STONE CARVING

MAHABALIPURAM

PREFACE
In the coastal town of Mahabalipuram, nestled along the southeastern shores of India, lies a
treasure trove of artistic heritage that has withstood the test of time. This UNESCO World
Heritage Site has witnessed centuries of cultural progress and aesthetic expression, most
notably in the form of magnificent stone carvings. The complex sculptures and architectural
marvels that adorn this ancient environment bear witness to the extraordinary talent and
dedication of the artisans who crafted them.
Exploring the depths of Mahabalipuram's rich artistic heritage, we find ourselves transported
on a captivating journey through the past and present. As we travel through the annals of
time, we follow the amazing craftsmen who chiselled life into stone, creating deities, myths,
and storylines that last centuries. We will decipher the carvings' complex intricacies and their
tales and emotions. Setting the stage for our upcoming exploration and offering valuable
insights into the historical and cultural importance of stone carving in Mahabalipuram, this is
a journey through which the subsequent chapters unfold and provide a deeper
understanding of stone carving. It will reveal not just the techniques and tools employed by
the skilled craftsmen of the past but also the profound spiritual and artistic inspirations that
guided their hands. With their unwavering passion and dedication and having poured their
souls into preserving this remarkable artistic legacy, we are extremely grateful and in awe of
the artisans. This document celebrates tradition's persistence against modern forces.
By embarking on this journey of discovery, we aim to unravel the enigma of
Mahabalipuram's stone carving heritage, celebrating its strengths and uncovering the
secrets that continue to make it awe inspiring for anyone who comes across this legacy.

CHAPTER ONE: ORIGIN AND

HISTORY
1.1 THE CRAFT'S HISTORY AND
DEVELOPMENT
History and Tradition

India features a remarkably rich stone-carving tradition, widely recognised as one of the
most prominent in the world.Since the seventh century B.C., there have been stonecutters'
and masons' guilds in this area. Stone was one of the earliest materials used by ancient
humans for tool-making purposes. These objects are exquisite works of art, meticulously
crafted by hand with the use of hammers and chisels. Stone carving was a prevalent

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practise in ancient times, primarily used for crafting a variety of small weapons, including
arrowheads, javelin points, hammers, and more. The exquisite figures are skillfully carved in
relief, showcasing intricate details engraved in fine lines and delicate patterns. The carvings
show that the excavations uncovered stone figures that date back about 3000 years.
Although metal became increasingly popular for making various items, stone continued to be
a preferred material for creating sculptures. The classical tradition of stone carving was
closely intertwined with architecture. India is renowned for its numerous significant temples,
including Puri, Konark, Khajuraho, Martand in Kashmir, Ellora, Kailash Temple, and the
Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram.

Stone sculpture is a captivating art form that involves the creative process of transforming
blocks of stone into three-dimensional objects. Stone moulds are used to precisely shape
raw natural stone pieces, allowing for the production of a wide variety of objects. Stone
carving is an ancient technique that has been practised for centuries in order to create
stunning and intricate stone sculptures. The process involves skillfully removing stone
fragments from a block in order to achieve the desired design. The durability of stone can be
observed in some of the earliest societies, including Greece, Egypt, India, and various parts
of Europe. Sculptors are equipped with a wide range of carving tools, including both hand
carving tools and a diverse selection of chisels. Throughout history, various cultures have
utilised electric devices, employing a wide range of methods and cutting-edge technology.
Throughout the vast majority of human history, hammers and chisels have served as
indispensable tools. Stone carving is a meticulous and time-consuming process that requires
a great deal of focus and concentration. The process entails several distinct steps. Stone
sculptures can be crafted using a variety of materials, including marble, travertine, limestone,
sandstone, and soft stone. Several states, including Orissa, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Himachal
Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh, are currently involved in engineering projects that specifically
target the extraction and utilisation of margraphite and sandstone. The process of stone
carving typically involves three main steps: design, gradual removal, and finishing. The
market for stone carving is thriving, both locally and nationally. However, one major
challenge it encounters in terms of international trade is the significant cost associated with
transportation. Artisans specialising in stone carving often experience discouragement as a
result of a lack of appreciation for their artistic values. The carvers' ancestors possessed
exceptional skills, and over time, the art of carving has undergone a slight but gradual
evolution. The unreliable electricity supply in these regions greatly hinders production,
causing many individuals to abandon their work in order to support themselves.

Breaking down: Shilpa Shastra

The Shilpaic tradition is an ancient practices of stone carving, with the skilled artisans who
engage in this craft being referred to as Shilpkar. According to this tradition, it is believed
that stone is a living entity. The Shilpkr refer to it as "Shakti Paravastu," which translates to
"the ultimate luminous substance." Stone is widely believed to have the longest lifespan of
any material on Earth. According to Shilpaic tradition, there are three types of stones: one
that produces a resonant sound, another that produces a long and slender note, and a third
type that does not create any sound, thereby dampening the vibrations. These three types of
stones are referred to as male, female, and neutral, respectively. According to the sacred
texts, it is advised to use a stone that corresponds to the gender of the deity being carved.
For male deities, a male stone is recommended, while for female deities, a female stone is

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suggested. Additionally, when constructing temples, it is recommended to use a neutral
stone. When a stone carver carves a stone, a deep connection forms between the carver
and the stone. This intimate bond creates a joyful and spiritually infused work of art known
as the shilpi. It is also believed that worshipping a sad form, or a sad shilpi, can have
adverse effects on the worshipper. When an artisan internalises spiritual concepts, they
undergo a transformation where a sculptor becomes a sculpture and an architect becomes
an architect. The sculptor's moral code is of great importance, as he is the one who brings
sacred forms to life through his thoughts.

India’s rich history of arts and crafts

Various art forms have evolved in India using both metallic and non-metallic materials. Stonework is a
wonderful craft. With a rich stonecraft tradition, masons and stone carver's guilds have been present
since the 7th century B.C. Indian craftsmen use stones such as marble, soapstone, and sandstone.
Additionally, it is used to carve panels, tiles, paperweights, pen stands, replicas of historic structures,
and sculptures of people and animals. The stone is traced and shaped with a basic design. The
carving is complete, and the items are polished.
Mathura and Varanasi were historically significant for centuries. Both places achieved near perfection
in stone carving with their own unique styles. Ashoka's imperial court in the 3rd century B.C. greatly
boosted stone carving art. The stupas and cave temples from this period are among the oldest stone
structures still in existence. Stone sculptures from the Mauryan era that may be found in Mathura and
Agra frequently employ the red sandstone from Chunar.

Stone: The Unparalleled Symbol of Strength and Beauty

- The fascination with stone is timeless. The stone's appeal remains unchanged, whether it's an
ornate inlay with black marble or finely latticed soapstone. Both Hindu and Muslim rulers in
India employ this art. Uttar Pradesh's craft flourished during the Mughal era, when the Taj
Mahal was built.
- Varanasi and Agra are best known for their stone carvings. Each item is a unique work of art,
from intricate architecture to finely crafted stoneware and elegant tabletops with inlay work.
- The royal fascination with stone is evident in the intricately carved forts and palaces. Now
we're exploring different stones and articles. Art lovers can find architectural objects like
carved pillars, railings, and fireplaces for modern indoor spaces. Candlesticks, ashtrays,
jewellery boxes, and miniature Taj Mahal reproductions are popular among today's artisans
because of their great demand as presents and souvenirs.
- Artistic sculptures of Indian deities with intricately carved costumes and expressions serve as
the primary ornamental elements. Even today, stone carving students in the land of the
Buddha begin by perfecting complex hand gestures and facial expressions that reflect
different mudras through his statues.
- Stone artwork combines carving, inlaying, engraving, sculpture, and undercutting techniques.
Designs are created by cutting and varying the patterns on the stone. Stonecutters and
sculptors work together. The work is made primarily from marble, gorara soapstone, and
sometimes cuddapah. Marble is sourced from Makrana, Rajasthan, quarries. Agra's finest
work can be found in marble from Rajasthan or Alabaster from Italy, adorned with semi-
precious materials like Cornelian, Malachite, Lapis Lazuli, Mother of Pearl, Onyx Agate, and
Shazar. Using inexpensive shells instead of semi-precious stones creates affordable gift
items. Agra's famous inlay work mirrors the mosaic techniques seen in the Taj Mahal and
Fatehpur Sikri. Currently, this work has limited availability and is in high demand
internationally.

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1.2. THE HISTORY OF STONE ARCHITECTURE
IN INDIA
Stone has long been integral to Indian architecture.
Religion has been closely linked to most civilizations since the Indus Valley civilization. Stone shrines
were important in this culture and remain important in new civilizations. Buddhism and Jainism spread
across the nation in the first century BC. Idol worship was not practised then; instead, monasteries
and stupas held greater importance. Rock-cut construction expanded further under Ashoka's rule,
evolving from simple to complex structures.
Idol worship has increased since the first century AD, when Hinduism gained power. It began in the
Gupta Dynasty. The first temples for gods were built during this era. Buddha sculptures emerged as
Buddhism started using images to depict the divine presence. Jainism followed a similar path. Each
religion's monuments and shrines had distinct factors, such as their theme, iconography, and design.
They all worshipped idols, which was their commonality.
Buddhism's popularity declined in the 10th century. Jainism was rare but still persisted. Hinduism was
dominant for the next two centuries. Temples here are built on a grand scale, rivalling the splendour of
cathedrals and other religious monuments in Europe. The buildings became important centres for
social, educational, and commercial activity, influencing the state's development. Later, these temple
complexes grew to include hundreds of workers from various social strata.
Timber construction influences various stone and brick structures. Stacking bricks and beams is more
common than using arches and domes.
Hindu Temple Architecture originated in the Early mediaeval Period. India has various types of
Temple Architecture based on different regions. The two main styles of temple architecture are the
Nagara style from the North and the Dravida style from the South.

Nagara Style of Temple Architecture:

This style is seen in northern India.

