272.2 A

IRa = 272.2 x 0.016 = 4.3 V
IRL = 272.2 x 0.07 = 19 V
(a) Unity p.f. – Figure. 37.30 (a)

E = √(𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑎 2 ) + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2 = √(220 + 4.3)2 + 192 = 225 V

Figure 5.15 rated current at a load power factor of (a) unity (b)0.7 lagging and (c) 0.7 leading (Theraja
& Theraja, 2005).

(b) P.f. 0.7 (lag) – Figure. 37.30 (b)

E = [VcosΦ+IRa)2 + (VsinΦ + IXL)2]1/2
= [(220 x 0.7+4.3)2 + (220x0.7 +19)2]1/2 = 234V
(c) P.f. =0.7 (lead) – Figure. 37.30 (c)
E = [(VcosΦ+IRa)2 + (V sinΦ – IXL)2]1/2
= = [(220 x 0.7+4.3)2 + (220x0.7 -19)2]1/2 = 208V

103
 Example 3 (a) In a 50 KVA, star connected, 440V, 3 phase, 50 Hz alternator, the
effective armature resistance is 0.25 ohm per phase. The synchronous reactance is 3.2 ohm
per phase and leakage reactant is 0.5 ohm per phase. Determine at rated load and unity
power factor:
a) Internal e.m.f., Ea (b) no load e.m.f., Ea (c) percentage regulation on full load
(d) value of synchronous reactance which replace armature reaction (Electrical Engg. Bombay
Univ. 1987)
Solution:

Figure. 5. 16 the vector sum of V and Zs (Theraja & Theraja, 2005)

a) The e.m.f Ea is the vector sum of (i) terminal voltage V (ii) Ira and (iii) IXL
Here
V = 440 / √3 = 254 V
F.L. output current at u.p.f. is
= 50,000 / √3 x 440 = 65.6 A
Resistive drop = 65.6 x 0.25 = 16.4 V
Leakage reactance drop IxL = 65.6 x 0.5 = 32.8 V

Ea = √(𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 ) 2

= √(254 + 16.4)2 + 32. 82 = 272 V
Line value = √3 x 272 = 471 V

b) The no load e.m.f. Ea is the sum of (i) V (ii) Ira and IXs or is the vector sum of V and
Zs (Figure 5.16)
Ea = √(𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑎)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝑠)2
= √(254 + 16.4)2 + (65.6 𝑥 3.2)2 = 342 Volts
Line value = √3 x 342 = 592 volts

104
 𝐸𝑔 −𝑉 342−254
c) % regn “up” = 𝑣 x 100= 254 𝑥 100 = 34.65%
d) 𝑋𝑎 = 𝑋𝑠 − 𝑋𝐿 = 3.2 − 0.5 = 2.7Ω

Lesson 5. Synchronous Impedance Method

Following procedural steps involved in this method:

1. O.C.C. is plotted from the given data as shown in Figure 5.17(a)
2. 2. Similarly, S.C.C. is drawn from the data given by the short circuit test. It is a straight
line passing through the origin. Both these curve are drawn on a common field current
base.. Consider a field current If. The O.C. voltage corresponding to this field current
is E1. When winding is short circuited the terminal voltage is zero.hence , it may be
assumed that the whole of this voltage E 1 is being used to circulate the armature short
circuit current Ii against the synchronous impedance Zs
𝐸1(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡)
E1 = Ii Zs Zs = 𝐼
𝑖 (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡)

3. Since Ra can be found as discussed earlier, 𝑋𝑠 = √𝑍𝑠2 − 𝑅𝑎2

4. Knowing Ra and Xs vector diagram as shown In Figure. 5.17(b) can be drawn for any
load and any power factor (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).

Figure. 5.17 (a) Ra and Xs vector diagram

105
 Figure 5.17(b) can be drawn for any load and any power factor (Theraja & Teraja, 2005)

Example 1 Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of an alternator in which

a given field current produces an armature current of 200 A on short circuit and generated
e.m.f. of 50 V on open circuit. The armature resistance is 0.1 ohm. To what induced voltage
must the alternator be excited if it is to deliver a load 0f 100A at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging, with a
terminal voltage of 200 V( Elect. Machinery, Banglore Univ. !991)

Solution:

Figure. 5.18 Phasor

𝑂.𝐶 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 50
Zs = 𝑆.𝐶.𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 200
= 0.25𝛺

𝑋𝑠 = √𝑧𝑠2 − 𝑅𝑎2 = √0.252 − 0.12 = 0.23Ω

106
 Now Ira = 100 x 0.1 = 10 V IXs = 100x 0.23 23 Vi

Cos ∅ = 0.8 , sin ∅ = 0.6 As Figure 37.34

𝐸𝑜 = √(𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅𝑎 )2 + (𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ + 𝐼𝑋𝑠 )2

= [(200 x 0.8 + 10)2 + (200 x 0.6 + 23)2]1/2

= 222V

Lesson 5. Maximum Power Output

For the given terminal voltage, excitation and frequency values, the maximum power
that can be delivered by the alternator is given. Figureure 37.103(a) shows full load conditions
for a cylindrical rotor where the drop in Ira was ignored (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).
.

The power output per phase is

𝑉𝐼𝑋𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
P = VI cos 𝜃 =
𝑋𝑆
Now, from OBC, we get
𝐼𝑋𝑆 𝐸 𝐸
= =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 sin(90+𝜃) cos 𝜃
IXS cos 𝜃 = E sin 𝛼
𝐸𝑉 sin 𝛼
∴P= 𝑋𝑆

Power becomes maximum when 𝛼 = 90°, if V, E and XS are regarded as constant(of course,
E is fixed excitation).

∴ Pmax = EV / XS It will be seen in Figure. 5.18.

(c) That under maximum poweroutout conditions. I leads V by 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 cos 𝜃 is
fixed = E/ IXs

107
 Now, from right angled ∆ AOB, we have that 𝐼𝑋𝑆 = √𝐸 2 + 𝑉 2 Hence, p.f.
corresponding to maximum power output is
𝐸
cos 𝜃 =
√𝐸2 +𝑉 2
The maximum power output per phase may also be written as
𝐸
Pmax = VI max cos 𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 . √𝐸2 +𝑉 2
Where Imax represents the current/ phase for maximum power output.
It If is full load current and % XS is the percentage synchronous reactance, then
𝐼𝑓 𝑋𝑠 𝑉 𝐼𝑓 𝑥100
% 𝑋𝑠 = 𝑉
x 100 ∴ 𝑋𝑆
= % 𝑋𝑆

𝐸 𝐸𝑉 𝐸 𝐼 𝑓 𝑥 100
Now, 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = V𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 √𝐸2 +𝑉 2
=𝑋 = % 𝑋𝑆
𝑆

Two things are obvious from the equations.

100 𝐼𝑓 √𝐸2 +𝑉 2
(a) 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥
%𝑋𝑆 𝑉
Substituting the value of % XS from above,
100 𝐼𝑓 √𝐸2 +𝑉 2 √𝐸2 +𝑉 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑉𝑥 =
100 𝐼𝑓𝑋𝑆 𝑉 𝑋𝑠

100 𝐸𝐼𝑓 𝐸 100

(b) 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = . 𝑥 𝑉𝐼𝑓
% 𝑋𝑠 𝑉 % 𝑋𝑆
𝐸 100
= 𝑉
. %𝑋 𝑥 𝐹. 𝐿. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 u.p.f.
𝑆

Total maximum power output of the alternator is

𝐸 100
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉
. %𝑋 𝑥 𝐹. 𝐿. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 u.p.f.
𝑆

Example 9 Derive a condition for the maximum output of a synchronous generator

connected to infinite bus bars and working at constant excitation. A 3-∅, 11-kV, 5-MVA, Y-
connected alternator has asynchronous impedance of (1+ j 10) ohm per phase. Its excitation
is such that the generated line e.m.f. is 14 kV. If the alternator is connected to infinite bus
bars, determine the maximum output at the given excitation.

Solution:
𝑉
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 per phase = EV/ VS if Ra is neglected = 𝑍𝑆
( 𝐸 − 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) if Ra is
considered
108
 Now, E = 14,000/√3 = 8,083V; V = 11,000/ √3 = 6352V
cos 𝜃 = Ra/ZS = 1/√12 + 102 = 1/10.05

8083 𝑥 6352
∴ 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 per phase= = 5.135 kW
10 𝑥 1000
Total Pmax = 3 x 5.135 kW = 15.405kW
6352 6352
More accurately, Pmax /phase = (8083 - )
10.05 10.05

6352 7451
= 𝑥 = 4.711kW
10.05 1000
Total Pmax = 3 x 4.711 kW = 14.113kW

Example 1 A 3 phase, 11kVA, 10MW, Y-connected synchronous generator has synchronous

impedance of (0.8 +j8.0) ohm per phase. If the excitation is such that the open circuits’ voltage
is 14kV, determine (a) the maximum output of the generator (b) the current and p.f at the
maximum output.

Solution: (a) If we neglect R𝑎 ∗ , the Pmax per phase =EV/ XS

Where V is the terminal voltage (or bus-bar voltage in general) and E the e.m.f. of the machine.
(11,000√3) 𝑥 (14,000/√3) 154,000
∴ Pmax = 8
= 24
𝑘𝑊/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
Total Pmax = 3 x 154,000/24 = 19,250 kW = 19.25 MW
Incidentally, this output is nearly twice the normal output.

