UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FOOD TECHNOLOGY (CoAF)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
AM 401: MECHANICS OF FARM MACHINERY
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

NAME:MBEZI, EMMANUEL D

REG No :2018-04-04227

COURSE: BSc AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING AND MECHANIZATION

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Contents

1- Tractor Performance...........................................................................................................................4
Difference between tractive performance and tractor performance..................................................4
Ballasting tractor-implement matching...............................................................................................5
Adjusting ballast..................................................................................................................................5
Weight addition................................................................................................................................5
Ballasting and weight transfer..........................................................................................................6
Weight transfer and instability, steerability and stability........................................................................7
Center of Gravity.................................................................................................................................7
Reasons the CG Moves Around...........................................................................................................8
Causes of Overturn..............................................................................................................................8
How to avoid tipping.........................................................................................................................10
Safety Measures................................................................................................................................11
Implement hitching and control............................................................................................................11
The standard hitching systems may be classified as follows..............................................................11
Common arrangements.....................................................................................................................12
Human factors, ergonomics and machine controls...............................................................................13
The Operator-Machine Interface.......................................................................................................13
Noise and Vibration Control..............................................................................................................13
Spatial, Visual, and Control Requirements of the Operator...............................................................14
2- Theories and practice of cultivation...............................................................................................15
Basic Elements and Materials of Tillage Tools...................................................................................15
TINES.................................................................................................................................................15
TINE GEOMETRY................................................................................................................................16
Effects of non - scouring conditions...................................................................................................17
Implement design and selection for the basic cultivation operations...................................................18
Based on soil mechanics principles and soil state..................................................................................18
Soil failure – coulomb equation.........................................................................................................19
Mohr’s work......................................................................................................................................21
Prandtl equation................................................................................................................................21
Prandtl, Reece, Others Work.............................................................................................................22

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 Field and laboratory observations.........................................................................................................22
Field and lab work – Cone penetrometer..........................................................................................23
Field measurement of soil strength...................................................................................................23
Tillage tool design factors......................................................................................................................24
Scouring.................................................................................................................................................25
Factors affecting scouring..................................................................................................................26
Manner of movement.......................................................................................................................26
REFERENCE................................................................................................................................................27

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 1- Tractor performance testing
The Nebraska Tractor Tests
The 1919 session of the Nebraska legislature passed "A Bill for an Act to provide for official
tests for gas, gasoline, kerosene, distillate or other liquid fuel traction engines in the State of
Nebraska and to compel the maintenance of adequate service stations for same (Brackett 1931).
The bill was by a farmer who had bought and used tractors and whose experiences and
observations convinced him that conditions could be improved by the enactment of proper
legislation. The bill became law on July 15, 1919, and the testing work was assigned to the
Agricultural Engineering Department of the State University, where it has since remained.

Power Measurement Methods

To understand power and its measurement, certain terms must be defined and clearly understood.
Power-Power is a rate of doing work. A unit of power is a newton meter per second (watt).
Kilowatt A unit of power equal to 1000 N m of work per second.
Brake power-The power output of the engine crankshaft. The engine may be stripped of part or
all of its accessories. Power-takeoff power-The power delivered by a tractor through its PTO
shaft.
Drawbar power The power of a tractor measured at the end of the drawbar.
Friction power The power required to run the engine at any given speed without production of
useful work. It is usually measured with a suitable electric dynamometer that runs or "motors"
the engine. It represents the friction and pumping losses of an engine
Kilowatt-hour One kilowatt working for one hour. It is 3.6 x 106 joules
of work.
Dynamometer An instrument for determining power, usually by the independent measure of
force, time, and the distance through which the force is moved. Dynamometers may be classified
as brake, drawbar, or torsion, according to the manner in which the work is being applied. Also,
they may be classed as absorption or transmission, depending on the disposition of the energy.

Types of dynamometers
Absorption Dynamometers
- Prony Brake: An absorption dynamometer measures the power applied and at the same
time converts it to some other form of energy, usually heat.
- Hydraulic: The hydraulic dynamometer (fig. 14-3) also operates on the principle of
converting work into heat.
- Air Brake: Air or fan brakes are useful only in loading engines for run-in purposes and
for rough testing at relatively high speeds.
- Eddy-Current: An eddy-current dynamometer consists essentially of a rotor operating in
connection with a stator.