● The temple is constructed on a sturdy stone platform, with a set of steps leading up to
it.
● It lacks elaborate boundaries or gateways.
● The garbhagriha is always positioned directly beneath the tallest tower.
● The Mandapika Shrines, which consist of closely spaced pillars, have flat roofs.
● The shikhara of this type is known as the "Latina" or the "Rekha Prasada Type"
because it has a square-shaped base and inwardly curved and sloped sides that
converge at a point on top. Here, you can see structures called Amalaka, which are
stone discs piled up on top of each other.
● The second type is known as the 'phamsana' Shikhara, which is broader and shorter
compared to the Latina. The roofs consist of multiple slabs that intersect at the
highest and most central point of the building. Gavaksha Dormers, which are flat-
roofed structures with a bull's-eye design, can be observed on the outer walls of the
buildings. Additionally, corner pavilions have been incorporated as well.
● The third type is known as the 'Valabhi' type, which features a Shikhara. Rectangular
buildings with a roof ascend into a spacious vaulted chamber. Gavaksha Dormers,
also known as bull's eye flat-roofed structures, are architectural features that are

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 characterised by their unique design.
● The Shekhari temples are a type of Nagara-style temple architecture that can be
found in northwestern India. Its structure features a clustered spine.
● The Eastern Indian temples followed the traditional Nagara style, incorporating
elements of the pala stupa. Orissa had a distinct style. The temple followed the well-
known Latina style, incorporating elements of Orissian architecture. The
Parashurameshvara Temple in Orissa showcases this.

Dravida Style of Temple Architecture:

This style is seen in South India.

● A compound wall surrounds the Dravida temples. The front wall of the building features a centrally
located entrance gateway called the 'gopuram'.
● This structure consists of two tiers. Shrine-filled shrines make up the first tier, while a sizable kuta with
an octagonal dome surrounds it on the second.
● In Tamil Nadu, the vimana, which is also referred to as the main temple tower, has a distinctive shape
resembling a stepped pyramid. Unlike the curved shikhara commonly found in the Nagara Temple
style, the vimana rises up in a geometric manner.
● A temple tank is often enclosed within the complex.

● Some of the most famous temple towns in Tamil Nadu include Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (also known as
Tanjore), Madurai, and Kumbakonam. These towns were known for their temples, which served a
purpose beyond religious significance during the period from the eighth to the twelfth centuries.

● There are five subdivisions of Dravidian temples based on their shape.

● There are five different shapes: square (also known as kuta or chaturasra), rectangle (also called shala
or ayatasra), elliptical (referred to as gaja-prishta or vrittayata), circle (known as vritta), and octagonal
(referred to as ashtasra).
● The Pallava dynasty was one of the earliest dynasties in South India. They had strong connections with
Southeast Asia and expanded their empire to various regions of the subcontinent, sometimes even
reaching the borders of Odisha.
● Timber construction serves as the basis for various stone and brick structures. The practise of stacking
masonry, beams, and corbelling is more prevalent compared to the use of arches and domes.

Pallava Stone Sculpture

The Mahendra and Mamalla monuments were built during the rock-cut period, which lasted
from 610 to 668 AD. The Mahendra group refers to Mahendravarman I's monuments (610–
630 AD). The majority of these structures are mountainous, pillared halls. These pillared
mandapas are reminiscent of Jain temples. The finest Mahendra cave temples may be seen at
Mandagapattu, Pallavaram, and Mamandur.
Between 630 and 668 AD, Mamalla built the second set of rock-cut monuments. Pillared
halls and rathas (chariots) were built during this time period. This style is seen in the Pancha
Rathas and Arjuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram.
The second stage of Pallava architecture includes the construction of free-standing shrines out
of imported stone and mortar. There are Rajasimha (600–800 AD) and Nandivarman (800–
900 AD) monument groupings. In their early construction of temples, the Rajasimha Pallavas
experimented. Rajasimha II constructed the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi

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Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram, both of which are noteworthy examples from this era.
The finest Nandivarman structure is Kanchipuram's Vaikuntha Perumal Temple. The Cholas'
Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and other notable structures
serve as evidence that Pallava architecture was at its pinnacle.

Chola Stone Sculpture

The Chola Empire in South India refined Chola art and architecture from 850 to 1250 CE.
Amaravati architecture had an influence on the Pallava dynasty, which built Chola temples.
The Cholas extensively encouraged temple building and growth. They erected numerous
spectacular temples, including Thanjavur's UNESCO World Heritage Big Temple,
Brihadeeswarar Temple. Temple gopurams, pillars, and walls have elaborate stone carvings.
Contemporary architectural and aesthetic trends inspired Chola artists and artisans to improve
temple architecture. The Chola emperors erected temples throughout the plains, Central and
Northern Tamil Nadu, occasionally the entire state, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. From
Vijayalaya Chola through Sundara Chola, Rajaraja and Rajendra Chola rose to greatness, and
Kulottunga I's Chalukya Chola era until the end of the Chola empire was the last phase.
In addition to temples, the Cholas built palaces, hospitals, and other public facilities.
Inscriptions and modern data list several similar buildings. Aditya Karikala reportedly built
his father, Sundara Chola, a golden palace. Many constructions have collapsed due to the use
of flammable materials such as wood and bricks.
Chola sculpted a number of Hindu deities, including Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga. These divine
sculptures draw believers closer to God. Nataraja, Lord Shiva's cosmic dance form, is a
renowned Chola sculpture. Chola painters depicted Nataraja's graceful dance, intricate
posture, multiple arms, and fire. Chola stone sculptures were intricate, sacred, and well-made.

Pandyan Stone Sculpture

Near the southernmost point of India, in the Tamil Nadu district of Tuticorin, is a hill known
as Kazhugumalai ('zh' is to be pronounced as 'L' but with the tongue being brought farther
inside), which is home to the magnificent monolithic rock-cut Shiva Temple known as
Vettuvankovil as well as Jain Reliefs. A rocky hill close to the town of Kovilpatti,
Kazhugumalai, has been the site of building endeavours dating back to the eighth century CE.
The Pandya monarchs, who had Madurai as their capital, ruled South Tamil Nadu during the
eighth century. The Pallavas, who had their capital at Kanchipuram, were at their peak during
this time period, producing spectacular rock-cut temples and rock art. In addition to its
majestic Shiva Temple, Kazhugumalai has become well-known for its rows of Jain reliefs
and inscriptions that have withstood the whims of time and history. The outstanding example
of Jain art in Tamil Nadu is this ensemble.

Rajasthan
Rajasthan's forts, palaces, havelis, and temples feature stunning stone sculptures. Rajasthan
is called 'The Land of Marble and Sandstone' due to its abundant stone resources and rich
history of stonecraft and sculpting.
The state's quarries produce high-quality marble and sandstone, attracting skilled
stonemasons and artists. Makrana and Bari in Rajasthan produce marble and sandstone, and
Jaisalmer is famous for its stone architecture. Marble temple idols are made at 'Sikandra'

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(Dausa) and Khazane-walon-ka-rasta. Northern Indian temples often have these idols. This
place produces stone goods, architectural structures, and deities.

Rajasthan is renowned for its temples and skilled jali carvers. Ancient Rajasthani palaces
featured jali art on doors and windows. Sandstone and marble jali screens at zenana windows
enabled purdah women to secretly observe court activities. The screens shielded them from
the weather while allowing fresh air to pass. Local artisans create simple stone products.
Stone sculptures depict Rajput soldiers' bravery and heroism. The carvings depict Rajasthan's
cultural traditions and pride, showcasing traditional stories, heroic actions, and gallantry.

Odisha
Stone carving is popular in Odisha. The Konark Sun Temple is the 'Wonder in Stone'.
Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, and Udayagiri contain beautiful monasteries and stupas. Orissan
sculptors create gods and goddesses from soapstone. Carving is important in Odisha. Over
millennia, diligent artisans in Odisha have perfected stone carving. The successors of these
artists, who built Parsurameswar, Mukteswar, Lingaraj, Puri, and the Sun God at Konark,
maintain their sculptural traditions.

When the Kalinga School of mediaeval North Indian architecture flourished in the 13th
century A.D., Orissa began stone carving. The world-famous Sun Temple was built during
this time. This custom is passed down through generations. Stonecraft is very important in
Orissa's handicraft industry. Many artisans have won national and state prizes for their high-
quality work. Pink and white soft stones exist. Pink stone objects are popular.

Stone sculptures on these temples exhibit Odishan art and architecture at their best. Stone
carving makes these religious monuments architectural marvels and attracts believers and
tourists from around the world. Mythology, culture, and traditional art are often shown in
Odisha's stone carvings. Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Khandagiri are Buddhist and Jain
historical sites in Odisha, together with Hindu temples.

Bihar

Stone carving is an ancient tradition in Bihar. The rock-cut caves of Barabar and Nagarjuni Hills in Jehanabad
District are outstanding specimens of Mauryan-era workmanship.

The craftsmen of Bihar's stupas and monasteries are remarkable. The Ashoka pillars at Lauria, Nandangarh, and
Koluha and the Gupta-era Mundeshwari Temple Complex are famous Bihar stone sculptures. This work is done
at Patharkatti, Gaya. Major stonecraft hub in Bihar. Marble and granite are the major materials for this art. This
handcrafted item is unique. Gaya's 500–700 artisan households depend on this craft. Nalanda, Kaimur, and
Patna are Bihar stone craft hubs. Gaya's 'Patharkatti' boasts a unique blue-black pot stone. It specialises in
Buddhist icons. Other household goods include a pestle and mortar. Singhbum's Chandil, Karaikal, and Dumka
have green-grain soapstone. At ancient Buddhist monuments in Bihar, stone sculptures represent Buddha's
biography, Jataka stories, and Buddhist symbols like the Wheel of Dharma. These sculptures illustrate Buddhist
philosophy and propagate teachings, attracting pilgrims and academics from throughout the world. These
engravings reveal the region's historical civilizations, architectural styles, and creative techniques. From
exquisite temple wall carvings to colourful motifs on old structures, Bihar's carvings demonstrate their artistic
talent.