14,000 2 11,000 2
√[( ) +( ) ]
√𝐸 2 +𝑉 2 √3 √3
(b) 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 1287A
𝑋𝑆 8
𝐸 14,000⁄√3
(c) 𝑃. 𝐹 = 𝐸2 +𝑉 2 = 14,000 2 11,000 2
= 0.786 (Lead)
√( ) +( )
√3 √3

Example 11. Two transformers have the following particulars:

109
 Transformer A Transformer B
Rated current 200A 600A
Per Unit resistance 0.02 0.025
Per unit reactance 0.05 0.06
No load e.m.f 245V 240V
Calculate the terminal voltage when they are connected in parallel and supply a load
impedance of ( 0.25 + j0.1)Ω (Elect. Machines I. Sd. Patel Univ. 1981).

Solution Impedance in ohms = Zphr XN.L. emf./full load current

ZA = (245/200)(0.02+j0.05)= 0.0245 + j0.0613Ω = 0.066< 68.2°
ZB = (240/600)(0.025+j0.06)= 0.01 + j0.024Ω = 0.026< 67.2°
Z= (0.25 +j 0.1) = 0.269 < 21.8°; ZA +ZB = 0.00345 + j0.0853 = 0.092< 68°
ZL(ZA + ZB) = 0.269 x 0.092 < 89.8° = 0.00247 < 89.8° =(0+j0.oo247
ZAZB = 0.066 x 0.026 < 135.5° = (-0.001225 + j0.001201)
∴ ZAZB + ZL(ZA + ZB) = (0.00125 +j 0.259) 0.0259< 92.7°
Let us take EA as reference quantity
Also Eb is in phase with EA because transformers are in parallel on both sides
EAZB = 245(0.01 +j 0.0245) = 2.45 + j 5.87
EBZA = 240(0.245 + j 0.0613) = 5.88 + j 14.7
EAZB + EBZA = 8.33 + j 20.57 = 22.15<69.9°
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐵 +𝐸𝐵 𝑍𝐴 22.15<67.9°
Now, I= 𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 +𝑍𝐿 (𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 )
= 0.0259<92.7° = 855 < −24.8°

V2 =IZL = 855 < -24.8° x 0.269 < 21.8° = 230 -3°

110
 Assessment Task 5

1. Find the no load phase and line voltage of a star connected 3 phase, 6-pole alternator
which runs at 1200 rpm having flux per pole of 0.1Wb sinusoidal
distributed. Its stator has 54 slots having double layer winding. Each coil has 8 turns
and the coil has 8 turns and the coil is chorded by 1 slots
2. A 10 pole, 50 Hz, 600 r.p.m. alternator has flux density distribution given by the
following expression
B = sin 𝜃 + 0.4 sin 3𝜃 + 0,2 sin 5𝜃
The alternator has 180 slots wound with 2 layers 3 turn coils having a span of 15
slots. The coils are connected in 60° groups. If the armature diameter is 1.2
m and core length = 0.4 m. Calculate (i) the expression for instantaneous e.m.f./
conductor (ii) the expression for instantaneous e.m.f./ coil (iii) the r.m.s. phase
3. Find the no load line voltage of a star connected 4 pole alternator from the following:
Flux per pole = 0.12 Wb Slots per pole per phase = 4
Conductors/ slot =4 Two layer winding, with coil span = 150°
4. Calculate the R.M.S. value of the induced e.m.f. per phase of a 10 pole 3 phase,
50 HZ alternator with 2 slots per pole per phase and 4 conductors per slot in
two layers. The coil span is 150°. The flux per pole has a fundamental component
of 0.12 Wb and a 2.0% third component

111
 Summary

Short pitch winding: Pitch factor/Chording factor

The pitch factor or coil span factor K P and KC is defined as
𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒆.𝒎.𝒇𝒔.𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
=
𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒆.𝒎.𝒇𝒔.𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍

Distribution or breadth factor or Winding factor or spread Factor

The distribution factor (Kd) is defined as

𝑒.𝑚.𝑓.𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

=
𝑒.𝑚.𝑓. 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
In the present case
𝑒.𝑚.𝑓. 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 3 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠⁄𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒⁄𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐸
𝐾𝑑 = =
𝑒.𝑚.𝑓.𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠⁄𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒⁄𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 3𝐸𝑆

General Case

Let 𝛽 the value of angular displacement between the slots. Its value is
180° 180°
𝛽= =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠⁄𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛
Let m = No of slots /phase/pole
M𝛽 =Phase spread angle

Equation of induced E.M.F.

Let z = No. of conductors or coilside in series/ phase

2T where T is the No.of coils or turns per phase(remember one turn or coil has two
sides)
P= No. of poles
F = frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz
Φ= flux /pole in weber

112
 sin m 𝛽 ⁄2
Kd = distribution factor = 𝑚𝛽 ⁄2

K c or K P = pitch or coil span factor = cos 𝛼/ 2

K f = from factor =1.11 - if e.m.f. is assumed sinusoidal
N = rotor r.p.m.

In one revolution of the rotor (i.e. in 60/N second) each stator conductor is cut by a flux of
ΦP webersn (Theraja & Teraja, 2005).
∴ dΦ =ΦP and dt = 60/N second
𝑑𝛷 𝛷𝑃 𝛷𝑁𝑃
∴ Average e.m.f. induced per conductor = = =
𝑑𝑡 60⁄𝑁 60
Now, we know that f =PN/120 or N = 120f/ P
Sustituting this value of N above, we get
𝛷𝑃 120𝑓
Average e.m.f. per conductor = 60
x 𝑃
2𝑓𝛷 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

If there are Z conductors in series/phase, then Average e.m.f./ phase = 2f ΦZ volts

=4f ΦT R.M.S. value of e.m.f./phase = 1.10 4f ΦT =4.44f ΦT volts

Effect of Harmonic on pitch and Distribution Factor

If the short pitch angle or chording angle is α degrees (elecrical) for the fundamental
flux wave, then its value for different harmonic are
for 3rd harmonic = 3α; for the 5th harmonic = 5 α and so on (Theraja & Theraja, 2005).
∴ pitch factor KC = cos α/2 - for fundamental
KC = cos 3α/2 - for 3rd harmonic
KC = cos 5α/2 - for 5th harmonic etc.
Similarly, the distribution factor is also different harmonics. Its value becomes Kd =
(sin⁡mβ⁄2)/((m sin⁡β)⁄2) where m is the number of harmonic

For fundamental n=1 K_d1=(sin⁡mβ⁄2)/((msin β)⁄2)

For 3rd harmonic n=3 K_d3=(sin⁡3mβ⁄2)/((msin 3β)⁄2)
For 5th harmonic n=5 K_d5=(sin⁡5mβ⁄2)/((msin 5β)⁄2)

113
 Frequency is also change. If fundamental frequency is 50 Hz i.e. f1= 50 Hz then the
other frequencies are:
3rd harmonic, f3 = 3 x 50 = 150 Hz, 5th harmonic, f5 = 5 x 50 =250Hz etc.

Alternator on Load
As the load on an alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to vary as in D.C.
generators. This variation in terminal voltage V is due to the following reasons:
1. Voltage drop due to armature resistance Ra
2. Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance XL
3. Voltage drop due to armature reaction

Summarize briefly the flux rather than m.m.f. waves

1. Unity Power Factor

2. Zero P.F. lagging
3. Zero P.F leading
4. For intermediate power factor

Voltage Regulation
% regulation “up” = (E_o-V)/V x 100

Maximum Power Output

The power output per phase is
𝑉𝐼𝑋𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
P = VI cos 𝜃 =
𝑋𝑆

Now, from OBC, we get

𝐼𝑋𝑆 𝐸 𝐸
= =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 sin(90+𝜃) cos 𝜃

IXS cos 𝜃 = E sin 𝛼

𝐸𝑉 sin 𝛼
∴P= 𝑋𝑆

Power becomes maximum when 𝛼 = 90°, if V, E and XS are regarded as constant (of course,
E is fixed excitation).

114
 ∴ Pmax = EV / XS It will be seen in Figure. 5.18.

(d) That under maximum poweroutout conditions. I leads V by 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 cos 𝜃 is
fixed = E/ IXs
Now, from right angled ∆ AOB, we have that 𝐼𝑋𝑆 = √𝐸 2 + 𝑉 2 Hence, p.f. corresponding
to maximum power output is
𝐸
cos 𝜃 = √𝐸2
+𝑉 2
The maximum power output per phase may also be written as
𝐸
Pmax = VI max cos 𝜃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 . √𝐸2 +𝑉 2
Where Imax represents the current/ phase for maximum power output.
It If is full load current and % XS is the percentage synchronous reactance, then
𝐼𝑓 𝑋𝑠 𝑉 𝐼𝑓 𝑥100
% 𝑋𝑠 = 𝑉
x 100 ∴ 𝑋𝑆
= % 𝑋𝑆

𝐸 𝐸𝑉 𝐸 𝐼 𝑓 𝑥 100
Now, 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = V𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 √𝐸2 +𝑉 2
=𝑋 = % 𝑋𝑆
𝑆

Two things are obvious from the equations.