Electric Direct-Current Dynamometers

- The direct-current cradle-mounted dynamometer is a shunt-wound generator with
separate field excitation.
Shop-Type Dynamometers
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 - It is often desirable to measure the pto power of a tractor in the field or in an implement
dealer's repair shop.
Torsion Dynamometers

Chassis Dynamometer

Power Take off performance from Nebraska tests

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Traction testing
Traction testing involves operating a traction device (wheel or belt) in the soil and making
measurements of its performance. Four dynamic (on the go) measurements are required:
• Input torque (T)
• Input speed (ω)
• Output force (NT)
• Output speed (Va)
Additionally, the dynamic weight (ground reaction force) must be known, measured, or
calculated. This
will usually depend on the design of the traction test device. If a single-wheel tester is used, it
can be
designed such that the dynamic weight reaction force is equal to that measured statically.

Single-Wheel Testing
The simplest device for a traction test of a wheeled device requires supporting the moving wheel,
applying the required torque, and measuring the developed force (net traction).

There are various ways this can be accomplished, with varying levels of complexity. Some
devices can operate only in soil bins, i.e., bring the soil to the device, while others are operated in
the field. In some cases, testing is done using complete vehicles, with the tractive device being
the drive wheels or tracks

With the single-link device above a change in input torque (T) results in a change in vertical
force
reaction (Wd), which then must be measured dynamically during the test (in most cases adjusted
and measured
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statically).
Figure below shows a modification using two parallel links
Advantage- eliminates the weight transfer effect,
Disadvantage-result in more difficult measurement of NT and T.
two alternatives for measuring torque
i- directly measuring the input torque,
ii- determining torque from the measurement of NT.
Net traction is the vector sum of the two reaction forces; the input torque can be determined by
the
difference in the two reaction forces multiplied by the distance between the links.

Figure: Single- wheel tester with

Parallel arm single-wheel tester with direct measurement of NT.

Tractor Performance
Tractor performance is proportional to the performance of the traction device(s), but not equal to
it.
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Difference between tractive performance and tractor performance: -
 Tractive performance (efficiency) depends on knowing the input power (axle power) to
the traction device. Axle power for a complete tractor is seldom known and is not
measured during official tests.
 Tractive performance is given for a defined tire or traction device, for example an
18.4R46 tire. A tractor may operate with a combination of different traction devices, that
is, different size tires on the front and rear axles.
 Due to weight transfer when operating, even if a tractor has the same tires front and rear
(4WD
tractors, for example), both the static and dynamic weight that the tires are operating with will
likely be different between the front and rear axles, requiring different tire pressures and thus a
"different" traction device.
The performance of a tractor depends on the performance of a combination of traction devices
and the performance of the tractor drivetrain
Ballasting tractor-implement matching.
Adjusting ballast
Cast iron wheel weights or water in the tires are e quality effective means of adding weight. Cast
iron has the advantage of being easier to remove when the tractor is being u sed for light draught
work. One man can usually install weights up to about 50kg, provided there are ledges or pins to
support the weight whilst the attaching bolts and nuts are fitted.

If the height of the tractor drawbar can be adjusted, it provides the simplest way of making
changes to the tractor’s weight distribution when working. As explained previously in this
chapter, raising the drawbar increases the load on the rear wheels and reduces the load on the
front wheels. On two-wheel-drive tractors, the only reason for adding ballast in the front is to
stabilize the steering control. Excess front weight wastes power and fuel.

Weightaddition
Some three-point-linkage implements and some trailed chisel plows and rippers can impose
heavy downward forces on the tractor drawbar. This causes additional weight to be added to the
rear of the tractor and increases the weight transfer. As a rough guideline, tractors working with
implements, which impose heavy downward loads, should be ballasted with 10% less total
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weight than specified In the Table 1 below and the portion of weight on the front wheels s
hould b e
increased by about 10%, as shown in Table

Tractor Type Weight Distribution at Rest (%)

Front Rear
Two-wheel-drive 30 70
Front-wheel-assist 45 55
Four-wheel-drive 65 35
The weight distribution is for tractors pulling implements, which impose
heavy downward force on tractor drawbar.