Karnataka

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Karnataka has many ancient temples, such as the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, the
Chennakesava Temple in Belur, and the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi. The state showcases
impressive Hoysala architecture. The 57-foot-tall Jain statue of Gomatesvara in Shravanabelagola is
an impressive stone sculpture.
These temples showcase the state's architectural brilliance, featuring exquisite stone carvings that
epitomise Indian temple architecture. The Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Vijayanagara Empire, and Chola
dynasties all patronised stone carving in Karnataka. The kings' support and patronage resulted in the
creation of magnificent structures with intricate carvings, which is crucial to the significance of stone
carving in Karnataka. Stone carvings in religious structures create a sacred atmosphere. Stone
carving in Karnataka is important in religious practises as it enhances the spiritual experience of
worshippers and visitors through intricate artwork.

Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh is renowned for its stonecraft and temples like the Khajuraho Group of
Monuments, Udayeshwara Temple, and Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, which are known for
their stunning stone carvings. Jabalpur and Tikamgarh create sculptures of animals and
humans. Balaghat has many green stones. Local artisans carve green stone into various
objects such as boxes, animals, and trays. Green stone idols are also famous.
Gwalior's stone carving craft creates stunning sculptures and elements from dimension
stones in the nearby Vindhya ranges. Gwalior's palaces and forts showcase stunning stone
architecture and sculpture. This piece's historical significance inspires highly desired
creations.
The craft flourished under the Scindia dynasty in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Gwalior
fort, built in the 8th and 15th centuries, was an impressive architectural marvel. Babur, the
Mughal emperor, referred to it as Hind's Fort's "pearl."

The stone carvings in these temples depict mythological stories, intricate deity sculptures,
and scenes from daily life, showcasing the artistry and craftsmanship of the time. Madhya
Pradesh is renowned for its Buddhist heritage, featuring UNESCO World Heritage Sites such
as Sanchi and Bhimbetka. These sites exhibit stone carvings of Buddhist stupas,
monasteries, and symbols.

Andhra Pradesh
In Andhra Pradesh, the main centres of stone craft are Durgi, Allagadda, and Tirupati. These centres
are known for their exceptional craftsmanship in creating intricately carved figures of gods and
goddesses. The craftsmen here adhere strictly to ancient rules regarding carving and sculpting.
Stone carving in Andhra Pradesh is of great significance because of its rich historical and
cultural connections. The temples are adorned with carvings that portray a wide range of
deities, mythological stories, and religious motifs. These intricate carvings have made the
temples highly revered pilgrimage sites, drawing visitors from all corners of the country. The
stone carvings in Andhra Pradesh hold great religious and spiritual significance. The
carvings predominantly portray Hindu gods and goddesses, along with scenes from Hindu
epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Uttar Pradesh
Muslim rulers in India have supported stone crafts in Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh's stone

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crafts have created stunning architectural marvels. Sandstone preserves the enchantment
and variations of royal stone sculpture. The intricate curves of the forts and palaces
showcase impressive stone craftsmanship. Ashoka's royal court in the 3rd century B.C.
promoted stone sculpting. The Taj Mahal and Fatehpur Sikri in Uttar Pradesh are known for
their impressive stone mosaic work. Uttar Pradesh stonecraft uses marble, gorara
soapstone, and cuddapah.
Stone carving occurs in Hamirpur district, Uttar Pradesh. Agra's marble inlay craftsmanship
is legendary. Geometric patterns and plants are used. The Taj Mahal inspired these
exquisite artefacts. Vases, boxes, lamps, plates, bowls, and pitchers feature intricate
carvings and forms.
The stone craft of Uttar Pradesh showcases various items such as marble boxes, wall
plates, table tops, coasters, and ashtrays. These pieces are beautifully decorated with semi-
precious stones and mother of pearl, using pietra dura motifs that draw inspiration from
Mughal art and structures. Uttar Pradesh is home to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Religious monuments feature stone carvings of deities, symbols, and holy texts.

Gujarat
Rough stones for this craft are taken out of quarries and delivered to the job site. A
combination of geru, or red oxide, and water is used to define the desired designs after the
stone has been meticulously cut into the proper sizes. The Sompura group of stonemasons
from Wadhwan in Kathiawar were responsible for carving the well-known Somnath and
Dwarka temples. Gujarat is recognised for building structures that fulfil a variety of utilitarian
functions. Waterworks, temples, cemeteries, forts, and palaces are among the architectural
features.
Techniques for cutting stones have changed over time. Gujarat's jaali (fretwork) is one of the
most outstanding displays of stone carving artistry. The pillars, ceilings, and jhorukhas
(balconies) are all crafted with exquisite and complex detail.
Stone carving is an essential component of Gujarat's stunning temple art, which is used to
adorn these revered buildings. Temples in Gujarat are renowned for their magnificent
sculptures of gods, heavenly creatures, and legendary themes. These detailed carvings not
only increase the visual attractiveness of the holy sites but also their spiritual value.

Tamil Nadu
The famous rock-cut temples of the Pallavas in Mahabalipuram occupy a special place in Indian
history. The sculptures found in these temples are so alive, depicting scenes such as Arjuna asking
for penance on one knee, the hunting of pigeons, and a stag scratching its nose with its hind leg.

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Stone carving is an ancient craft of Tamil Nadu, and the temples of Chennai are famous for their
mesmerising stone carving structures. The stone carvers belong to the Viswakarma community and
are skilled in carving idols out of black and white granite, locally known as karuppu kal and vellai kal.
The first step in stone carving is to stencil the granite stone by cutting it along predetermined lines.
Once the final product is ready, its surface is cleaned and smoothed to give it a shiny lustre. It is then
painted as per the needed design. The articles on stone carving revolve around the theme of Hindu
mythological epics. You can shop for a variety of articles, such as small dolls, animal figurines,
incense stick stands, and other decorative items.
The South Indian state of Tamil Nadu is often referred to as the "land of temples" due to the presence
of numerous beautiful temples that are scattered throughout the region. The Meenakshi temple at
Madurai represents the ultimate achievement in Tamil temple architecture, showcasing its magnificent
glory. The temple is a testament to the incredible architectural skills of Tamil sculptors. Its magnificent
proportions, abundant sculptures, thousand-pillared mandapas, towering gopurams (gateways), and
larger-than-life-sized reliefs all contribute to its grandeur.

The sculptor's fine sense of balance and skill are also displayed in the other temples of the state.
There are 108 beautiful panels depicting the karanas of Natya Shastra at Chidambaram. In addition,
Kanchipuram is home to numerous temples that date back to the earliest Pallava times, the Nayak
period, and even later.

The artistic achievements of the Tamil sculptors are also displayed at the grand Ekambareshwar
Temple and the Varadaraja Temple.
The granite carving in Tamil Nadu is confined to the area around Mamallapuram (also
Mahabalipuram) and Chengelpettu. The presence of the Mamallapuram School of Sculpture in this
area may be the reason for this. Just as in bronze, 20th-century sculpture has not yet evolved an
idiom of its own, and many of the carvings are copies of the earlier periods.
The quality of the material is an extremely important part of the sculptural process. Similar to how the
Shilpa Shastra provides regulations for measurements and sculpting techniques, the sculptors here
have also delved into intricate details concerning the stone's quality, maturity, texture, colour, and
various other factors.
In this area, the artists specialise in working with indigenous varieties of stone that are readily
available in the state. These stones are known for their exceptional durability, making them ideal for
construction purposes. The uniformity of the stone is also vital for the finished form's stability and
longevity.

The stones are carefully selected based on their texture and the direction of their growth. This also
describes the quarrying technique used. The dynamiting of rocks is not recommended when the stone
is supposed to be used for sculpture. Dynamiting forms cracks in the stone, thereby making it unfit for
use. The stone is cut by moving a series of wedges about 5 to 7.5 cm deep. The wedges are carefully
driven using heavy 4-kg hammers, which cause the rocks to break apart cleanly with well-defined
edges.
A high-quality stone should not have any flaws, such as kalanga or stains, rekha or patches, or bindu
or spots. The themes for most of the sculptures have always been religious in nature. The Indian
Puranic tradition and mythology provide a solid foundation for most of the progression. There is a
robust system of symbols for representing abstract concepts.
A nayanon-milan ritual is conducted once the sculpture is finished. In this ceremony, the image is
invested with sight, life, and breath, thus making it a virtual living force. Only then is the image
ceremoniously placed in the garbhagriha, or sanctum sanctorum.
Their likenesses appear often in the temple sculptures in southern India. In the famous
Mahabalipuram, carvings depict arresting figures of Arjuna standing in the traditional penance pose

10
with one leg, one of two cots, hunting pigeons. Then there's the amusing illustration of a deer
scratching its nose with its rear leg. A buffalo chewing the cud is so alive that it seems the mouth is
moving. So pigs, ducks, monitor lizards, fowls, and spiders coexist with elephants, lions, and horses
(prehistoric stone sculptures). The granite sculptures of Mahabalipuram and the sandstone figures of
Khajuraho show a variation in their treatment of one another in the hands of an artist. Hard granite
stone was used to build temples and daily goods such as grinding stones in South India. The design
and form that may be built are determined by the grade of stone available in each region of India.

Relief-sculptured Panels: A relief has carvings only on one side. The carving might be shallow or
deep, whereas the opposite side is flat and frequently incorporated into the building's masonry work.
Low relief can range from 1-3 cm deep and high. Relief can resemble a three-dimensional sculpture.
Three-dimensional Figures: Such figures can be viewed from all sides. Additionally, they are capable
of producing free-standing pillars similar to those that Ashoka built all over his empire in the third
century BCE.

1.3. SIGNIFICANCE OF STONECRAFT IN TAMIL

NADU
Tamil Nadu is home to several renowned destinations, such as Mahabalipuram, Kanchipuram,
Madurai, Thanjavur, and more. These places are famous for their exceptional stone carvings. These
places are home to intricate sculptures, ancient temples, and rock-cut monuments. The stone
carvings found in Tamil Nadu temples depict a wide range of Hindu deities, mythological scenes, and
religious symbols. The carvings play a crucial role in religious practises and worship by creating a
sacred environment and enhancing devotees' spiritual experiences. They are considered an essential
part of these practises. Stone carving is a time-honoured tradition in Tamil Nadu that has been
handed down from one generation to the next for centuries. Stone carvings from Tamil Nadu often
depict various cultural elements that are unique to the region. The carvings are visual representations
that celebrate the rich heritage of Tamil culture, folklore, and traditions.