100 𝐼𝑓 √𝐸2 +𝑉 2
(b) 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = %𝑋𝑆
𝑥 𝑉

Substituting the value of % XS from above,

100 𝐼𝑓 √𝐸2 +𝑉 2 √𝐸 2 +𝑉 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 100 𝐼𝑓𝑋𝑆
𝑥𝑉𝑥 𝑉
= 𝑋𝑠

100 𝐸𝐼𝑓 𝐸 100

(c) 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = . 𝑥 𝑉𝐼𝑓
% 𝑋𝑠 𝑉 % 𝑋𝑆
𝐸 100
= . 𝑥 𝐹. 𝐿. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 u.p.f.
𝑉 %𝑋𝑆

Total maximum power output of the alternator is

𝐸 100
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = . 𝑥 𝐹. 𝐿. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 u.p.f.
𝑉 %𝑋𝑆

115
 References

Theraja A.K. and Theraja B.L. (2005) A Textbook of Electrical Technology Volume II
in S.I. Units, DC and AC Machines, (1st Multi-Color Edition) Ram Nagal, New
Delhi, S. Chand & Company

(1992). DOE FUNDAMENTAL HANDBOOK Retrieved from URL

https://sites.ntc.doe.gov/partners/tr/Training%20Textbooks/11-
Electrical%20Science/13-Transformers.pdf

116
 Module 6
Transformers

Introduction

For AC power transmissions and for different control and indication circuits,
transformers are used extensively. To understand the role transformers play in today's nuclear
facilities, knowledge of the basic theory of how these components operate is necessary (DOE
FUNDAMENTAL HANDBOOK, 1992).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Define the following terms as they pertain to transformers: a. Mutual induction b. Turns
ratio c. Impedance ratio d. Efficiency.
2. Describe the differences between a wye-connected and delta-connected transformers.
3. Given the type of connection and turns ratios for the primary and secondary of a
transformer, CALCULATE voltage, current, and power for each of the following types:
a. Δ - Δ b. Δ - Y c. Y - Δ d. Y - Y
4. State the applications of each of the following types of transformers: a. Distribution b.
Power c. Control d. Auto e. Isolation f. Instrument potential g. Instrument current
(DOE FUNDAMENTAL HANDBOOK, 1992).

Lesson1. Transformer Operation and Faraday’s Law

117
 An electromagnetic device with two or more stationary coils coupled by a mutual flux
is a transformer. The ideal transformer with two windings is shown in Figure. 6.1 It is assumed
that an ideal transformer has (a) an infinitely permeable, lossless core, (b) lossless electric
winding, and (c) no leakage fluxes (Nasar, 1998).

Figure.6.1 A two winding ideal transformer (Nasar, 1998)

The core, the primary winding N1, and the secondary winding N2 are the fundamental
transformer components. The action of a transformer is based on the induction law of faraday,
which induces an e.m.f. (voltage) in it by a time varying flux linking a coil. Thus, referring to
Figure.2.1, if the 𝛷 is the flux linking the N1 turn winding, then its induced voltage E 1 is given
by

𝑑𝛷
e1 = N1 𝑑𝑡
(V) (6.1)

The direction of E1 is such that a current is generated that gives rise to a flux that
opposes the change in flux d / dt (Lenz 's law). E1 = V1; that is, the instantaneous value of
the induced voltage and the terminal voltage are equal to the transformer being ideal, from
(6.1) 𝛷 = 1/𝑁1 ∫ 𝑉1 𝑑𝑡 (6.2)

Because only the time variation of 𝛷 is important, we ignore the constants of

integration in (6.2)
If 𝛷= 𝛷 sin 𝜔𝑡 (6.3)

118
Then, from (6.1), e1 = ω N1 𝛷𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ωt (6.4)
Similarly, the voltage, E2, induced in the secondary is given by
e2= ω N2 𝛷𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ωt (6.5)
From (6.4) and (6.5)

𝑒1 𝑁1
𝑒2
= 𝑁2

Which may also written in terms of rms values as

𝐸1 𝑁1
= =a (6.6)
𝐸2 𝑁2

where a is known as the turn ratio. In the case that N2> N1, one conventionally writes
1/a instead of a in equation (6.6); thus, the turns ratio is always greater than 1 (Nasar, 1998).

Because the transformer is ideal, the net mmf around the magnetic circuit must be
zero; that is, if I1 and I2 are the primary and secondary currents, respectively, the N 1 I1=N2I2
= 0, or
𝐼2 𝑁1
= =a (6.7)
𝐼1 𝑁2

From (2.6) and (2.7) it can be shown that the impedance Z2 is connected to secondary,
the impedance Z1 seen at the primary satisfies
𝐼2 𝑁
= ( 1 )2 = 𝑎2 (6.8)
𝐼1 𝑁2

Lesson 2. EMF Equation of a Transformer (Nasar, 1998)

For a sinusoidal flux, the rms value of the induced e.m.f. in the primary is from (6.4)
𝜔𝑁1 𝛷𝑚
𝐸1 = = 4.44f𝑁1 𝛷𝑚 (V) (6.9)
√2

Where f = ω/2𝜋 is the frequency in Hz

Lesson 3. Transformer Losses

119
 We have considered an ideal transformer, which was assumed to have no losses.
Obviously, an actual transformer has the following losses:

1. Core losses, which include the hysteresis and eddy current losses (Nasar, 1998).
2. Resistance (I2R) losses in the primary and secondary winding (Nasar, 1998).

Lesson 4. Equivalent Circuits of Ideal Transformer

A non-ideal transformer differs from an ideal transformer in that in its primary and
secondary windings, the former has hysteresis and eddy current (or core) losses and has
resistive (I2R) losses. In addition, for its magnetization, the core requires a finite mmf. Also,
due to leakages, not all fluxes connect with the primary and secondary windings
simultaneously. Having reference to Figure. 6-2, we note that the primary and secondary
windings are respectively resistant to R1 and R2. The flux c, which substitutes the flux of
Figure. 6-1, as it links both the primary and secondary windings, is called the core flux or
mutual flux.The primary and secondary leakages fluxes are shown as 𝛷𝜂 and Φ, respectively.
Therefore, in Figure. 6-2, except for the core losses, we accounted for all the imperfections
listed above. We will include in the equivalent circuit of a non-ideal transformer the core losses
as well as the remainder of the imperfections. The exact equivalent circuits are also known as
this circuit, as it differs from the idealized equivalent circuit and the different approximate
equivalent circuits. These circuits are now derived from us (Nasar, 1998).

120
 Figure 6.2 R1 and R2 are the respective resistances of the primary and secondary winding
(Nasar, 1998)

An equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer is shown in Figure. 6.3(a). When the non-
ideal effects of winding resistances, magnetizing reactance, and core losses are included, the
circuit of Figure 6.3(a) is modified to that of Figure. 6.3(b), where the primary and secondary
winding are coupled by an ideal transformer. By the use of (6.6), (6.7) and (6.8), the ideal
transformer may be removed from Figure. 6.3(b) and the entire equivalent circuit may be
referred either to primary, as shown in Figure. 6.4(a), or to the secondary, as shown in Figure,
6.4(b) (Nasar, 1998).

Figure.6.3 (a) An equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer and (b) primary and secondary winding are
coupled by an ideal transformer (Nasar, 1998).

A phasor diagram for circuit Figure. 6.4(a), lagging power factor, is shown in Figures
6.3, 6.4, and 6.5 the various symbols are:
a ≡ turns ratio (>1)
E1 ≡ Primary induced voltage

121
 E2 ≡ secondary induced voltage
V1 ≡ primary terminal voltage
V2 ≡ Secondary terminal voltage
I1 ≡ primary current
I2 ≡ secondary current
IO≡no load (primary) current
R1 ≡ Resistance of the primary winding
R2 ≡ Resistance on secondary winding
X1 ≡ primary leakage reactance
X2 ≡ secondary leakage reactance
Im, Xm ≡ magnetizing current and reactance
IC, RC ≡ current resistance accounting for the core losses

Figure. 6.4 Equivalent circuits of non-ideal transformer (a) primary and (b) secondary (Nasar, 1998)

122
 Figure.6.5 Phasor diagram (Nasar, 1998)

Lesson 5. Tests on Transformers

Transformer performance characteristics can be obtained from the equivalent circuits.
The circuit parameters are determined either from design data or from test data. The two
common tests are as follows (Nasar, 1998).

5.1 Open Circuits (or No Load) Test

Here one winding is open circuited and voltage usually, rated voltage at rated
frequency is applied to the other winding. Voltage, current and power at the terminals of this
winding is measured. The open circuit voltage of the second winding is also measured, and
from this measurement a check on the turns ratio can be obtained. It is usually convenient to
apply the test voltage to the winding that has a voltage rating equal to that of the available
power source. In step up voltage transformer, this means that the open circuit voltage of the
second winding will be the higher than the applied voltage, sometime much higher. Care must
be exercises in guarding the terminal of this winding to ensure safety for test personnel and
to prevent these terminals from getting close to other electrical circuits, instrumentation,
grounds, and so forth (Nasar, 1998).