Table: applies only to tillage implements. Other implements like carry drag scrapers have the
potential to impose very high downward loads on the tractor and can cause extreme overloading
of the tractor’s rear axle.

Ballasting and weight transfer

If a tractor is not ballasted correctly, it will not work efficiently and there is also a risk of
premature drive-train failure. Too much weight means power is wasted in moving the tractor
around and drive-train components may fail prematurely. If the tractor is too light, excessive
wheel slip will waste power and cause rapid tire wear.
Correct weight levels
Correct tractor weight depends on the pull it exerts. When working at high power and low speed,
the tractor will develop a high pull and will need heavy ballasting. When working at high power
and high speed, the tractor will require less ballasting.
Table 2 gives an estimate of the correct working weight for tractors.

Working Weight required per

speed(Km/h) PTO kW (kg)
2-Wheel Drive 4-Wheel Drive
4 150 125
5 120 100
6 100 83

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 7 86 71
8 75 63
10 60 50
12 55 42
* The weight required is for tractors working on firm or cultivated soil, using 80% of its
available power. Optimum weight for a given speed can be calculated by multiplying the figure
opposite that speed by the tractor’s maximum PTO power in k W. These weights are only
guidelines. The measuring of the actual wheel slip can be used to adjust the ballast.

Weight transfer and instability, steerability and stability

Center of Gravity
The central concept in tractor stability/instability is Center of Gravity (CG). A tractor's CG is the
point where all parts balance one another. For example, when a two-wheel drive tractor is sitting
with all wheels on level ground, the CG is typically about 10 inches (25.4 cm) above and two
feet (0.6 m) in front of the rear axle when looking from back to front, and in the center of the
tractor body when looking left to right. This results in approximately 30 percent of the tractor
weight on the front axle, and 70 percent on the rear axle. For four-wheel drive and center-
articulated tractors, the CG is located slightly more forward. Added weights to a tractor can
affect the CG.

Figure 1: The tractor’s center of gravity is inside the stability baseline.

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There are two very important points to remember about tractor CG and stability baselines: • The
tractor will not overturn if the CG stays inside the stability baseline. • The CG moves around
inside the baseline area as you operate the tractor. As you can see in figure 1, a wide front-end
tractor provides more space for the CG to move around without going outside the stability
baseline.

Drawing a line to connect all the wheels of the tractor as the wheels set on level ground forms a
tractor stability baseline. The line connecting the rear tire ground contact points is the rear
stability baseline. The lines connecting the rear and front tire on the same side are the right and
left side stability baselines.
Tractor CG action is no different from the CG action on any other mobile vehicle. What differs is
that tractors have a higher CG when compared to most other vehicles, such as automobiles and
trucks. The higher CG on modern tractors is

an inherent design characteristic and relates to their need for higher ground clearance over crops
and rough terrain. Changing tractor design so that their CG is significantly lowered would
largely defeat the purpose for having agricultural tractors.

Reasons the CG Moves Around

There are five main reasons why a tractor’s CG moves outside the stability baseline.
1. The tractor is operated on a steep slope.
2. The tractor’s CG is raised higher from its natural location 10 inches above the rear axle.
3. The tractor is going too fast for the sharpness of the turn.
4. Power is applied to the tractor’s rear wheels too quickly.
5. The tractor is trying to pull a load that is not hitched to the drawbar.

Causes of Overturn
How Center of Gravity and Centrifugal Force Result in an Overturn
When a tractor is on a slope, the distance between the tractor’s CG and stability baseline is
reduced. Figure 2. shows how this occurs. On steep slopes, the tractor is already close to an
overturn. A small bump on the high side, or a groundhog hole on the low side, may be all that is
needed for the tractor to overturn.