Mahabalipuram is renowned for its Pallava art and architecture, dating back to the 7th and 8th
centuries. The historical, cultural, and religious significance of stone carving are all intertwined in
Mahabalipuram. The stone sculptures and rock-cut monuments of the Pallava period showcase the
architectural brilliance and artistic finesse of that era. The stone carvings in Mahabalipuram portray
various scenes from Hindu mythology. These include intricate sculptures of deities and celestial
beings, as well as stories from renowned epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana. The site's deep
religious and spiritual significance is reflected in iconic sculptures like Arjuna's Penance, which
portrays the descent of the Ganges, as well as depictions of Lord Vishnu in various forms. The
carvings hold religious and spiritual significance for devotees and pilgrims. The stone carvings in
Mahabalipuram offer valuable insights into the culture, lifestyle, and societal practises of the Pallava
people. These artworks portray various aspects of ancient Tamil culture, such as daily life, royal
processions, and courtly activities. They offer valuable insights into the past and help us gain a better
understanding of this rich historical heritage. In addition to that, the stone carvings depict various
animals, plants, and birds, symbolising the celebration of the harmonious relationship between
humans and nature. The intricate and elaborate stone carvings in Mahabalipuram serve as a
testament to the artistic brilliance and craftsmanship of the sculptors. The carvings are renowned for
their exquisite beauty and meticulous attention to detail.

Patrons of Crafts

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“ The Indian craftsman” book written by Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, describes the craftsmen of India
and Sri Lanka that he studied i the ealry twentieth century. He divided the comuunities into different
categories
♦ Craftsmen who live and worked in the village
♦ Carftsmen who travelled from village to village and towns
♦ Craftsmen who lived and worked in towns
♦ Craftsmen who were employed by the ruler in royal workshops

The Village: The potter, carpenter, stone sculptor, mason, craftsman, and goldsmith were skilled
artisans who resided and practised their crafts within their own homes, which were typically located in
specific areas of the village. In the village, everyone was familiar with their local craftsmen, so there
was no need for them to autograph their work. This was because of the Jajmani system, which
established a connection between hereditary artisans and the dominant agricultural groups through
traditional ties.
The relationship between the artists and the landowners was hierarchical and symbiotic, with the
artists working under the protection and hospitality of the landowners. During festivals, it was
customary for the landowner, or jajman, to approach the potter and commission him to create
ceremonial pots and diyas. In exchange for his services, the potter would receive payment in the form
of food, which would sustain him throughout the year. The stone cutter would create a grinding stone
according to the specific requirements and size whenever his household needed one.

Itinerant Craftsmen:: Some artisans, , travel from village to village, serving the community and
spending as much time as is necessary in each location. craftsmen that travel from village to village,
serving the community and spending their time

. These craft communities were often paid in kind with gifts of grain, food, clothing, and money so that
they did not have to cultivate land for food but could pursue their craft to perfection.
In the Town: While the artists in the village worked as a family, individual artists in the towns formed
guilds to protect their interests and ensure the quality of their work. The guild protected the group and
its occupational interests by punishing the wrongdoer, negotiating prices and grants, and enforcing
standards of work. The artist in the town was also paid in kind, with grants, or with produce from land.

In the Court: Through the ages, rulers tried to attract well-known performing artists and craftsmen like
sculptors to work in their court.The creations of artists provide an idea of cultures and eras gone by.
Rulers understood that having brilliant architects and sculptors The Ajanta caves are just one example
of how artisans' guilds contributed to India's architectural heritage.

Folklore
Even today, Tamil Nadu stone carvers start their work with a prayer asking Mother Earth for
forgiveness for carving the stone. The prayer ends with offerings of sweets and milk to the earth and a
solemn promise never to misuse or waste stone. The stone cutter starts by locating a good stone
quarry. Then begins the process of cutting what he needs from the mother rock. Metal pegs in the
granite are pounded at regular intervals in a straight line. Water is poured on the rock to wet it. The
difference in temperature between night and day causes contraction and expansion, and the rock
progressively slices along the straight peg lines into flawless slabs. The most fascinating aspect of the
creative process is when the artist selects the stone item to work on. How does he decide which piece
of rock is the perfect one to use? What qualities of the rock doesthey are looking for—colour, grain,
texture, or the softness or hardness of the stone? Can he visualise what its shape will be, or can he
feel how it will feel once it has been totally carved?
The group of monuments at Mahabalipuram occupies an important place among the classical
monuments of India. The monolithic and cave temples, located near the sea, provide an unparalleled

12
experience of ancient Indian architecture and sculpture. Mahabalipuram received World Heritage Site
status in 1988 and attracts visitors from across the country and the world. The ancient tradition of
stone carving is still alive in the region, and the rhythmic sounds of Hammer and chisel on stone
afford a glimpse of how these monuments, Rock-cut caves, and sculptures appeared almost fifteen
hundred years ago.

CHAPTER TWO: GEOGRAPHY

2.1. LOCATION: MAHABALIPURAM, TAMIL NADU
Mahabalipuram, or Mamllapuram, is a town in the Chengalpattu district of Tamil Nadu that is
well known for its Hindu group of monuments. These monuments were built between the 7th
and 8th centuries and are now a UNESCO world heritage site. The traditional name for
Mahabalipuram is Thirukadalmallai, and it is a part of greater Chennai.

In the ancient kingdom of Pallava, there were two significant port cities, one of which was
Mamallapuram. It was a name that resonated with history and carried the significance of a
mighty ruler. The town was named after none other than the Pallava king Narasimhavarman
I, a man of great valour and strength. Known by the regal title of Mamalla. In the midst of
flourishing economic prosperity, a remarkable transformation took place. The once-ordinary
site underwent a magnificent transformation, becoming adorned with a collection of regal
monuments. These amazing structures were meticulously crafted, emerging from the very
essence of the living rock itself. In the 7th and 8th centuries, a collection of magnificent
structures emerged, each with its own unique charm and purpose. Among them were the
rathas, temples that took the form of grand chariots, exuding an air of regality and grace.
These rathas stood proudly, showcasing the architectural prowess of the time. Along with
the rathas were the mandapas, cave sanctuaries that provided a serene and sacred space
for worship. These sanctuaries, carved into the very heart of the rock, offered a tranquil
refuge for devotees seeking solace and spiritual connection. One particularly awe-inspiring
creation was the giant open-air rock relief known as the Descent of the Ganges. Lastly, the
Shore Temple dedicated to Shiva stood as a testament to devotion and architectural
brilliance. This temple, situated near the water's edge, commanded attention with its striking
presence. Its walls echoed with the prayers and hymns of countless worshippers who sought
blessings from the mighty deity. Together, these structures painted a vivid picture of the
artistic and spiritual landscape of the 7th and 8th centuries. Each one, a testament to the
ingenuity and creativity of the era, stood as a timeless reminder of the rich. In the year 1827,
during the era of the British Raj, a town plan was established that would shape the
landscape of the contemporary town we know today.

Etymology
In the vast expanse of time, there's a remarkable mention of a city hidden within the pages
of a 1st-century work known as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Penned by an enigmatic
Greek navigator, this ancient text unveils the earliest rumours of this mysterious place. In the
ancient world, a renowned Greek geographer named Ptolemy made a fascinating reference
to this particular location. He eloquently called it malange. The coastal town of
Mahabalipuram goes by many names; some call it Mamallapattana, while others refer to it

13
as Mamallapuram. In the course of history, there was a renowned Vaishnavite saint named
Thirumangai Alvar. This pious soul, in his writings, spoke of a sacred place known as
Thirukadalmallai. It is said that this name was given to a magnificent temple called the
Sthalasayana Perumal Temple. In ancient times, Mahabalipuram was not only recognised by
its current name but also held another intriguing title that captivated mariners. This name,
known to seafarers since the days of Marco Polo, was "Seven Pagodas." It referred to the
magnificent Seven Pagodas of Mahabalipuram that proudly stood along the shoreline. While
the passage of time has taken its toll on these architectural wonders, only one of them, the
Shore Temple, has managed to withstand the test of time and still stands proudly today.

History

Mahendravarman ruled the Pallavas from 600 to 630 CE, and his son Narasimhavarman I did so from 630
to 668 CE. King Narasimhavarman I of the Pallava dynasty founded the city of Mahabalipuram in the 7th
century CE. The monuments at Mahabalipuram owe their origins to the Pallava rulers of south India.
Mahendravarman, the father of Narasimhavarman I, was not only a pioneer of south Indian temple
architecture and painting but also a highly esteemed poet, dramatist, and musician. Mahendravarman,
originally a Jaina, was responsible for the construction of the cave temple at Sittannavasal. In his later
years, Mahendravarman endured a conversion to Shaivism under the guidance of the saint Appar.
Following this, he embarked on a project to construct rock-cut Shiva temples throughout his kingdom. The
Pallavas were known for their expertise in sailing and their extensive travels across the region. Evidence of
their journeys can be found in inscriptions written in the Pallava-Grantha script as well as in sculptures that
clearly reflect the influence of south Indian Pallava culture. Mahabalipuram, known as the port of the
Pallavas, likely played a significant role in spreading Pallava culture beyond the borders of India.
Mahendravarman, the father of Narasimhavarman I, was not only a pioneer of south Indian temple
architecture and painting but also a highly esteemed poet, dramatist, and musician. Mahendravarman,
originally a Jaina, was responsible for the construction of the cave temple at Sittannavasal. In his later
years, Mahendravarman endured a conversion to Shaivism under the guidance of the saint Appar.
Following this, he embarked on a project to construct rock-cut Shiva temples throughout his kingdom.
Most of the monuments in Mahabalipuram were built during the reign of Narasimhavarman I. The panel
located in the northeastern corner of the Dharmaraja Ratha depicts a statue of Narasimhavarman I.