In presenting the no load parameters obtainable from test data, It is assumed that the
voltage is applied to the primary and secondary is open circuited. The no load power loss is
equal to the watts meter reading in test; core loss is found by subtracting the ohmic loss in the
primary, which is usually small and may be neglected in some cases. Thus, if the PO, IO, and
VO are the input power, current and voltage, then the core is given by
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑜 − 𝐼𝑜2 𝑅1 (6.10)
The primary induced voltage is given in phasor form
𝐸1 = 𝑉𝑜 < 0° − (𝐼𝑜 < 𝜃0 )(𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑋1 ) (6.11)

123
 𝑃
Where 𝜃0 = no load power factor angle = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑉 𝑜𝐼 ) < 0. Other circuit quantities are found
𝑜 𝑜

from
𝐸2
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑃1 (6.12)
𝐶
𝑃𝐶
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐸1
(6.13)

𝐼𝑚 = √𝐼𝑜2 − 𝐼𝐶2 (6.14)

𝐸1
𝑋𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚
(6.15)
𝑉𝑜
a≈ 𝐸2
(6.16)

5.2 Short Circuit Test

In this test, one winding is short circuited across its terminals, and a reduced voltage
is applied to the other winding. This reduced voltage is of such a magnitude as to cause a
specific value of current usually, rated current to flow in the short circuited winding. Again, the
choice of the winding to be short circuited is usually determined by measuring equipment
available in the test. However, care must be taken to note which winding is short circuited, for
this determines the reference winding for expressing the impedance component obtained by
this test. Let the secondary winding be short circuited and the reduced voltage be applied to
the primary (Nasar, 1998).

With a very low voltage applied to the primary winding, the core loss current and
magnetizing current become very small and the equivalent circuit reduces to that of Figure
2.6. Thus, if Ps, and Is, and Vs are the input power, current, and the voltage under short circuit,
then, referred to primary,

𝑉1
Z1 = 𝐼1
(6.17)
𝑃𝑆
𝑅1 + 𝑎 2 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑆2
(6.18)

124
 Figure.2.6 a very low voltage applied to primary winding (Nasar, 1998)

𝑋1 + 𝑎2 𝑋2 = 𝑋2 = √𝑧12 − 𝑅𝑠2 (6.19)

Given R1 and a, R2 a can be found from (6.18). It is usually assumed that the leakage
reactance is divided equally between the primary and secondary; that is,
1
𝑋1 = 𝑎2 𝑋2 = 2 𝑋1 (6.20)

Lesson 6. Transformer Connection

Of the eight transformer connection types shown in table 6-1, the first six are for
voltage transformation purposes and the last two are for the number of phases to be changed.
(The single phase voltage transformer is not included). In the diagrams, every line segment
corresponds to one winding of a transformer of two windings (Nasar, 1998).

Polarity markings in polyphase transformer connections must be observed and the

connection of three identical transformers in the delta wye connection is shown in Figure. for
illustration purposes. 6.7, which also showed the diagram for the voltage phasor. Note the
phase shift of 30 ° between the voltages of the line and phase (Nasar, 1998).

Table 6.1The eight type of transformer connection (Nasar, 1998)

125
Figure.6.7 The connection of three identical transformers in delta wye and shows the voltage phasor
diagram (Nasar, 1998)
Lesson 7. Auto Transformers

An autotransformer is a single winding transformer; because of its simplicity and

relatively low cost compared to multi-winding transformers, it is very useful equipment for

126
some applications. It does not provide electrical insulation, however, and can therefore not be
used where this feature is needed. A circuit of the autotransformer, Figure. 6.8, by connecting
the two windings electrically in series so that the polarities are additive, can be developed
from a two-winding transformer. Suppose this was done in the Figure.6.8 circuit, where
winding AB is the primary of the two winding transformers, and winding BC is the secondary.
The autotransformer's primary is now the sum of two winding ACs, and BC is winding the
secondary.Hence, the auto transformer voltage and turns ratio is

Figure. 6.8 The autotransformer circuit developed from a two winding transformer the two winding

electrically in series so that the polarities are additive.by connecting (Nasar, 1998)

𝐸𝐴𝐵 +𝐸𝐵𝐶 𝑁𝐴𝐵 +𝑁𝐵𝐶

𝑎′ = = = a +1 (6.21)
𝐸𝐵𝐶 𝑁𝐵𝐶

Where a is the voltage and turn ratio of the original two transformer. Besides furnishing a
greater transformer ratio, a pair of can also deliver more volt-amperes (apparent power) When
connected as an autotransformer than when connected as a two winding transformer. The
reason is that the transfer of volt-amperes from primary to secondary in an autotransformer is
not only by induction, as in a two winding transformer, but by conduction as well (Nasar, 1998).
Lesson 8. Instrument Transformers

There are two kinds of instrument transformers: current transformers (CTs) and
potential transformers (PTs). These are used to provide ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters,
relays, and so on with power. Instrument transformers are used to (1) reduce the quantity
127
measured to a low value indicated by standard instruments (a standard voltmeter can be rated
at 120 V and an ammeter can be rated at 5 A; and (2) isolate the instrument for safety from
high voltage sources. Figure 6-9(a) shows a connection diagram of a CT and a PT with an
ammeter, a voltmeter, and a wattmeter. The burden is called the load on the instrument
transformer. Instrument transformers are rated from 25 to 500 VA, depending on the burden.
A PT or CT, however, is much greater (two to six times) than a power transformer of the same
rating (Nasar, 1998).

There is no phase difference between the primary and secondary voltages (or
currents), which are independent of the load, in an ideal instrument transformer. The voltage
ratio of an ideal PT is exactly equal to its turn ratio, as is the ideal power transformer. The
current ratio of an ideal CT is exactly the same as the inverse of the ratio of turns. However,
in practice, in instrument transformers, load-dependent ratio and phase angle errors are
present (Nasar, 1998).

There is no difference in the operating principle of an instrument transformer from that

of an ordinary power transformer. Thus, as shown in Figure 6-9(b), they have similar phasor
diagrams. From this diagram, it is evident that the secondary impedance drop causes a phase
displacement a, and the primary impedance drops a phase displacement β; the exciting
current I0 causes a further phase displacement γ, so that the angle between the primary
voltage and the current is (almost 2 + a + a β + γ) compared to the angle 02 between the
secondary voltage and the current. A phase angle error (a + β + γ) is thus introduced by the
transformer. In addition, V1 and V2 will have a ratio of only approximately the number of terms.
In order to nullify or reduce errors, instrument transformers are designed with (1) small and
low leakage resistances that decrease the angles of alpha and beta; (2 ) low flux densities
and good iron transformers that decrease the exciting IO current and therefore the angle γ;
and (3) less than the nominal ratio of turns that compensates for the error ratio. The
instruments may be calibrated, or corrected, against the load for a constant load (Nasar,
1998)..

128
Figure.6.9 (a) A connection diagram of a CT and a PT with an ammeter, a voltmeter, and a wattmeter
and (b) phasor diagrams (Nasar, 1998)

Example 1 The primary of a transformer has 200 turns and is excited by a 60Hz, 200
V source. What is the maximum value of the core flux?

Solution: From the equation, (6.9).

𝐸1 220
𝛷𝑚 = 4.44𝑓𝑁1
= (4.44)(60)(200)
= 4.13 mWb

Example 2 A voltage v= 155.5 sin 377t + 15.5 sin 1131t (v) is applied to the primary of
the transformer of example 1 Neglecting leakage; determine the instantaneous and rms
values of the core flux.

Solution: From equation, (6.2).

𝛷 = 1/𝑁1 ∫ 𝑉1 𝑑𝑡
1
= 200 ∫(155.5 sin 377t + 15.5 sin 1131t ) dt
= - 2.05 cos 377t -0.068 cos 1131t (mWb)
The two components of 𝛷 have frequencies in integral ratio (1:3). Hence their separate rms
values 2.05 /√2 and 0.068 / √2
2.05 2 0.068 2 =
𝛷𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √[ ] +[ ] 1.45 mWb
√2 √2

129
 Example 3 A 60 Hz transformer having a 480 turn primary winding takes 80 W in power
and 1.4 A in current at an output voltage of 120 V. If the primary winding resistance is 0.25
ohm, determine (a) the core loss, (b) the no load power factor, and (c) the maximum core flux
(neglect the primary resistance and reactance drops).

Solution:
(a) 𝑃𝐶 = 80 − (1.4)2 (0.25) = 79.5 W

80
(b) Cos𝜃𝑂 = (1.4)(120)
= 0.476

120
(c) 𝛷𝑚 = (4.44)(60)(480)
= 0.94𝑚𝑊𝐵

Example 4 For the transformer of example 3, evaluate the magnetizing reactance, X m,

and the core loss equivalent resistance. RC (a) neglecting the impedance drop in the primary;
(b) including the effect of the winding resistance, R= 0.25 Ω, and leakage reactance, X1 = 1.2
Ω

Solution:

1202
(a) 𝑅𝐶 = = 180 Ω
80

120
𝐼𝐶 = 180
= 0.67A

𝐼𝑚 = √(1.4)2 − (0.67)2 = 1.23 A

120
𝑋𝑚 = 1.23
= 97.5Ω

(b) From problem 2.3(b), 𝜃0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.476 = −61.6° Then, by (2.11)

𝐸1 = 0° - (1.4 -61.6°) (0.25 + j 1.25) or E1 ≈ 118.29 V

130
 And we have:
(118.29)2
𝑅𝑐 = 79.5
= 176 Ω

118.29
𝐼𝐶 = 176
= 0.672 A

𝐼𝑚 = √(1.4)2 − (0.672)2 = 1.228 A

118.29
X𝑚 = 1.228
= 96.3Ω

Example 5 The parameters of the equivalent circuit of a 150kVA, 2400V/240V

transformer, shown in Figure.6-3 are R1 = 0.2Ω, R2 = 2m Ω, X1 =0. 45 Ω, X2 = 4.5 Ω, RC= 10
kΩ and Xm= 1.55 kΩ. Using the circuit referred to primary, determine the (a) voltage regulation
and (b) efficiency of the transformer operating at rated load with 0.8 lagging power factor.