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Figure: When a tractor is on a slope, the distance between the tractor’s CG and stability baseline
is reduced.
During tractor overturns, CF is that force trying to roll the tractor over whenever the tractor is
turning. Centrifugal force increases both as the turning angle of the tractor becomes sharper
(decreases), and as the speed of the tractor increases during a turn. For every degree the tractor is
turned tighter, there is an equal amount of increased CF. Centrifugal force varies in proportion to
the square of the tractor’s speed
When the distance between the tractor’s CG and side stability baseline is already reduced from
being on a hillside, only a little CF may be needed to push the tractor over.

A front-end loader or other attachment mounted on a tractor can raise the tractor’s CG. When the
bucket is raised high, the balance point for the whole tractor is also raised. Figure 4.12.d shows
how a raised CG.

Figure 3. A raised CG makes it easier for a tractor to turn over sideways. Safety Management for
Landscapers, Grounds-Care Businesses, and Golf Courses,

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about 75 degrees from a level surface before its CG passes the rear stability baseline and the
tractor continues flipping over. This position is commonly called the “point of no return.”

Figure 4.12.e. The point of no return is reached

in 3/4 of a second.

When a two-wheel drive tractor is pulling a load, the rear tires push against the ground. At the
same time, the load attached to the tractor is pulling back and down against the forward
movement of the tractor. The load is described as pulling down because the load is resting on the
earth’s surface. This backward and downward pull results in the rear tires becoming a pivot
point, with the load acting as a force trying to tip the tractor rearward.
A tractor, including the drawbar, is designed to safely counteract the rearward tipping action of
pulled loads. When loads are attached to a tractor at any point other than the drawbar, the
safety design of the tractor for pulling loads is defeated.
The heavier the load and the higher the “angle of pull,” the more leverage the load has to tip
the tractor rearward.
How to avoid tipping
Things to consider while hitching to avoid tipping
1- Only hitch to the drawbar
2- Never hitch to the top link of a point hitch
3- The angle of pull should be kept to a minimum.

figure 4: illustration of angle of pull

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Safety Measures
1- The operator must stay within the protective frame of the Rollover Protective Structure
(Zone of Protection) in order for the ROPS to work as designed
2- This means the operator must wear
the seat belts.

Implement hitching and control

The hitching of implements and the mechanics of the chassis may be studied by considering two
perpendicular
planes:
i) The vertical longitudinal plane down the center line of the tractor in which we
consider the symmetrical forces such as the weight, the wheel reactions and the direct
effect of the implement forces.
ii) the horizontal plane where the moment effect of the implement forces which are not
symmetrical (e.g. Unsymmetrical or off-set implements and all draft forces in
turning) will affect the attitude and steering of the tractor. These influence the
operation of the tractor but are not relevant to the normal (straight ahead)

The hitching of implements to tractors may be made in various ways and places. For this
purpose, the tractor has one or more standard attachment locations at the rear and for some
tractors at the front, in the form of:
(i) Linkages for 'adjustable' attachment; adjustment in the vertical plane is usually made by
means of an in-built hydraulic (hydro-static) pump driven by the tractor engine.
(ii) Drawbars for 'fixed' attachment; adjustment is made manually or with 'external' or 'remote'
hydraulic cylinders supplied with oil from the in-built hydraulic pump in the tractor.
The standard hitching systems may be classified as follows.
a) Trailed one-point hitch

Here the implement is attached to the tractor at one (drawbar) hitch point
- The implement, which is usually carried on wheels (for support and / or depth
control), is free to move in both the horizontal and vertical planes as it follows the
varying ground surface.

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Common arrangements
i- where the implement is fully carried on its wheels and its drawbar is pivoted at both
ends; the implement force is essentially horizontal, Figure (a).
ii- where the front of the implement (such as in an unbalanced trailer or similar two-
wheeled implement) is carried on the tractor drawbar and the rear on a wheel or
wheels, Figure (b).
The trailer hitch is least effective in terms of both weight transfer and implement control
when compared with other systems

Figure : Trailed (one point) implement hitches (a) without and (b) with vertical force.

b) Semi-mounted - two point hitch

In this arrangement the front of the implement is carried on the lower links of the tractor
and the rear on a castor wheel as in Figure below

Figure: Semi-mounted hitch where the front of implement is carried on a horizontal pivot.