Recently, archaeologists have made noteworthy discoveries in the vicinity of Mahabalipuram. These
findings include a Neolithic burial urn, cairn circles, and jars containing burials that can be traced back to
the 1st century BCE. The poem "Perumpuppadai" from the Sangam age portrays the rule of King
Thondaiman Ilam Thiraiyar in Kanchipuram, a port situated in Tamil Nadu. Scholars have linked this port
to the modern-day location of Mahabalipuram. Coins from the 4th century CE, including Chinese and
Roman coins attributed to Theodosius I, have been discovered at Mahabalipuram. This discovery
illuminates the fact that the port was a bustling hub of global trade in the late classical period. Two Pallava
coins bearing the inscriptions "Srihari" and "Srinidhi" were recently discovered in Mahabalipuram. They
strategically utilised the port to launch trade and diplomatic expeditions to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
In an 8th-century Tamil text, Thirumangai Alvar vividly described this location as "Sea Mountain." He
described it as a location where ships were anchored, carrying immense wealth, majestic elephants with
strong trunks, and stacks of nine distinct varieties of precious gems. The ships were heavily loaded to the
point where they seemed to be on the brink of breaking.

The temples depict various events described in the Mahabharata and hold great significance as they
exemplify the transition from rock-cut architecture to structural building techniques. The mandapa, also
known as pavilions, and the rathas, which are shrines shaped like temple chariots, are meticulously carved
from granite rock. On the other hand, the Shore Temple, which was built fifty years later, is renowned for
its meticulous use of cut stone. Mahabalipuram's cultural resonance is derived from its remarkable capacity
to assimilate and spread diverse influences. The Shore Temple is known for its impressive collection of
reliefs, including a remarkable granite carving that measures 100 feet (30 m) in length and stands 45 feet
(14 m) tall. Established in 1957, the Government College of Architecture and Sculpture has the primary

14
objective of promoting and revitalising the art of sculpture and temple-making.

Transport
Mahabalipuram is located about 56 kilometres from Chennai. The most convenient mode of
transportation between Chennai and Mahabalipuram is by road. The roadway connecting Chennai to
Mahabalipuram is widely recognised as one of the most popular routes in the state. The route runs
alongside the East Coast, providing uninterrupted views of the beautiful Bay of Bengal. In addition to
the breathtaking scenery, several popular attractions along the route include the Dakshinachitra
Museum, Thiruvidanthai Beach, the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, and the Centre for Herpetology
Coast. The MTC and TNSTC (Villupuram division) offer bus services that conveniently connect
Mamallapuram and Mahabalipuram with Chennai, Chengalpattu, Kancheepuram, Tiruttani, and
various other destinations. MTC provides bus services in Chennai from various locations, offering
both Deluxe and Air-conditioned buses. Although there is no direct train route connecting Chennai
and Mahabalipuram, there are alternative transportation options available. You can consider taking a
local train from Chennai to neighbouring towns like Chengalpattu or Thiruvanmiyur. From there, you
can easily access Mahabalipuram using local transportation such as buses or auto-rickshaws.

The best way to travel within Mahabalipuram is on foot. Most of the attractions in Mahabalipuram are
located within a short distance of each other, typically just a few metres or up to 1 kilometre.
Autorickshaws are a common mode of transportation as well. There are two types of autorickshaws:
shared autorickshaws and private autorickshaws.
If you feel comfortable riding a scooter or motorcycle, renting one could be a great way to explore the
town and nearby areas at your own pace. For a more comfortable and private mode of transportation,
taxis can also be hired. You have two options for booking: you can either book in advance or book
through a local agency.

Climate
Mahabalipuram receives tropical weather because it is located along the Bay of Bengal. The
summer season begins in April and lasts through mid-June. Summertime maximum
temperatures often range from 35 to 38 degrees Celsius. Due to its near proximity to the
sea, the evenings are often colder. In the summer, there is a lot of humidity. The northeast
monsoon, which arrives at Mahabalipuram about mid-September and lasts through mid-
December, is mostly responsible for the city's rainfall. Here in Mahabalipuram, the strong
rains during the rainy season might be problematic.
The temperature drops to an average of 25 degrees Celsius throughout the winter (from
November to February); however, it seldom drops below 25 degrees Celsius. Due to the dry
and temperate weather, December through March is the best season to visit
Mahabalipuram.

Food
Mahabalipuram boasts a wide array of captivating restaurants and cafes that offer a diverse
range of cuisines. Discover a vibrant selection of street food, a rich and authentic traditional
thali, and a variety of delectable western dishes. While you're here, be sure to try our
delicious selection of dishes, including Grilled Fish, Vegetarian Thali, Prawns, Lobsters,
Crabs, and much more. You could also consider trying a traditional South Indian platter,
which includes a variety of dishes such as Idli, Dosa, Appam, Vada, Upma, Sambhar, Sweet

15
Pongal, Kesari, Payassam, and many other options.

Language
Tamil is the main language spoken in Mahabalipuram. Sanskrit, being one of the oldest
surviving classical languages in the world, boasts a rich literary and cultural heritage.

Besides Tamil, you can also encounter individuals who are proficient in English and Hindi,
particularly in tourist-populated regions. In addition to the local language, some residents
may also speak other regional languages or dialects.

2.2. GROUP OF MONUMENTS AT

MAHABALIPURAM
The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th-century CE religious
monuments founded by the Pallava kings and carved out of rock along the Coromandel coast.It is
recognised for its rathas (chariot temples), mandapas (cave sanctuaries), large open-air reliefs such
as the famous 'Descent of the Ganges,' and the temple of Rivage, which has thousands of sculptures
depicting Shiva's splendour.

This complex, which is made up of various structures, was built during the Pallava era.Among these
are the Pancha Rathas (Dharmaraja Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Draupadi Ratha, Nakula
Sahadeva Ratha, and Ganesha Ratha). There are also a number of cave temples, including the
Pancha Pandava Cave Temple, the Mahishasuramardini Mandapa, the Krishna Cave Temple, and
the Varaha Cave Temple. Additionally, the complex contains structures like the Shore Temple and the
Olakkannesvara Temple. The Descent of the Ganges, one of the biggest outdoor bas-reliefs in the
world, is also located there. Mahabalipuram is famous for its magnificent architecture. This area
houses an archaeology museum that displays sculptures and buildings that have been found in the
neighbourhood. There is also an architectural school in this region that provides classes in stone
carving and the history of sculpture.

GEOGRAPHY
Mahabalipuram's rocky shoreline, which is adorned with big granite boulders and outcrops, is one of
its most unique geographical features. Mahabalipuram's natural features have shaped the town's
landscape in addition to providing a unique background for the area's renowned stone carving and
sculpture. Mahabalipuram's craftsmen have displayed their extraordinary talent by creating
magnificent temples, caves with rock carvings, and monolithic sculptures from granite rocks. Their
artistic and architectural talent is beautifully displayed in these creations.

The town's strategic location along the coast has allowed for the preservation of its historic buildings.
The stone carvings have survived in good condition because of the moderate microclimate they have
benefited from as a result of their proximity to the sea.

Additionally, Mahabalipuram's picturesque coastal setting adds to its allure. The Bay of Bengal's
crystal-clear waters, swaying palm trees, and golden sand beaches all add to the allure of this popular
tourist destination. Due to its advantageous location, the town has transformed into a thriving cultural
and historical hub that draws visitors from all over the world who come to admire its magnificent

16
architecture and immerse themselves in its rich heritage.

ARCHITECTURE
Mahabalipuram monuments are unique because they combine Hindu religion, culture, and legends associated
with the Hindu religious pantheon. These Dravidian-style monuments on the Bay of Bengal showcase Tamil
Nadu's rich art and culture. Mandapas, or cave temples; Rathas, or chariots; an open-air bas-relief depicting
Arjuna's reparation to Lord Shiva to obtain the Pashupata weapon; and structural temples are on the site. Rock-
cut temples, especially rathas, influenced south Indian temple architecture. South Indian temples and those in
Cambodia, Annam, and Java adopted the architecture and sculptures.

These shrines' sculptors' descendants worked with Mahabalipuram's artisans.

The monuments at Mahabalipuram can be divided into different categories based on their style of construction:
Temples made of solid rock that stand alone are known as monoliths. Most of these temples are built in the
regional style and look like rathas or chariots. The Five Monoliths, also known as the Pancha Rathas, are one
example of such a complex. The sculptures, the majority of which date from the Narasimhavarrman era, display
various Pallava architectural and plastic art styles. Narasimhavarman I ruled the Pallavas from 630 to 668 CE.
The Pallava kings of South India were responsible for building the monuments at Mahabalipuram. These kings
rose to power between the third and fourth centuries and ruled from Kanchi, their capital.

The Five Monoliths

The five rathas, also known as Panch Rathas, are a compact group hewn out of solid rock to form five
free-standing monolithic temples. They are connected to the five Pandavas of the Mahabharat, like
many other monuments throughout the nation, without any sort of historical foundation. They are the
earliest monuments of their kind in India and were discovered during Narasimhavarman I's rule. A
small squarniche with a picture of Durga is cut out of its chest. Through these monoliths, the Pallava
dynasty in Mahabalipuram is remembered for its inventiveness and commitment.

RATHA TEMPLES
Ratha, a rock carving Chariots are similar to temples. The five Pandava Rathas, which resemble
chariots in a tableau or parade, are monolithic diorite or granite constructions that protrude above the
sand beach. The Pandava Rathas of the Pallava Dynasty, who were named after Draupadi and the
five brothers of the Mahabharata, originated in the seventh century. The Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha,
the Arjuna Ratha, the Dharmaraja Ratha, and the Draupadi Ratha. One rock was used to cut five
different-shaped rathas. Since they weren't built, none of these temples are currently utilized for
worship. The Ganesha Ratha, which was built in the late 7th century, is an additional ratha in addition
to these five. An inscription with the name of Mahamalla's grandson Parameswara Varman I serves
as a dating tool for this ratha. Narasimhavarman invented the Pancha Rathas, sometimes referred to
as the Pandava Rathas, which are distinctive in Indian architecture. The Mahabalipuram Group of
Monuments, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is managed by the Archaeological Survey of India
(ASI).

Dharmaraja Ratha
The temple is a pyramid with a square base. The upper part of the temple consists of decreasing
levels with pavilions, kudus (chaitya-windows), and pilasters dividing the temple into niches with
sculpted images. The images in the centre tier's niches display commonly used traits in future
iconography.
The four corner blocks have two panels with standing figures, two pillars, and pilasters between them.
They are supported by crouching lions, except for one block that only has four pillars.