See Figures. 6.4(a) and 6.5. Given V2 = 24V, a = 10 and 𝜃2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.8 = -36.8º
aV2 = 2400 0º V
150 𝑥 103 𝐼2
𝐼2 = 240
= 625 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎
= 62.5 -36.8º = 50 - j37.5 A

Also, 𝑎2 𝑅2 = 0.2 Ω and 𝑎2 𝑋2 = 0.45 Ω so that

𝐸1 = (2400 + j0) + (50 – j37.5) (0.2 + j0.45)
= 2427 + j15 = 2427 0.35° V
2427 035°
𝐼𝑚 = = 1.5 -89.65° = 0.0095 –J1.56 A
1550 90°
2447+j15
𝐼𝐶 = = 0.2427 + j0A
10 𝑥 103

Therefore 𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑀 = 0.25 – j1.25 A

𝐼2
𝐼1= 𝐼𝑜 + 𝑎
= 50.25 – j39.06 = 63.65 -37.85°A
V1 = (2427 + j15) + (50.25 – j 39.06) (0.2 +j0.45)
= 2455 j30 = 2455 0.7° V

131
 𝑉𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 −𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
(a) Percent regulation ≡ 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑥 100

𝑉1−𝑎𝑉2 2455−2400
= 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
x 100 = 2400
𝑥 100 = 2.3%

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
(b) Efficiency ≡ 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
= 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

Output = (150 x 103) (0.8) = 120KW

Losses = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐶2 𝑅𝐶 + 𝐼22 𝑅2
= (63.65)2 (0.2) + (0.2427)2(10 x 103) + (625)2(2 x 10-3) = 2.18 kW
120
Hence efficiency = = 0.982 = 98.2%
122.18

Example 6 A 75 kVA, 230 V/115 V, 60 Hz transformer was tested with the following
results:
Short circuit test: 9.5 V, 326 A, 1200 W
Open circuit test: 115 V, 16.3 A, 750 W

Determine the (a) equivalent impedance in high voltage term; (b) equivalent impedance in
per unit; (c) voltage regulation at rated load,0.8 power factor lagging; (d) efficiency at rated
load, 0.8 power factor lagging, and at ½ load, unity power factor; (e) maximum efficiency and
the current at which it occurs

9.5
(a) 𝑍𝑠 = 326 = 0.029Ω
(b) Proceedings as in example 18
Per unit VS = 9.5/230 = 0.0413 pu
Per unit IS = 326/326 = 1 pu
Per unit ZS = VS (pu)/IS (pu) = 0.0413/1 = 0.0413 pu
per unit PS = 1200/(75 x103)= 0.016 pu = 𝐼𝑝𝑢
2
𝑅𝑝𝑢
𝑅𝑝𝑢 = 0.016 𝑋𝑝𝑢 = √0.04132 − 0.0162 = 0.0381 pu

132
 𝑉0 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑍 = 1 + (0.8 − 𝑗0.6)(0.016 + 𝑗0.0381 )
Hence VO = 1.036 pu. Then,
𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉2 1.0306−1
Voltage regulation = = = 0.036 𝑝𝑢 = 3.6%
𝑉2 1
(75 𝑥 103 )(0.08)
(d) 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 60 𝑥 103 +1200+750 = 96.75%
(37.5 𝑥 103 )(1)
𝜂1𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 97.27%
2 37.5 𝑥 103 +300+750

(e) According to example 8, the maximum current, I1 is given by

𝐼12 𝑅𝑒 = copper loss = core loss ≈ 750 W

The short circuit test gives the equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑒, as
1200
𝑅𝑒 = (326)2 0.01129Ω

Hence,
750
𝐼𝑖 = 326 √1200 = (326)(0.79) =257.72 A

The power output is

𝐼1
326
( 75 𝑥103 ) = (0.79)(75 x 103) W
And so
(0.79 )(75 𝑥 103
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (0.79)(75 𝑥 103 )+750+750
= 97.53%

Assessment Task 6

1. A quantity is expressed in per unit if it is divided by a chosen base quantity

having the same physical dimension). Suppose that for a 10-kVA,
133
 2400-V/240-V transformer we choose
P_(base )=10kW V_(1 base )=2400V V_(2 base )=240V
This transformer has the following test data
open-circuit test (on low-voltage side): 240 V, 0.8 A, 80 W
short-circuit test (on high-voltage side): 80 V, 5.1 A, 220 W
Convert all test data into per-unit values and find the series equivalent
resistance in per unit.
2. The results of open-circuit and short-circuit tests on a 25-kVA, 440-V/220-V,
60-Hz transformer are as follows:
Open-circuit test. Primary open-circuited, with instrumentation on the low-
voltage side. Input voltage, 220 V; input current, 9.6 A; input power, 710 W.
Short-circuit test. Secondary short-circuited, with instrumentation on the high-
voltage side. Input voltage, 42 V; input current, 57 A; input power, 1030 W.
Obtain the parameters of the exact equivalent circuit (Figure. 2-4), referred to the
high voltage side. Assume that R, = a2R2 and X1= a2 X2 voltage side
3. A 110-kVA, 2200-V/ 110-V, 60-Hz transformer has the following circuit constants:
R1= 0.22 Ω, R2 = 0.5 mΩ, X, = 2.0 Ω, X2 = 5 mΩ, Rc = 5.5 kΩ, and Xm = 1.1 kΩ. During
one day (24 hours) the transformer has the following load cycle: 4 h on no-load;
8 h on % full-load at 0.8 power factor; 8 h on 14 full-load at unity power factor; and
; and 4 h on full-load at unity power factor. Assuming a constant core loss of
1.346 kW. Find the all-day efficiency of the transformer
4. The ohmic values of the circuit parameters of a transformer, having a turns ratio of
5, are R1 = 0.5 Ω; R2 = 0.021 Ω; X1 = 3.2 Ω; X2 = 0.12 Q; Rc = 350 Ω, referred to
the primary; and Xm= 98 Ω, referred to the primary. Draw the approximate
approximate equivalent circuits of the transformer, referred to (a) the primary and
(b) the secondary. . Show the numerical values of the circuit parameters. The
circuits are respectively shown in Figure. 2-12(a) and Figure. 2-12(b). The calculations are
as follows: (a) R’, X’, Rc', X’m (b) R”, X”, R”C, X”m (c)

Figure. 6.12 Circuits

Summary

Transformer Operation and Faraday’s Law

134
 e1 = N1 dΦ/dt (V) (2.1)

𝛷 = 1/𝑁1 ∫ 𝑉1 𝑑𝑡 (2.2)
If Φ= Φ sin⁡ωt (2.3)
Then, from (2.1), e1 = ω N1 Φ_m cos ωt (2.4)
Similarly, the voltage, E2, induced in the secondary is given by
e2= ω N2 Φ_m cos ωt (2.5)
From (2.4) and (2.5)

e1 /e2 = N1/N2
Which may also written in terms of rms values as
E1/E2 =N1/N2 = a (2.6)

I2/I1 = N1/N2 = a (2.7)

From (2.6) and (2.7) it can be shown that the impedance Z2 is connected to secondary, the
impedance Z1 seen at the primary satisfies
I2/I1 = (N1/N2) 2= a2 (2.8)

EMF Equation of a Transformer

𝜔𝑁1 𝛷𝑚
𝐸1 = = 4.44f𝑁1 𝛷𝑚 (V) (2.9)
√2

Where f = ω/2𝜋 is the frequency in Hz

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑜 − 𝐼𝑜2 𝑅1 (2.10)
𝐸1 = 𝑉𝑜 < 0° − (𝐼𝑜 < 𝜃0 )(𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑋1 ) (2.11)
𝐸12
𝑅𝐶 = (2.12)
𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝐶
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐸1
(2.13)

𝐼𝑚 = √𝐼𝑜2 − 𝐼𝐶2 (2.14)

𝐸1
𝑋𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚
(2.15)

135
 𝑉𝑜
a≈ 𝐸2
(2.16)
𝑉1
Z1 = 𝐼1
(2.17)
𝑃𝑆
𝑅1 + 𝑎2 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑆2
(2.18)

𝑋1 + 𝑎2 𝑋2 = 𝑋2 = √𝑧12 − 𝑅𝑠2 (2.19)

1
𝑋1 = 𝑎2 𝑋2 = 2 𝑋1 (2.20)
𝐸𝐴𝐵 +𝐸𝐵𝐶 𝑁𝐴𝐵 +𝑁𝐵𝐶
𝑎′ = = = a +1 (2.21)
𝐸𝐵𝐶 𝑁𝐵𝐶

References

Nasar, Syed A.. (1998). Schaum Outline of Theory and Problem of Electric Machine
and Electro Mechanics (2nd Ed.). United State of America,The McGraw- Hill
Company, Inc

(1992). DOE FUNDAMENTAL HANDBOOK Retrieved from URL

https://sites.ntc.doe.gov/partners/tr/Training%20Textbooks/11-
Electrical%20Science/13-Transformers.pdf

MODULE 7
Poly-phase Induction Motors

Introduction
136
 Probably the most common of all motors is the induction motor. An induction motor,
like the de machine, consists of a stator and a rotor, the latter mounted on bearings and is
separated by an air gap from the stator. The stator core, which consists of punching (or
laminating), carries slot-embedded conductors. In a predetermined manner, these conductors
are interconnected and constitute the armature windings (Nasar, 1998)..