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 c) Fully mounted three-point hitch
- Here the implement is attached to the tractor by means of the three-point linkage as
shown in Figure 6.3. In this side view the lower two points are coincident; the upper
point is midway between, but above the lower two.
- This system totally constrains and allows complete control of the implement. It is not
free to swing in space like the trailed implement, nor in the vertical plane like the
semi-mounted; it must operate in the position determined for it by the linkage.

Figure: Fully mounted, rear three-point linkage hitch.

Human factors, ergonomics and machine controls

The Operator-Machine Interface

The operator uses hearing, sight, and feel to interpret inputs and to interface with the control-

Regarding design of the operator's workplace, Hansson et al. (1970) state: Safety, comfort and
convenience should be considered in the design, location and construction of the operator's work
place. The work place should be located on the machine so that visibility in the driving position
is good without requiring the operator to work in an awkward, tiring position. Levers, pedals and
instruments should be conveniently and logically located and the work place should fit both tall
and short operators. In addition, the operator should be able to change his working position
easily and the work area should be free of sharp edges and obstructions such as transmission
cases.

Noise and Vibration Control

Noise levels are the summation of rotating and reciprocating parts, structural vibrations, and gas
and fluid flows, all of which are transmitted either through the tractor's structure or through the
air. Vibration levels are the summation of components that are similar to noise source
components plus ground inputs from wheels

13
Sound and vibration are generated in the various rotating, reciprocating, and vibrating
components of the tractor. Fans, blowers, gears, and internal combustion engines generate sound
at a fundamental frequency, respectively, of rpm/60 times the number of blades, impellers, teeth,
and number of cylinders
Operator’s seating

Figure: Schematic diagram of noise and motion transmission.

Spatial, Visual, and Control Requirements of the Operator

Anthropometric data are used to properly design the operator's workplace to meet visibility and
clearance requirements. Table 9-5 gives selected anthropometric data for U.S. adult males. The
data shown have been adopted for use in SAE J833 as a recommended practice. For example,
height inside a tractor cab should be 185 cm to ensure that 95 percent of male tractor drivers will
not bump their heads when standing. Use of 185-cm standing height would also ensure
satisfactory design for adult women (95 percent is 170 cm).

SOCRCE: E. J. McCormick. Human Factors in Engineering and Design, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York, 1976.
The table above shows the

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 2- Theories and practice of cultivation
Basic Elements and Materials of Tillage Tools
When entering the soil, the force applied to the tool is multiplied before acting on the soil, thus
causing either soil failure under dry conditions (crumbling) or plastic deformation in wet soils.
Usually soil failure is the desired effect while plastic deformation is an unwanted effect unless
applied for puddling in paddy field tillage.
Tillage machines that use drawn tines are performing this mainly by cutting, breaking, milling
and to a smaller extent by beating and throwing soil aggregates. Their effect usually becomes
stronger with speed. At the same time, tools with drawn tines are able to separate the different
size classes of the soil. Implements with driven tools usually break clods by beating them and
throwing them against some surface from where they will
rebound.
TINES
Occurrence
When a soil has to be loosened, a body (operating tool) can be moved through the soil. Such a
body will be labeled a tine if the loosening effect reaches considerably further than the width of
the body, and plow body if the loosening effect is mainly confined to the soil within the width of
the operating tool. Tines occur in chisel plows, spike-tooth-harrows, cultivators, p.t.o.-driven
implements for seedbed preparation, weeders, and subs oilers (Krause and Lorenz 1979, Davis et
al. 1972, Bernacki and Haman 1973).