The final side is an Ardhanarishvara, a combination of Shiva and Parvati, located at the back and
facing east.

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This sculpture from the early Pallava period is highly pleasant due to its flawless balance of masculine
characteristics and weaponry in the Siva-half, graceful anatomical details, and the sporty lotus in the
half-figure of Pârvati.

Bhima's Ratha
The following temple is long on a rectangular base, supported lengthwise by four pillars and two
pilasters, and has a roof that resembles the hood of a country waggon.
The pavilion and decorations resemble those of the Dharmaraja Ratha, including the fake chaitya-
windows (kudu). Bhima Ratha is a sculpture made from a single, lengthy stone of pink granite that
resembles a chariot (ratha). The building is dedicated to Vishnu and bears the name of one of the
Pancha Pandavas.

Arjuna Ratha
The Dharmaraja Ratha and the Arjuna Ratha are almost the same. Carved panels are located on the
first floor and on all four sides of the main body, between pilasters. The middle and corner panels are
narrower but more noticeable, with five panels on each side of the main body of the ratha.
On the eastern panel, there is a depiction of a wise man and his disciple, both holding staffs.
The panels feature royal couples. (The panel faces south.) The sculptor's skill in portraying these
individuals in full and three-quarter profile showcases their mastery of the craft.
The upper-level panels also depict similar royal couples. The monument's base features alternating
etched supports of elephants and lions. The Dharmaraja-ratha employs the same decorative
approach as kudus and pavilions.
Mahabalipuram is home to the Arjuna Ratha, a Pallava-era monument. It is believed to be one of the
Pancha Rathas and was completed before the Dharmaraja Ratha. The wooden temple before it is a
replica of this stone one.

Draupadi Ratha
The Draupadi Ratha is a structure in the Pancha Rathas complex in Mahabalipuram that was carved
out of a single, long granite stone to resemble a chariot (ratha). The structure is named after
Draupadi, the common wife of the Pancha Pandavas, despite the fact that history does not
corroborate the nomenclature.
The goddess Durga is honoured by the unfinished building.

Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha
The two heroes inspired the name of this temple. It possesses ornamental characteristics similar to
those of Arjuna, Dharmaraja, and other rathas. It moves a little bit forward to make a porch with two
pillars. This temple lacks any figure carvings.
The Pancha Rathas complex at Mahabalipuram includes the monument Nakula Sahadeva Ratha. It is
carved from a single, long stone of pink granite, like a chariot (ratha).
The last two brothers of the Pancha Pandavas are commemorated on the edifice, despite the fact that
history does not corroborate the nomenclature.
The tiny, incomplete building is a temple for the god Indra.

Pallava architecture and sculpture

● Mahendra Style
In the evolution of Pallava forms, three main movements have been identified. The first, known
colloquially as 'Mahendra Style,' was rock-cut. These temples' pillars are huge and split into three
sections: the upper and lower are square in form, while the centre is horned and octagonal. The
doorkeepers (dwarapala) on either side of the sanctum's doorway are huge and hefty, carry a heavy
club, are sometimes horned, and have the sacred thread (yajnopavita) running across the right arm;
however, they are not fierce-looking and have only one pair of arms, unlike their later counterparts.

18
However, a pillar inscription from Kanchipuram indicates the presence of masonry temples during his
time, although no such specimens survive now.

Kotikal Mandapa is the cave in this image. A female doorkeeper is on duty to watch over a cell
beyond the hall's enormous pillars. On either side of the entrance, there are female doorkeepers
watching over a cell that is beyond the hall's enormous pillars. on each side of the entrance.

● 'Mamalla Style'
Varaha Cave temples continue in this period, and free-standing monolithic temples also come into
existence. The pillars are more slender, slightly more decorated, and supported by crouching lions.
The pavilion ornament resembles a thatched cottage with a mimicked railing below. The torana arch
on top of the niche is adorned with two makaras. These makaras have riders and floriated tails, one at
each end of the torana. The dwarapala in this form are similar to the ones found in the earlier caves.
The figures now have a slimmer contour, although they are still heavy. The general features of the
earlier period continue as a whole.

The Mamalla-style Varaha Cave Temple in this panorama has a spacious hall with a front row of four
pillars and two pilasters supported by crouching lions. The two-pillar back row has no lions, and the
back wall has a cell cut in the centre. This cell depicts Varaha lifting the earth from the ocean.
Rock-cut Varaha Cave Temple is also known as Adi Varaha Cave Temple. The cave's most important
sculpture depicts Lord Vishnu as a Varaha, or boar, carrying Bhudevi from the sea.
There are also many mythological figures engraved.
The Pallava rulers Mahendra Varman I and Rajasimha, or Narasimhavarman I, known as Mamalla,
ruled the cave, which includes transitional architecture with columns set on seated lions and murals
on the walls. Mamalla's son, Parameswara Varman, followed this technique. Historical records reveal
that Mahabalipuram was founded after Mamalla, and the caverns and rathas date to his reign in 650
AD. The oldest monument in Mahabalipuram The cave's facade includes artistically carved columns
on sitting lions, a Pallava feature.
Four panels flank the cell in this cave: a Gaja-Lakshmi seated on a lotus, washed by elephants and
attended by nymphs; an eight-armed Mahishamardini at the end; and two Vishnu depictions.

The verandah's side walls have two panels: a seated king with queens and a standing king leading his
two queens. The Gaja-Lakshmi panel resembles the other Varaha cave panel.

Mahishamardini stands on Mahisha's cut head. In both panels, two prostrate followers worship him,
and two dwarapalakas flank him, one of whom has snake-hoods atop his hat, suggesting Sesha, the
serpent-lord, always linked with Vishnu's Varaha incarnation.
Other panels depict Gangadhara and Brahma, with the former receiving Ganga in his hair and
supporting her with his right upper arm.
One of the notable royal images depicts a king sitting on a throne with his two standing queens, while
the other depicts a king in royal robes leading his senior queen, then the second, and pointing his
right forefinger at the central shrine figure.
.

● 'Rajasimha Style'
In this period, the practise of excavating rock-cut temples fell into disuse. The masonry temples' pillars
are thin and supported by lions that are running, not squatting.

19
Additionally, the dwarapala are more ornamented, their figures are conceived and executed with
greater delicacy, and there is a greater exuberance and a larger grouping of figures.

Krishna Cave Temple

Krishna Cave Temple at Mahabalipuram is a rock-cut mandapam dedicated to Lord Krishna.
About the mid-7th century. Its excavated entrance leads to a hall with columns. Inside is the "most
poetic and endearing" Indian or Angkor sculpture depicting Krishna hoisting Govardhan Hill to protect
cowherds and gopis from severe rains and floods. Another cave scene depicts Krishna playing with
milkmaids.
Krishna raises Govardhana mountain to protect the gopas and gopis from Indra's storm. Krishna
supports the mountain with his left palm and varada hand. Right now, Balarama has his left hand on a
gopa's shoulder and his right on his hip. His right displays a magnificent cowherd milking and licking
the calf naturally. He sits alongside another woodcutter with his axe on his shoulder. A woman holds
her infant behind the milking cow as a cowherd plays a flute overhead.
Everything illustrates the cowherds' indifference to Indra's rage, who prepared a storm to punish the
gopis but couldn't since Krishna held Mount Govardhana. This fresco has three female friends to his
right. His childhood girlfriend Radha wears a kirita makuta crown, a breast band, and jewels. On his
right are two people, male and female.

Panchapandava Cave Temple

Panchapandava Cave Temple, also known as Mandapa of the Five Pandavas, is one of the best
examples of Vishwakarma Sthapathi rock-cut cave architecture.
Pallava architecture's basic verandah columns with lion bases were given to Narasimhavarman I
Mamalla Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha in the mid-7th century. In Mahabalipuram, the Pallavas built
10 significant cave temples.
Cave temple incomplete. The entrance faces east.
The temple has Mahabalipuram Cave Temple's longest cavern, 50 feet (15 metres). The opening
length appears to create a cave-circumambulatory tunnel around the main shrine.

Mahishasuramardini Mandapa

The Pallava dynasty constructed Yampuri, also known as Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, a rock-cut
cave temple, in the late 7th century. The rock-cut cave temple is located on a hill near a lighthouse in
Mamallapuram, along with other caves. The Mahishamardini Rock Cut Mandapa is located 200
metres away from the Five Monoliths. The big hall has panels of Seshasayi Vishnu and
Mahishamardini at both ends. The central cell contains a Siva-linga, with a depiction of Somaskanda
on the wall behind it. The cave depicts Purana scenes from the 5th century AD.

The cave, along with Ellora, has one of the best Mahishamardini groups. Notable examples of
Mahabalipuram's plastic art include Seshayi Vishnu, Gajalakshmi in the Varaha Cave, and Arjuna's
Penance.

Mahishamardini, with her eight arms, rides a lion and wields all her weapons, including a bow that she
holds up to her ear. She wields a large club in a fierce alidha stance alongside armies of ganas and
Amazon yoginis. In yoga nidra, Vishnu is serene on his serpent-couch, while Madhu and Kaitabha,
with their weapons, contribute to his tranquilly.

Arjuna’s Penance

20
Arjuna performs penance to please Shiva and obtain the Pasupata weapon in a Mahabharata story.
Rows of gods and goddesses, such as Chandra, Surya, Kinnaras, Siddhas, Gandharvas, Apsaras,
and more, hurry towards a central place in a cleft. In the midst of it all, a sage stands in deep penance
on his left foot. There is another rock with an unfinished image south of Arjuna's Penance, in front of
the lighthouse. The sculptor may have attempted this before beginning. In Arjuna's Penance, the
focal point is a sage standing on one foot, practising self-mortification. A mighty Siva, with four arms,
a trident, and dwarf ganas, stands beside the sage.
The cleft features beautifully sculpted Nagas and Naginis with loving hands.
The deer near the lion implies the presence of nearby sages' hermitages. Sages exude tranquilly and
calmness, resembling a meditating cat amidst a few scurrying rodents. The sculptor portrayed Nagas,
commonly linked to water, in various elements like the cleft, temple, sages, dwellings, and disciples
conducting water-related rituals. This suggests that the cleft symbolises a river flowing down from the
hills.