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to (Nasar, 1998).

:
1. Describe MMFS of Armature windings.
2. Describe the production of rotting magnetic field
3. Describe the slips; Machine equivalent circuits
4. Describe the Energy efficient induction Motors
5. Analyze and solve problems regarding Poly-phase Induction Motor

Lesson. 1 MMFs of ARMATURE WINDINGS

Alternating current is supplied to the stator windings, and the currents in the rotor
windings are induced by the magnetic field of the stator currents. The rotor of the induction
machine is cylindrical and carries either (1) conducting bars short-circuited at both ends by
conducting rings, as in a cage-type machine (Figure. 7-1); or (2) a polyphase winding with
terminals brought out to slip rings for external connections, as in a wound-rotor machine

137
(Figure. 7-2). A wound-rotor winding is similar to that of the stator. Sometimes the cage-type
machine is called a brushless machine and the wound-rotor machine is termed a slip-ring
machine (Nasar, 1998).

Figure. 7.1 Cage-type machine (Nasar, 1998)

Figure. 7.2 Wound-rotor machine (Nasar, 1998)

On the basis of the interaction of induced rotor currents and the air gap field, an
induction motor operates. The machine will operate as a motor if the rotor is allowed to run
under the torque developed by this interaction. On the other hand, an external agency may
drive the rotor beyond a speed such that the machine begins to supply electrical power; it then
functions as an induction generator. Induction machines are used almost invariably as motors
(Nasar, 1998).

As in a dc-machine, the stator of an induction motor often has several independent

sets of windings. The three-phase winding, for example, is shown in Figure. 5-3, where two
coil sides are included in every slot. Such a winding is the winding of a double layer. Notice
from Figure. as well. 7-3 that it's a winding of four poles, but that the pitch of the pole (of nine
teeth) is slightly greater than the pitch of the coil (of eight teeth). It is, therefore, a fractional
(or chorded) winding pitch. Lastly, note that there are three slots per pole per stage in this

138
case. The winding would be known as a fractional-slot winding if the number of slots per pole
per phase was nonintegral (Nasar, 1998).

Because the armature winding consists of interconnected coils, it is advantageous to

consider the mmf of a single full-pitch coil having N turns. From Figure. 7-4(a) it is evident that
the machine has two poles; and from Ampere's circuital law it follows that the mmf has the
uniform value Ni (At) between the coil sides (Nazar, 1998).

Figure.7.3 Three-phase winding (Nasar, 1998)

139
 Figure.7.4 (a) it is evident that the machine has two poles (Nasar, 1998)

Figure 7.4 (b) the mmf per pole is Ni/2 (Nasar, 1998).

Figure. 7.4 The mmf distribution (Nasar, 1998)

as depicted in Figure. 7-4(6). Thus, the mmf per pole is Ni/2, as indicated in Figure. 7-4(c).
This also represents, to a different scale, the flux-density distribution. The mmf distribution of
Figure. 7-4(c) can be Fourier analyzed, and the fundamental

4 𝑁 𝜋𝑥
ℱ1 (x, t) = 𝜋 ( 2𝑖 ) cos 𝜏
(7.1)

Where x measure circumferential distance around the stator and where 𝜏, the pole pitch (or
coil pitch), is the circumferential distance between the poles. If i = I √2 sin ωt (A), (7.1) become
𝜋𝑥
ℱ1 (x, t) = 0.9 NI sin ωtcos 𝜏
(At) (7.2)

I being the rms value of i

To eliminate the harmonics from the mmfs, the armature winding is appropriately distributed
over the stator periphery, as in Figure. 7-3. Thus, we may assume that the mmf produced by
each phase (of a three- phase winding, say) is sinusoidal in space. In a three-phase induction
machine the mmfs are displaced from each other by 120° (electrical) in space:
𝜋𝑥
ℱ𝐴 = ℱ𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos
𝜏
140
 𝜋𝑥
ℱ𝐵 = ℱ𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 120°) cos( 𝜏 − 120°) (7.3)
𝜋𝑥
ℱ𝐶 = ℱ𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 120°) cos( + 120°)
𝜏
where is ℱ m the amplitude of each mmf. For the 7V-tum coil, considering only the
fundamental, = O.92V7.

Lesson 2. PRODUCTION OF ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELDS

Adding the three mmfs of (7.3), we obtain the resultant mmf as

𝜋𝑥
ℱ (x, t) = 1.5 ℱ𝑚 sin (ωt - 𝜏
) (7.4)

It is seen that the mmf is a wave, of amplitude 1.5 ℱ𝑚 , that travels circumferentially at speed
𝜏𝜔
𝑉𝑠 = (m/s) (7.5)
𝜋
relative to stator. We call 𝑉𝑆 the synchronous velocity. Note that the wavelength is
2𝜋𝑉𝑆
𝜆= 𝜔
2𝜏 (𝑚) (7.6)
If the machine has p poles (3.5) may be rewritten in the form
120𝑓1
𝑛𝑆 = 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = ( 𝑟𝑝𝑚) (7.7)
𝑃
Where f1 = ω/ 2𝜋 is the stator current (and mmf rotational) frequency (Nasar, 1998).

Equation (7.4) describes the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator of the
induction motor. This field cuts the rotor conductors, and thereby voltages are induced in these
conductors. The induced voltages give rise to rotor currents, which interact with the airgap
field to produce a torque, which is maintained as long as the rotating magnetic field and
induced rotor currents exist. Consequently, the motor starts rotating at a speed n < ns in the
direction of the rotating field (Nasar, 1998).

Lesson 3. Slip; Machine Equivalent Circuits

The actual speed, n, of the rotor is often related to the synchronous speed, ns9 via the
slip
𝑛𝑠 −𝑛
s= 𝑛𝑠
(7.8)

141
or the percent slip, 100s.

At standstill (s = 1), the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator has the same
speed with respect to the rotor windings as with respect to the stator windings. Thus, the
frequency of the rotor currents, f2, is the same as the frequency of the stator currents, 𝑓1 , At
synchronous speed (s = 0), there is no relative motion between the rotating field and the rotor,
and the frequency of rotor current is zero. (Indeed, the rotor current is zero.) At intermediate
speeds the rotor current frequency is proportional to the slip ((Nasar, 1998).
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑠𝑓1 (7-9)

where f2 is known as the slip frequency. Noting that the rotor currents are of slip frequency,
we have the rotor equivalent circuit (on a per-phase basis) of Figure. 7-5(a), which gives the
rotor current, Z2, as

𝑎𝐸2
𝐼2 =
√𝑅22+ (𝑠𝑋2 )2

Here, E2 is the induced rotor emf at standstill; X2 is the rotor leakage reactance per
phase at standstill; and R2 is the rotor resistance per phase. This may also be written as
𝐸2
𝐼2 = (7-10)
√(𝑅2 ⁄𝑠)2+𝑋22

For (710) we redraw the circuit of Figure. 7-5(a) as Figure.7-5(b).

142
 Figure. 7.5 (a) Redraw the circuit (Nasar, 1998)

Figure 7.5 (b) total rotor leakage flux is denoted by X2 (Nasar, 1998)

In order to include the stator circuit, the induction motor may be viewed as a
transformer with an airgap, having a variable resistance in the secondary [see (7.10)]. Thus
the primary of the transformer corresponds to the stator of the induction motor, whereas the
secondary corresponds to the rotor on a per phase basis. Because of the airgap, however,
the value of the magnetizing reactance, Xm, tends to be low as compared to that of a true
transformer. As in a transformer, we have a mutual flux linking both the stator and rotor,
represented by the magnetizing reactance and various leakage fluxes. For instance, the total
rotor leakage flux is denoted by X2 in Figure.7-5(b). Considering the rotor as being coupled to
the stator as the secondary of a transformer is coupled to its primary, we may draw the circuit

143
shown in Figure. 7-6. To develop this circuit further, we need to express the rotor quantities
as referred to the stator. For this purpose we must know the transformation ratio, as in a
transformer (Nasar, 1998).