15
 Figure:Failure patterns of soil before a tillage tool
1: Failure according to the model of passive earth pressure;
2: Failure according to the model of bearing capacity;
3: Failure before a narrow tine; passive earth pressure failure above critical depth and bearing
capacity failure below critical depth;
4: Failure surfaces in the soil: passive earth pressure failure zone (I), intermediate zone (II), and
bearing capacity failurezone (III)

Figure: Mechanisms for clod breaking

TINE GEOMETRY
The tine geometry indicated that the failure would be upward, forwards and sideways (above
critical depth) . Ignoring soil –metal adhesion effects, which are generally a very small
proportion of the total force, the relevant part of the model gives the horizontal component (H t)
of the passive force (P) as

H t = (g d2 Nγ + cdNca + qdNq) × [ w + d (m – 1/3(m - 1))] sin (α + δ)

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Fig: Wide tine showing soil failure plane

The three terms in the first bracket account for gravitational, cohesive and adhesive, and surface
surcharge loading effects respectively .
The second bracket contains the tine width ( w ) and an additional term linked to depth ( d )
which allows for crescent
failures at each side of the tine .
The rupture distance ratio ( m )
The rupture zone ( f )
depth of the tine ( d )
The final term (sin ( α + δ )) gives the horizontal component of the resultant force .

A simplified equation for the vertical force component , V t , is given by

V t 5 ( g d2 Nγ + cdNc a + qdN q )× [ w + d ( m – 1/3( m - 1))] cos ( α + δ )]’

Complicated than that originally given in the model by Godwin and Spoor 3 and produces a
negligible difference in the vertical force component at rake angles less than 75% (when δ=20°)

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Figure: Cross - section of typical tine failure soil profile

Effects of non - scouring conditions

Experience of tines running in cohesive clays shows that soil build up occurs near the surface but
decreases with depth to the tine point as shown in F i g . 5 . This means that the effective rake
angle δe is greater than

Fig. 2. Non - scouring (static) soil block on tine face

the actual tine angle a . A simple assumption was used in order to take this effect into account
where a e is the mean rake angle between a at depth and 90 8 at the soil surface , as given in Eqn
below
Hence, for non-scouring soils a e replaces a and now because the moving soil slides over static
soil the interface friction angle ( d ) is assumed to be equal to

Implement design and selection for the basic cultivation operations

Based on soil mechanics principles and soil state.
Currently, ground engaging tillage tools are developed by constructing parts and running
physical tests either in a soil bin or in the field. Based on the results changes are made and new
parts are constructed and retested. Design options are limited by the cost required to construct the
parts and the time required to run tests. Mathematical analyses of tillage forces offer a way to
simulate and design ground engaging tools in soil speed of conditioning soil for improved crop
growth. One important factor in evaluating these tools is the amount of power required to pull

18
the tool, or implement, through the soil. The power requirement effects the size of tractor
needed, the speed, and depth at which the tool can be operated.

Figure: Example of a tillage tool (sweep) on an implement

The work done by the sweep creates forces that are carried into the implement frame. The
forces can be divided into three components as illustrated on the figure below. The force in the
fore-aft direction is commonly referred to as the draft force. The vertical force is the amount of
force that sucks the tool into the ground or pushes it up. The lateral force is the side-to-side
force. These forces tend to be cyclic in nature and cause fatigue on the implement frame. The
sum of the forces from each individual sweep is the total load on the hitch of the implement that
connects the implement to the tractor.

Figure: Free body diagram of field cultivator sweep and shank

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Soil failure – coulomb equation
o Some of the earliest developments in understanding soil failure were developed by
Coulomb in 1776. He surmised that the shear strength of soil was made up of two
components: cohesion and friction.
Cohesion is the shear strength or bonding strength of the soil independent of any
external applied pressure.
Friction is the shear strength component that is relative to the applied pressure.

Coulomb’s law of soil shear strength is given as

From the Coulomb’s law of soil shear strength, various methods of evaluating the force of the
soil acting on a wall or cutting tool have been developed. The basis for these formulations started
out from infinite smooth vertical walls retaining a soil mass, such as a retaining wall. Coulomb
developed one of the earliest such methods of calculating the soil force. He based his method on
the idea that the weakest failure plane would most likely be the failure surface. Then he
calculated the failure surface based on the internal friction, cohesion strength, and soil weight.
The graphical representation of this development is shown on the figure below.