ROCK RELIEF
Rock reliefs are carved either on rocks or on independent boulders. The most famous rock relief or
bas-relief work depicted in Mahabalipuram is titled The Descent of the Ganges (also known as
Arjuna's Penance or Bhagiratha's Penance). It is the largest open-air rock relief work in the world.
This bas-relief is carved on two huge boulders of 27 metres (89 feet) length and 9 metres (30 feet)
height with innumerable depictions of Hindu beliefs. These are early or middle 7th-century creations
on granite boulders and are considered by The Hindu to be "one of the marvels of the sculptural art of
India."

Descent Of The Ganges

A massive open-air rock relief, Descent of the Ganges, is carved from two monolithic rock boulders
spanning 96 by 43 feet. The bas-relief depicts Bhagiratha leading the Ganges from heaven to earth.
Ganges water is thought to have magical abilities. The Pallava historic site depicts the Ganges'
descent and Arjuna's penance in stone. The relief is a canvas of Indian rock-cut sculpture at its best,
unrepresented in India.
This relief commemorates Hinduism's victory over Buddhism. After Pallava Dynasty king
Narasimhavarman I (630–668 AD) during the 4th–9th centuries, Mahabalipuram was known as
Mamallan, the "great wrestler" or "great warrior". His father, Mahendravarman I, switched from
Jainism to Hinduism. The Mamallapuram architecture sculpted in situ granite faces using stone.

STRUCTURAL TEMPLES
During the 8th century, The Pallava kings built the structural temples, specifically during the reign of
King Rajasimha (AD 700–28). The Shore Temple complex is the most famous and prominent
example of this type of temple. It has two small temples and one large temple, all enclosed within a
two-tier compound wall decorated with Nandi images. The temple is 60 feet tall and has a square
base measuring 50 feet on each side. In the original Force Court, thousands of sculptures are
displayed to worship Lord Shiva, and there are small temples. The complex has two additional
temples located behind the main temple. These temples, called Rajasimhesvara or Nripatisimha
Pallava Vishnugriha and Kshatriyasimhesvara, face each other. The latter is dedicated to Shiva, while
the former has an ancient reclining image of Anantashayana Vishnu carved nearby in the riverbed.
The mandapa in front of the Rajasimheshvara extends to the basement. A compound wall with Nandis
on top surrounds the temple complex. Due to its proximity to the sea, the Shore Temple is subject to
the choppy sea and salt-laden winds.

Shore Temple
The 700–728 AD Shore Temple faces the Bay of Bengal. The ancient granite-block temple of

21
Mahabalipuram (173) dates to the 8th century AD. South India's oldest structural stone temple
This temple complex has one large and two small temples.
After seeing the tall building on the beach, sailors called it the Seven Pagodas.
They presumably navigated ships with the temple. The pagoda-like name was familiar to sailors.

This temple complex was King Narasimha Varma I's mid-7th-century architectural peak. King
Rajasimha (700–28 AD), also known as Narasimhavarman II, of the Pallava Dynasty, is credited with
the Shore Temple complex's architectural elegance, despite later cut-in and cut-out features such as
the Atiranachanda cave, Pidari rathas, and Tiger cave.

This was the last submerged seashore temple complex. The Cholas invaded Tamil Nadu and erected
Shore Temple.

The two inscriptions on a smaller Shiva temple slab are Kshatriyasimha Pallaveshvara-graham,
Rajasimha, and Pllikondaruliya-devar. The entire temple is Jalashayana. This proves the Vishnu
shrine was dug first.

Rajasimha's title, Narasimha Pallava Vishnu Griha, is on the temple lintel.

The ASI discovered a small shrine with the Bhauvaraha image in 1990. It dates back to the reign of
Pallava King Narasimhavarman Mamalla (AD 638–660). Rajasimha's reign (AD 700–728) saw the
construction of an elliptical well to enclose it. These carvings are found on the bedrock of the Shore
Temple complex, which also features the reclining Vishnu. The complex is dedicated to Shiva. The
base is carved from bedrock and has sixteen sides. Lions are depicted on the pilasters. It is a unique
temple from the Pallava period. The shikara has a circular shape and features Vesara-style
architecture.
This image is unique because it does not include Bhudevi or an ocean, unlike other Varaha depictions
in different regions of the country.
Varaha dives into the ocean to rescue Bhudevi; the depiction shows this. The act symbolises the myth
when the temple is underwater, below ground level. The shrine's surrounding wall prevents sand
intrusion from the sea. It also features an inscription in Pallava-Grantha script, equating the king with
Arjuna.

Olakkannesvara Temple
The Olakkannesvara Temple ("flame eye"; also known as Olakkanatha, "the Old Lighthouse") is at
Mahabalipuram. Olakkannesvara Temple is structurally similar to Shore Temple. Built in the 17th
century, it overlooks the Mahishasuramardini mandapa on a hillside with stunning views of the town.
Dedicated to Shiva's incarnation.
The common name is "Olakkanatha Temple." The original name of Olakkanatha Temple is
Olakkannesvara, derived from "Ulaikkannisvaram," which means a Shiva temple with a crescent
moon or wisdom eye on the forehead. Pallava dynasty ruler Rajasimha erected the Olakkannesvara
Temple and Shore Temple. Archaeologist A. H. Longhurst noted that before the 1900 building of the
current lighthouse, the Olakkannesvara Temple roof was used as a lighthouse, maybe a wooden hut.
Worship was held in this temple until the 1800s.

22
CHAPTER THREE: PROCESS
3.1. STONE CARVING IN MAHABALIPURAM
Stones available in Mahabalipuram:
- Granite: Granite is a hard and durable stone that is widely used for stone carving in
Mahabalipuram. It is known for its strength and ability to withstand weathering,
making it suitable for outdoor sculptures and monuments.
- Black granite (Karuppu Kal)
- Red granite (Sivappu Kal)
- White Granite (Vellai Kal)
- Soapstone (Maavu Kal): Soapstone, also known as steatite, is a softer stone often used
for smaller carvings and intricate details. It has a smooth and easily workable texture,
allowing artisans to create delicate and intricate designs.
- Sandstone: Sandstone is occasionally used for stone carving in Mahabalipuram. It has
a relatively soft texture and is suitable for intricate carvings and decorative elements.
Sandstone sculptures are often seen in the form of relief panels.

Process
- There are 4 steps:
- First it starts with a plain outline drawing with measurements followed by

step 1 - rough cutting

step 2- shaping/carving

step 3- polishing

step 4- detailing

- In-between where the markings are done 3 to 5 times using Red Oxide powder or
marker as and when it's required During the process both mercenaries and hammer
and chisel(like old days) are being used. They have a basic measurement scale which
is made of a bamboo stick on which they have marked measurements for each part of
the body which is roughly the face, upper body, lower body and feet. So when the
customer asked for a specific size they just take the already prepared stick for marking
the measurements.They almost have five different machines that they used till the
finished product,
- Step 1- Rough cutting- they have a cutting machine which has different sizes that
almost starts from 2 inches to 12 inches blades depending on the size of the blades the

23
 voltage differs.
- Step 2- Shaping/carving- the drill machine is used for punching holes and creating
the required cavity in the idol, there are different bit sizes so locally they call it the bit
machine
- Step 3 -Polishing- A buffing machine is used for polishing the idol with different
spindles and discs to give a glass finish look. This is used for large idols, and
interestingly, they use the carbon from the cell or shoe polish for idols that are smaller
in size. There are six different discs, each with six different textures, which are
responsible for the glass finish. each disc has a colour behind it, so they can identify
by the colour too, as it's easier
- Step 4-Detailing - the use of a die grinder to give intricate details on the idol.

Raw Materials
Red granite, Black granite, and white stone are the types of stones used as the basic raw
materials available.

Tools
Chisels: Wide-edged and point-edged chisels (Uli) are used for removing unwanted material
to get a rough outline on the stone.
Hammer: It is used for hammering in conjunction with chisels to strike and remove material
from the stone. They can vary in weight and size, depending on the stone and the carving
technique.
Sandpaper is used to polish the surface of the stone.
Red oxide solution: Before carving, the stencils are painted on the surface of the stone with a
red oxide solution.
Palamunai uli: Chisel used to level the surface of the stone.
Water: To avoid heat production, water is continually showered.
Oil: Coconut or Castor Oil is applied to the stone as it gives it a characteristic black colour
and a smoother surface.
Cutting Machine: Different types of automated cutting machines are used to cut the bigger
stone blocks.
Saw: A saw is used to cut stone slabs into the required sizes.
Scales: These are used for marking marks on the stone surface for the measurement.
Water and chemicals are used to whiten the outer texture of granite stone.
Brush:A brush is used to remove the stone powder that accumulates on the statue's exterior
surface while carving out features.

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3.2 SHILPA SHASTRA
In ancient Indian scriptures, Shilpa refers to any art or craft, whereas Shastra refers to
science. Shilpa Shastra translates to "the science of art and crafts." It is an old umbrella name
encompassing a variety of Hindu books that explain arts and crafts shrine-bound, as well as
the design rules, principles, and standards that govern them. The Shilpa Shastras were guides
for sculpting and Hindu iconography in the context of Hindu temple building and sculpture.
The Shilpa Shastras, among other things, regulate the dimensions of a sculptured figure,
composition, principles, meaning, and all architectural standards.

Shilpa Shastra serves as a foundational guide and reference for stone carving in traditional
Indian art and architecture. It outlines the principles, rules, and techniques that craftsmen use
to create intricate and culturally significant stone sculptures. It covers various aspects of stone
carving, such as design, proportions, iconography, symbolism, and the methods of carving
different types of stone.

The art of sculpting in ancient India, known as Shilpa Shastra, established its own set of
standards about measurements and proportions. It is a system of iconometry that defies
rigorous definitions due to its complexity. The system of measurements by Tala in the palm
of the hand (from the middle fingertip to the wrist)is known as Talamana paddathi. It is an
essential component in the creation of temple icons and images. Iconometry, which is the
concept that discusses proportions, was an essential component of the Murti shilpa, which
refers to the process of creating idols.