The voltage transformation ratio in the induction motor must include the effect of the stator
and rotor winding distributions. It can be shown that, for a cage-type rotor, the rotor resistance
per phase, 𝑅2′ referred

Figure 7.6 Rotor as being coupled to stator (Nasar, 1998)

to the stator is

𝑚1 𝑘𝑤1 𝑁1 2
𝑅2! = 𝑎2 𝑅2 where 𝑎2 = 𝑚2
[𝑘 ]
𝑤2 𝑛2

Here 𝐾𝑤1 = winding factor of the stator having N1 series connected turns per phase
𝐾𝑤2 = winding factor of the rotor having N2 = P/4 series connected turns per phase, for a cage
rotor, where p is the number of poles
m1 = number of phase on the stator
m2 = number of bars per pole pair
R2 = resistance of one bar

Similarly,
𝑋2′ = 𝑎2 𝑋2 (7.12)
where 𝑋2′ =is the rotor leakage reactance per phase referred to stator

144
 Figure 7.7 All parameters shown are standstill value, (a) exact equivalent circuit and Figure 3.7 (b)
The per phase standstill rotor resistance ( Nasar, 1998)

Bearing in mind both the similarities and the differences between an induction motor and a
transformer, we now refer the rotor quantities to the stator to obtain from Figure.7-6 the exact
equivalent circuits (per phase) shown in Figure.7.7 (a). For reasons that will become
immediately clear, we split 𝑅2′ as

𝑅2′ 𝑅2′
= 𝑅2′ + (1 − 𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠

to obtain the circuit shown in Figure 7.7(b). Here 𝑅2′ is simply the per phase standstill rotor
𝑅2′ (1−𝑠)
resistance referred to the stator and 𝑠
is a per phase dynamic resistance that depends
on the rotor speed and corresponds to the load on the motor. Notice that all the parameters
shown in Figure. 7.7 are standstill value

145
Lesson 4. Calculations from Equivalent Circuits

The major usefulness of an equivalent circuit of an induction motor is in the calculation

of its performance. All calculations are made on a per-phase basis, assuming a balanced
operation of the machine; the total quantities are

Figure 7.8 Power flow in an induction motor (Nasar, 1998)

Figureure 7-8(a) is Figure.7-8(b) with Rm omitted. (Core losses, most of which are in the
stator, will be included only in efficiency calculations.) In Figure. 7-8(Z>) we show
approximately the power flow and various power losses in one phase of the machine. The
power crossing the airgap, Pg, is the difference between the input power, P i = Vi Ii cos 𝜃𝑖 and
the stator resistive loss; that is,
𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝐼𝑖2 𝑅1 (7.13)
𝑅′2
This power is dissipated in the net resistance 𝑠
whence
𝑅′2
𝑃𝑔 = 𝐼22 (7.14)
𝑠
If we subtract the rotor (standstill) resistive loss from Pg we obtain the developed
electromagnetic power, Pd, so that
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃𝑔 − 𝐼22 𝑅′2 = (1 − 𝑠)𝑃𝑔 (7-15)

146
 (1−𝑠)
This is the power that appears across the resistance 𝑅2′ 𝑠
A, which corresponds
to the load. The rotational (mechanical) loss, Pr, may be subtracted from Pd to obtain the shaft
output power, Po. Thus
P o = Pd - Pr (7.16)
and the efficiency, Ƞ is the ratio Po/P (Nasar, 1998).

Lesson 5. Energy-Efficient Induction Motors

It has been reported that the annual energy cost to operate a 10-hp induction motor
4000 h per year has increased from $850 in 1972 to $1950 in 1980. The escalation of oil
prices in the mid-1970s led the manufacturers of electric motors to seek methods to improve
motor efficiencies. In order to improve the motor efficiency, its loss distribution must be
studied. For a typical standard three-phase 50-hp motor, the loss distribution at full-load is
given in Table 7-1. In this table we also show the average loss distribution in percent of total
losses for standard induction motors. The per unit loss in Table 7.1 is defined as loss/ (hp x
746) (Nasar, 1998).

Table 7-1 Loss distribution in standard induction motors (Nasar, 1998)

In improving the 'efficiency of the motor, we must design to achieve a balance among
the various losses and, at the same time, meet other specifications, such as breakdown
torque, locked-rotor current and torque, and power factor. For the motor designer, a clear
understanding of the loss distribution is very important. Loss reductions can be made by
increasing the amount of the material in the motor. Without making other major design
147
changes, a loss reduction of about 10 percent at full load can be achieved. Improving the
magnetic circuit design using lower-loss electrical grade laminations can result in a further
reduction of losses by about 10 percent. The cost of improving the motor efficiency increases
with output rating (hp) of the motor. Based on the improvements just mentioned to increase
the motor efficiency, Figure. 7.9 shows a comparison between the efficiencies of energy-
efficient motors and those of standard motors (Nasar, 1998).

Figure.7.9 A comparison between the efficiencies of energy-efficient motors and those of standard
motors (Nasar, 1998)

Several of the major manufacturers of induction motors have developed product lines
of energy efficient motors. These motors are identified by their trade names, such as:

E-Plus (Gould Inc.)

Energy Saver (General Electric)
XE-Energy Efficient (Reliance Electric)
Mac II High Efficiency (Westinghouse)
148
 Because energy-efficient motors use more material, they are relatively bigger in size
compared to standard motors (Nasar, 1998).

Example

A major manufacturer of home and office air conditioners uses a J4-hp, single-phase
induction motor that has an efficiency of 72% at its average power output level.' Several large-
volume customers indicated that they would be willing to pay a larger initial investment in air
conditioners if they could recover this increased investment during the warranty period, which
is 2 years. The typical office air conditioner in which they are interested runs approximately 8
hours per day during 140 equivalent days of an Atlanta year. The motor supplied to the
manufacturer has a wholesale cost of $45. If the motor supplier would achieve an average
efficiency of 85% by improving materials and design, how much cost differential could be
added to the wholesale motor cost and still satisfy the customer’s

Lesson 6. Approximate Equivalent Circuit Parameters from

Test Data

149
 Sometimes the equivalent' circuit of the induction motor is approximated by the one
shown in Figure. 7-10. The parameters of the approximate circuit can be obtained from the
following two tests.

Figure. 7.10 Equivalent' circuit of the induction motor (Nasar, 1998)

No-Load Test

In this test, rated voltage is applied to the machine and it is allowed to run on no-load.
Input power (corrected for friction and windage loss), voltage, and current are measured;
these, reduced to per-phase values, are denoted by P o, Ko, and /0, respectively. When the
machine runs on no-load, the slip is close to zero and the circuit in Figure. 7-10 to the right of
the shunt branch is taken to be an open circuit. Thus, the parameters Rm and Xm are found
from
𝑉𝑜2
𝑅𝑚 = (7.17)
𝑃𝑜

𝑣𝑜2
𝑋𝑚 =
√𝑉𝑜2 𝐼𝑜2 − 𝑃𝑜2
(7.18)

Blocked-Rotor Test

𝑃𝑠
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅! + 𝑎2 𝑅2 = (7.19)
𝐼𝑠2

√𝑉𝑠2 𝐼𝑠2 − 𝑃𝑠2

𝑋𝑒 = 𝑋1 + 𝑎2 𝑋2 = (7.20)
𝐼𝑠2

150
In (3.19) and (3.20), the constant a2 is the same as in (3.11). The stator resistance per phase,
R1, can be directly measured, and, knowing Re from (3.19), we can determine R’2 = a2R2, the
rotor resistance referred to the stator. There is no simple method of determining X1 and X’2 =
a2X2 separately. The total value given by (3.20) is sometimes equally divided between X1and
X’2.

Solved Problems
7.1. An TV-tum winding is made up of coils distributed in slots, as the winding shown in Figure.
7.2. The voltages induced in these coils are displaced from one another in phase by the slot
angle a. The resultant voltage at the terminals of the A-tum winding is then the phasor sum of
the coil voltages. Find an expression for the distribution factor, k d, where
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐾𝑑 =
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠

Letp be the number of poles; Q, the number of slots; and m, the number of phases. Then Q =
qpm, where q is the number of slots per pole per phase. The slot angle a is given (in electrical
degrees) by

(180°)𝑃 180°
𝛼= =
𝑄 𝑚𝑞
The phasor addition of voltages (for q = 3) is shown in Figure. 7-11, from the geometry of
which we get
𝑞𝛼
sin( )
= 2
𝛼 (3-21)
𝑞 sin( )
2
which is the desired result.

151
 Figure. 7-11 The phasor addition of voltages (q = 3)

Figure. 7-12 full-pitch and a fractional-pitch coil

7.2. The voltage induced in a fractional-pitch coil is reduced by a factor known as the pitch
factor, kp , as compared to the voltage induced in a full-pitch coil. Derive an expression for the
pitch factor.

In a sinusoidally distributed flux density we show a full-pitch and a fractional-pitch coil

in Figure. 7-12. The coil span of the full-pitch coil is equal to the pole pitch, 𝜏. Let the coil span
of the fractional pitch coil be 𝛽 < 𝜏, as shown. The flux linking the fractional-pitch coil will be
proportional to the shaded area in Figure. 7-12 whereas the flux linking the full-pitch coil is
proportional to the entire area under the curve. The pitch factor is therefore the ratio of the
shaded area to the total area:

𝜋𝛽
= sin (3-22)
2𝜏

Notice that in (7.22), p and T may be measured in any convenient unit.

152
7.3. Calculate the distribution factor (Problem 7.1), the pitch factor (Problem 7.2), and the
windingfactor, kw = kdKp, for-the stator winding of Figure. 7-3.