The resulting equation is below

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The methodology developed by Coulomb has been applied to certain types of soil- tool
interactions. These included wide tools such as bulldozer blades and plows where edge effects
are small compared to the forces on the face of the tool because the width of the tools is large
compared to the height. However, there are many types of tillage tools that do not satisfy the
geometry assumptions.

Mohr’s work
o Mohr, in 1882, showed that it is possible to show the two-dimensional stress state on the
failure plane even with known stress values that are not on the failure plane.
o The stresses on the failure plane can be determined by creating a graph of Mohr’s circle
with the values of cohesion and the principal stresses.
o The graph could also be used to calculate the internal friction angle of the soil and the
angle of the failure plane.

The figure below shows an example of the stress state on a triaxial soil sample and the
corresponding Mohr’s circle of the stress state.

21
Prandtl equation
Prandtl developed an equation for determining the bearing capacity of smooth shallow footings.
Directly below the footing is an active Rankine soil failure zone that moves downward and to the
sides are passive failure zones that move up.
Between the active and passive failure zones are radial shear zones.
Prandtl surmised that if the weight of the soil were assumed to be negligible compared to the
forces resulting from soil cohesion along the radial shear zone then the shape of the radial shear
zone surface would be a log spiral (McKyes, 1989).

Prandtl, Reece, Others Work

Combining the theories of coulomb and Prandtl resulted in a two-dimensional model for
calculating soil forces on tillage tools. The two failure zones in front of the tool have a surface
shaped by the logarithmic spiral curve as mentioned before.
Calculating the soil forces on the failure boundaries of the two zones and adding in the body
forces can be used to calculate the force components on a tillage tool.
Based on this theory, Reece developed a force equation for the total force on the tool (shen and
kushwaha, 1998).

Figure below illustrates the model and failure surface.

22
Field and laboratory observations
o Observations in the field have given way to lab experiments in controlled conditions that
allowed for repetition. Soil bins were created in laboratories so that various soil
parameters could be controlled to determine the effect on tillage tools. Willatt and Willis
studied the effect of soil compaction and buildup on simple tines (Willatt and Willis,
1965).

Using a standard tine to predict the loads on tillage tools was proposed by Desbiolles et.al
(1997). They investigated an approach where the tillage forces could be predicted based on two
factors relating to soil strength and the tool geometry.
1- The first step involved establishing relationships between a standard tine and various tool
geometries under controlled soil conditions, such as in a soil bin.
Five different tool types were considered including two subsoilers, chisel tine, disc, and
moldboard plow.
2- The second step involved measuring the forces on the standard tine in a variety of field
conditions. Collecting data with the standard tine in four soil conditions, they were able
to predict the draught to within an average of 18 percent of the measured force.

Field and lab work – Cone penetrometer

Predicting tillage forces based on cone penetrometer readings was proposed by Desbiolles et. al
(1999). In their research they compared the relationship between the cone penetration energy
(Pe) and the soil strength factor (S). They collected cone penetrometer data in sandy-loam and
clay soils. Draught data was collected for a 70mm wide standard tine. Using a regression

23
analysis of the data, they were able to develop equations for sandy and clay soils as a function of
soil type, geometry, tool width, working depth, and penetrometer energy.

Field measurement of soil strength

Soil strength influences the energy to carry out and also determines whether a crop's root system
can effectively the soil to obtain reasons it is frequently necessary in cultural practice/tillage
studies to soil strength. Pre-tillage measurements should be taken, but will only be of value if soil
water content, soil and dry bulk density are known.
Cone Index
Cone Index is measured using a proprietary made conforming to recognized standards
4.5. It is an indication of the soil hardness and is expressed as force per cm2 (or kilo Pascals,
kPa) of a cone to penetrate the soil. Cone Index under the same soil conditions varies with cone
apex angle and area of cone base. The apex angle and base diameter should be specified the force
is measured at set depths and the results as in Figure below

Tillage tool design factors

- The purpose of the tillage tool is to manipulate a soil as required to achieve a desired
soil condition.
- There are three abstract design factors namely,
i. initial soil condition,
ii. tool shape and,

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 iii. manner of tool movement.
These three design factors control or define the soil manipulation.
- The results of these three input factors are evidenced by two output factors, namely,
i. the final soil condition and,
ii. the forces required to manipulate the soil.