From Figure 7-3, m = 3, p = 4 and Q= 36. Thus,

180°
Q = 36/(4x3) = 3 𝛼= (3𝑥3)
= 20°
Substituting these in 3.21 yields
sin 30°
𝐾𝑑 = (3 sin 10°)
= 0.96

Also, Figure. 7.3 shows that 𝜏 = 9 slots and 𝛽 = 8 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠. Hence, from (3.22),
8𝜋
𝐾𝑝 = sin = sin 80° = 0.985
18
and
𝐾𝑤 = 𝐾𝑑 𝐾𝑝 = (0.96)(0.985) = 0.945
7.4. A 4-pole, 3-phase induction motor is energized from a 60-Hz supply, and is running at a
load condition for which the slip is 0.03. Determine: (a) rotor speed, in rpm; (Z>) rotor current
frequency, in Hz; (c) speed of the rotor rotating magnetic field with respect to the stator frame,
in rpm; (d) speed of the rotor rotating.
120 𝑓1 120(60)
𝑛𝑠 = 𝑝
= 4
= 1800 𝑟𝑝𝑚
a) n = (1- s)ns = (1- 0.03)(1800) = 1746 rpm
b) f2 = s f1 = (0.03)(60) = 1.8Hz
(c) The p poles on the stator induce an equal number of poles on the rotor. Now, the
same argument that led to (3.4) can be applied to the rotor. Thus, the rotor produces
a rotating magnetic field whose speed, relative to the rotor, is
120 𝑓2 120 𝑠𝑓1
𝑁𝑟 = 𝑝
= 𝑝
= 𝑠𝑛𝑠
But the speed of the rotor relative to the stator is n = (1 - s)ns. Therefore, the speed of
the rotor field with respect to the stator is
𝑛𝑠′ = 𝑛𝑟 + 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑠
i.e., in this case, 1800 rpm
d) Zero

153
7.5 Using the rotor equivalent circuit of Figure. 7-5(b), show that an induction motor will have
a maximum starting torque when its rotor resistance (regarded as variable) is equal to its
leakage reactance. All quantities are on a per-phase basis.

From Figure.7-5(b), the developed power, Pd, is given by

7.6 The rotor of a 3 phase, 60 Hz, 4 pole induction motor takes 120 kW at 3 Hz. Determine
(a) the rotor speed and (b) the rotor copper losses.

𝑓 3 120𝑓1 120(60)
(a) s = 𝑓2 = 60
+ 0.05 𝑛𝑠 = 𝑝
= 4
= 1800𝑟𝑝𝑚
1

n =(1 – s ) 𝑛𝑠 = (1- 0.05)(1800) = 1710 rpm

(b) by 3.15
rotor copper loss = s x (rotor input) = (0.05)(120) = 6 kW

7.7 The per-phase parameters of the equivalent circuit, Figure.7-8(a), for a 400-V, 60-Hz, 3-
phase, wye- connected, 4-pole induction motor are:
𝑅1 = 2𝑅′2 = 0.2𝛺 𝑥1 = 0.5𝛺 𝑥2′ = 0.2𝛺 𝑥𝑚 = 20𝛺

154
If the total mechanical and iron losses at 1755 rpm are 800W, compute (a) input current, (b)
input power, (c) output power, (d) output torque, (e) efficiency (all at 1755rpm).
120(60) 1800−1755 1
𝑛𝑠 = 4
= 1800𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑠= 1800
= 40
From the given circuit, the equivalent impedance per phase is
(𝑗20)(4+𝑗0.20)
𝑍𝑒 = (0.2 + 𝑗0.5) + 4+𝑗(20+0.2)

= (0.20 + j0.5) + (3.77+ j0.944) = 4.223 20°Ω

and phase voltage is 400/ √3 = 231V
231
(a) Input current = = 54.65 A
4.223
(b) Total input power = √3 (400)(54.65)(cos 20°) = 35.58 kW
(c) The total power crossing the airgap, Pg, is the power in the three 3.77 Q
resistances (see the expression for Ze above). Thus,
Pg = 3(54.65)2(3.77) = 33.789 kW
[Or, by subtraction of the stator losses, Pg = 35 580 - 3(54.65)2(0.2) = 33.788 kW].
The total developed power is then
Pd = (1 - s)Pg = (0.975)(33.79) = 32.94 kW
and the total output power is
Po= Pd- (800 W) = 32.14 kW
32140
(d) Output torque =𝑃𝑜 /𝜔𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋(1755)/(60) = 174.9𝑁. 𝑚
32.140𝑘𝑊
(e) Efficiency = 35.80 𝑘𝑊
x 100% = 90.3%

155
 Assessment Task 7

1. A 60 Hz induction motor has 2 poles and runs at 3510rpm. Calculate (a) the
synchronous speed and the percent slip.
2. Using only the rotor circuit (as in Problem 3.6), calculate the torque developed
phase by a 6- pole, 60-Hz, 3-phase induction motor at a slip of 5%, if the motor
develops a maximum per-phase torque T = 300 N • m while running at 780 rpm.
The rotor leakage reactance is 3.0 Q per phase.
3. The motor of Problem 3.8 has a stator copper loss of 3 kW, a mechanical loss
of 2 kW, and a stator core loss of 1.7 kW; Calculate (a) the motor output at
the shaft and (b) the efficiency. Neglect rotor core loss.
4. A 6-pole, 3-phase, 60-Hz induction motor takes 48 kW in power at 1140 rpm.
The stator copper loss is 1.4 kW, stator core loss is 1.6 kW, and rotor mechanical
losses are 1 kW. Find the motor efficiency.
5. A slip-ring induction motor, having a synchronous speed of 1800 rpm, runs at
n = 1710 rpm when the rotor resistance per phase is 0.2 Q. The motor is required
to develop a constant torque down to a speed of n = 1440 rpm. Using the rotor
circuit of Figure. 3-5(b), explain how this goal may be accomplished. The rotor
circuit
of Figure. 3-5(b), explain how this goal may be accomplished. The rotor leakage
reactance at standstill is 2 Q per phase.
6. The synchronous speed of an induction motor is 900 rpm. Under a blocked-rotor
condition, the input power to the motor is 45 kW at 193.6 A. The stator resistance
per phase is 0.2 Q and the transformation ratio is a = 2. Calculate (a) the ohmic
value of the rotor resistance per phase and (b) the motor starting torque. The stator
and rotor are wye-connected.

156
 7. The results of no-load and blocked-rotor tests on a 3-phase, wye-connected
induction motor are as follows:
no-load test: line-to-line voltage = 400 V
input power = 1770 W
input current = 18.5 A
friction and windage loss = 600 W
line-to-line voltage = 45 V input power = 2700 W input current = 63 A
Determine the parameters of the approximate equivalent circuit (Figure. 3-10).

Summary

Summary of Formula

MMFs of ARMATURE WINDINGS

4 𝑁 𝜋𝑥
ℱ1 (x, t) = ( 𝑖) cos (3.1)
𝜋 2 𝜏

𝜋𝑥
ℱ1 (x, t) = 0.9 NI sin ωtcos (At) (3.2)
𝜏

𝜋𝑥
ℱ𝐴 = ℱ𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos
𝜏
𝜋𝑥
ℱ𝐵 = ℱ𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 120°) cos( − 120°) (3.3)
𝜏
𝜋𝑥
ℱ𝐶 = ℱ𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 120°) cos( + 120°)
𝜏

157
PRODUCTION OF ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELDS

𝜋𝑥
ℱ (x, t) = 1.5 ℱ𝑚 sin (ωt - ) (3.4)
𝜏
𝜏𝜔
𝑉𝑠 = (m/s) (3.5)
𝜋
2𝜋𝑉𝑆
𝜆= 2𝜏 (𝑚) (3.6)
𝜔
120𝑓1
𝑛𝑆 = 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = ( 𝑟𝑝𝑚) (3.7)
𝑃
where f1 = ω/ 2𝜋 is the stator current (and mmf rotational) frequency (Nasar, 1998)
Slip; Machine Equivalent Circuits
𝑛𝑠 −𝑛
s= (3.8)
𝑛𝑠

fs = sf1 (3-9)

𝑎𝐸2
𝐼2 =
√𝑅22 + (𝑠𝑋2 )2

𝐸2
𝐼2 = (3-10)
√(𝑅2 ⁄𝑠)2 +𝑋22
𝑚1 𝑘𝑤1 𝑁1 2
𝑅2! = 𝑎2 𝑅2 where 𝑎2 = [ ] (3.11)
𝑚2 𝑘𝑤2 𝑛2

𝑋2′ = 𝑎2 𝑋2 (3.12)

𝑅2′ 𝑅2′
= 𝑅2′ + (1 − 𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠
CALCULATIONS FROM EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝐼𝑖2 𝑅1 (3.13)
𝑅′2
𝑃𝑔 = 𝐼22 (3.14)
𝑠
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃𝑔 − 𝐼22 𝑅′2 = (1 − 𝑠)𝑃𝑔 (3-15)
Po = P d - Pr (3.16)

158
APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS FROM TEST DATA
No-Load Test

𝑉𝑜2
𝑅𝑚 = (3.17)
𝑃𝑜
𝑣𝑜2
𝑋𝑚 =
√𝑉𝑜2 𝐼𝑜2 − 𝑃𝑜2
(3.18)
Blocked-Rotor Test

𝑃𝑠
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅! + 𝑎2 𝑅2 = (3.19)
𝐼𝑠2
√𝑉𝑠2 𝐼𝑠2 − 𝑃𝑠2
𝑋𝑒 = 𝑋1 + 𝑎2 𝑋2 = (3.20)
𝐼𝑠2

Reference

Nasar, Syed A.. (1998). Schaum Outline of Theory and Problem of Electric Machine
and Electro Mechanics (2nd Ed.). United State of America,The McGraw- Hill
Company, Inc.

159