All five factors are of direct concern to a tillage implement designer.

o Of the three input factors, the designer has complete control only on the tool shape. The
user may vary the depth or speed of operation and may use the tool through a wide range
of soil initial conditions. However, tool shape cannot be considered independently of the
manner of movement or initial soil condition. The orientation of a tool shape with respect
to the direction of travel must be defined. Different initial soil condition sometime
requires different shapes. For example many different shapes of the moldboard plows has
been developed for different soil types and conditions.

o The shape that is of concern in design is the surface over which the soil moves as a tillage
tool is operated.

o Gill and Vanden Berg classify three shape characteristics as

i. macroshape,

ii. edgeshape

iii. microshape.

o The term macro-shape designates the shape of the gross surface. The edge shape refers to
the peripheral and cross-sectional shape of the boundaries of the soil working surface.

o Notched and smooth disk blades have different edge shape but the macro shape may be
the same. The micro-shapes refer to the surface roughness.

o Most tillage tool have been developed by cut-and-try methods on the basis of qualitative
analysis. The manipulation-shape relation has received has greatest emphasis in the
development of the mould board plow bottoms, whereas force shape relations have been
of concern in subsoilers and chisel type tools.

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 o Mathematical description of the shapes are the most versatile means of representation,
but tools such as mouldboard plough have complex shapes that cannot easily be
representative in mathematical form. Graphic representation is often employed for plow
bottoms, although mathematical analysis has been attempted and computer analysis of
plow-bottom shapes is increasing.

Scouring
One of the most important aspects of sliding action of soil is scouring of a tool while it is being
operated.

Since the coefficient of soil-metal friction of nonadhesive soil is normally less than that of soil-
soil friction, less force is required to move a tool through soil if sliding occurs along the metal
surface.

Scouring is defined as the shedding or self-cleaning of the soil through a sliding action; but
scouring also requires that the soil moves fast enough so that “too much congestion" does not
occur. In normal operation where scouring is adequate, soil flows over a tool alone: a path that is
determined by the shape of the tool.

In adhesive soils, when sticking occurs, a layer of soil may build up along the surface of the tool
so that soil flows over a layer of soil attached to the surface of the tool.

In incipient cases of sliding, the soil moves across the tool so slowly that the soil on the tool acts
as a rigid body which is driven through the soil mass. Soil does not flow smoothly across the
plow when this occurs.

Factors affecting scouring

Payne and Fountaine (1954) studied the mechanics of scouring along simple surfaces and
concluded that the following factors affect the scouring of a tool in soil:

1) The coefficient of soil-metal friction

2) The coefficient of soil-soil friction

3) The angle of approach of the tool

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 4) The soil cohesion

5) The soil adhesion

Manner of movement
o Manner of movement involves orientation of the tool, its path through the soil, and its
speed along the path.

o For tools that travel in a straight line (i.e. not rotary or oscillating tools.), the path is
usually identified by merely specifying the depth and width of cut.

o Orientation of a tool having a particular shape may significantly influence both the soil
manipulation and the forces. Often the linkage system used to position of a tool affects
both depth and orientation.

o When sufficient power is available, speed is the easiest design factor to vary.

Increasing the speed generally increases draft but also affects soil movement and breakup.

REFERENCE
1- Farm and Ranch Management, John Deere Publishing, 1994.
2- John Deere Publishing, (2001): Safety Management for Landscapers, Grounds-Care
Businesses, and Golf Courses.
3- Liljedahl, J.B; P.K. Turnquist; D.W. Smith and M. Hoki (1995).Tractors and their Power
units. Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold New York USA.
4- Pennsylvania state University (2004): Tractor Stability, national safe tractor and
machinery operation program Service Ltd
5- Type agriculture tractor overturn hazards in search box: Tractor Overturn Hazards,
August 2002. www.cdc.gov/
5- Wendel, C.H. 1995. Nebraska Tractor Tests Since 1920. Publisher: TBS The Book

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