Shilpa-Shastra addresses architecture and iconography in Agama literature. Devalaya Vastu

covers temple structure, while Prathima covers iconography. Shilpa and Shastra are both used
to describe sculpting; however, Shilpa refers to the method and Shastra to its principles.
Agama literature discusses worship with images. The Agama scriptures describe rites and
sequences for a shrine-bound, worship-worthy image. The underlying principle is that a
temple must be made for the icon, not the other way around. A temple is simply an expanded
representation of the icon. Icons only matter in respectable shrines. Agama literature
influences Shilpa-Sastra Architecture. The icon, temple, and rites are interconnected. Indian
temples should be considered in the context of temple culture, which includes religious,
philosophical, social, aesthetic, and economic elements. The Agamas for Shilpa detail the
quality requirements of temple sites, the images to be installed, the materials to be used, their
dimensions, proportions, air circulation, lighting, and more. Manasara and Shilpasara address
these rules. The Agamas govern daily temple worship rites. The Shilpa Shatras of the
Agamas describe the temple location, building materials, size, directions, and orientations of
temple structures, image, and specifications for a pilgrimage site. Sthala (temple site),
Teertha (temple tank), and Murthi (idol) are the main components. Sthala Vriksham, a tree-
temple relationship, exists.

Initially, a square grid is divided into sixteen equal squares for the purpose of creating an
image. Six segments are formed from these squares: The central four squares, known as
Brahma-bhaga, Above the Brahma-bhaga, there are two squares designated as Deva-kesha or
Deva shiro-alankara-bhaga, which symbolise the crown or intricate hair arrangement of the

25
deity. The space below the Brahma-bhaga, consisting of two bottom squares, is referred to as
the Vahana-bhaga or peeta-bhaga, serving as the pedestal for the deity. Adjacent to the
Vahana-bhaga, there are two bottom squares on either side, known as Bhaktha-bhaga, which
are reserved for the depiction of the worshipping devotees. On either side of the Brahma-
bhaga, there are two squares each, referred to as Devi-bhaga, which represent the
accompanying female deities. Lastly, the two squares located at the On either side of the
Shiro-bhaga are designated as the dharva-bhaga, symbolising the presence of the Gandharvas.

The centre section of the primary deity is represented by the Brahma-bhaga; its head, crown,
or hair-do is represented by the Deva-shiro-bhaga; and the deity's feet, pedestal, and mount
(vahana) are represented by the lower Vahana-bhaga. The vertical, horizontal, and diagonal
axes of the square intersect at a point referred to as the Brahma-bindu, located exactly at the
centre of the Brahma-bhaga. The deity's navel (nabhi) would be at the Brahma-bindu.

INTRODUCTION TO THE CLUSTER

The Stone Carving Craft Cluster exudes an ethereal aura that enthrals the heart and soul. It
is situated directly next to the main road, the greenery, and the tranquil melody of flowing
waterways. Ten accomplished artists who are experts in their fields get together here every
day to breathe life into lifeless stones with their skilled hands and limitless imagination.
The lotus pond's reflective surface is bathed in a warm glow from the dawn's first rays, and a
natural symphony fills the air. The water's gentle ripples caressing the shoreline echo the
rhythmic chiselling that comes from the artisans' studios. The skilled craftspeople began
their delicate labour in time with nature's embrace, drawing on centuries of tradition and
knowledge.
Tradition and modernization live together in the craft cluster. A water line that was
thoughtfully installed offers a constant supply of water to wash the stones, and a radio that
softly hums helps the artists in their creative endeavours. The fusion of the modern and the
classic results in works of art that bridge the past and the present and carry on the tradition
of stone cutting for future generations.
Visitors can watch the creative process unfold as they walk along the winding paths that
surround the lotus pond. A reflection of the community and friendship that ties these
accomplished artisans together can be heard in the air as it reverberates with laughter and
discussion. Each sculpture is a marvel to see thanks to the craftsmen's inspiration, which
lends each piece a touch of natural elegance.
The artisans who work there are Anbu,Munmuswami, Shiva,Rajesh,
Ganesh,Purushotaman,Tangaraj,Venkatashan,Devendran,Velagari, Balaji, Sudhakaran,
Velmurugan, Murugan, and Anandan.

26
CHAPTER FOUR: ARTIST PROFILE
1.

Name: Anbu Arumugan

Age: 41

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 30 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving

Anbu Arumugan is the most experienced craftsman in this cluster. He resides with his family
in Mahabalipuram proper, 10 kilometres from his place of employment. He is married and
has two kids, one in sixth grade and the other in kindergarten. He began working at this job
when he was just 12 years old in order to support his family. He only came into this field
because he had to provide for his family financially; he had no interest in this job. He is
employed from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. He marks and sketches everything on the stone because he is
the master artisan and can complete all the tasks, then hands the stone off to another artisan to
complete. He did not attend a school for sculpture.

2.

Name: Munmuswami

Age: 85

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Widow

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 45 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre

Munmuswami has a son who used to work nearby at a construction site but now lives alone
because he can't hear well and his wife passed away. He works as a polisher and has done so
for more than 45 years. His family has agricultural roots, and he started working at this job
when he was just 10 years old.

27
3.

Name: Shiva

Age: 32

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Thiruvaikundam

Working Experience: 22 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre

Shiva is from Thiruviakundram, which is about 15 kilometres away from Chengalpattu

district. His daughter, who is one year and two months old, is his only child; he is married.
When he was about ten years old, he arrived at this field. He has held various positions.
When asked if he would have done anything else besides stone carving work, he replied that
because he was raised in a hamlet, people there are expected to labour tirelessly at anything,
whether it be laying tiles or constructing buildings. A friend who he considers a brother first
introduced him to this work, and over time, he eventually learned it. He has now been
working at this shop for about ten years.

4.

Name: Purushottaman

Age: 45

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 30 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sri Raja stone carving

Purushottam has been employed for approximately 30 years. He was raised in

Mahabalipuram itself, where he was born. When questioned about how he came to work
here, he explained that it was due to his family's circumstances. His family is from here, and
his father and his grandfather both worked in construction. When asked how he ended up in
this field, he specifically stated that he doesn't remember anything from Mahabalipuram but
that he used to go with his grandmother to see these street performances that were based on
the Ramayana or the Mahabharata, among other things, which helped him when he was

28
creating the statues, according to him.

5.

Name: Rajesh

Age: 20

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 2-3 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre

Rajesh had lost his father. He is married and has a child, and he lives with his mother and
younger brother. His coworkers claimed that since he is from a lower caste—typically in his
caste, they marry young—and that he has only completed the fifth grade of school, He
initially performed any tasks that were assigned to him in the temples, such as cleaning or
other tasks. But after seeing all the statues in the temple and how much people revered God,
he decided that he must complete the task of creating a statue of God. As a result, he came to
this field.

6.

Name: Tangaraj

Age: 50

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Tri Vandanam

Working Experience: 30 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre

Tangaraj had previously worked for a Granite company. He just does polishing work because
he enjoys it. He has been doing it for 30 years overall, but he has been working in this shop
for 4 years. His family is located 100 kilometres away, and he lives here by himself in a
modest room. So he makes a weekly trip to see his family. After work, he spends much of his
time eating and sleeping. He also enjoys watching YouTube videos and movies.

7.

29
Name: Ganesh

Age: 32

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Pudukottai

Working Experience: 18 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre

Ganesh, who is 28 years old, started working in this industry when he was about 10 years old.
At first, he was in the construction industry, through which he travelled to Dubai and worked
there for a while. However, after realising that he wanted to work in stone sculpting, he
returned to India and joined a store where he had to learn everything on his own. Now, he is
opening a store in his hometown. He also said that he can't wait to go to work every day and
that even missing one day of work makes him feel really unhappy.

8.

Name: Venkatesan

Age: 55

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 25 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: V B V Traditional Architectures and Sculptures

Venkatesan completed a five-year diploma programme in sculpture and temple architecture at

the government college of architecture and sculpture. He also completed a four-year course in
fine arts at the Madras School. He has travelled all around the world, including America and
Bangkok. He now works for the Tamil Nadu government's department of temple architecture.
He serves on the panel for inducements as well. His entire family hails from Mahabalipuram,
where he was born and raised. The college that he previously attended employed his father as
a teacher. His family has exclusively worked in this industry for the last three generations;
therefore, he also developed an interest in it. He thought that since stone carving is such an

30
essential craft, people should continue to pursue it. He is passionate about his work, and
customers come to him from all around the world. He claimed that he had previously loved
this art better because it just required the use of a hammer and chisel, but now, due to the
extensive use of machines and the rise in health issues, the number of young people entering
this area is now declining. He claimed that this work is well-regarded and timeless. He also
said that he respected his teacher because it was only thanks to him that he had reached this
position. He has helped create temple sculptures in Tamil Nadu and other nations. He is now
building a temple close to Thiruchendur.

9.

Name: Sudhakaran

Age: 50

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 25 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sai Kshatriya Gallery

Sudhakaran has three people working under him. He began working at a relatively young age
and has been in this industry for almost 25 years. The College of Sculpture awarded him a
degree. His ancestors and his family are all from Mahabalipuram. He also thinks his ancestors
are from the Pallava clan. He claimed that, except for stone carving, no other line of
employment could compare to his passion for and interest in it. He has commercial ties all
over the world, primarily in New Jersey, the USA, Malaysia, and Bangkok. He claims that he
is well-liked across the nation. He adds that working with stone used to sound like music
back when there were no machines, but that is no longer the case. Since Sudhakaran is a
devoted disciple of Sai Baba, he has built a temple just across from his business while also
working and maintaining it. He was able to climb, touch, and feel the monuments because he
was raised in Mahabalipuram, which had a significant influence on his decision to begin
stone carving.

Name: Velmurugan

Age: 48

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

31
Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 22 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sai Kshatriya Gallery

Velmurugan has two children and resides with his family. He entered this sector when he was
12 years old, worked in a variety of businesses and locations, and is now a permanent
resident of Sudhakar businesses. He merely completed eighth grade of his studies. Since they
were all close to his house and he could see all the shops nearby, he used to visit them all
during the school breaks. Therefore, he used to visit and sit with these individuals over the
holidays and became aware of them. He gradually developed an interest in this area and
decided he wanted to carve stones. He joined a store and began working there when he was
12 years old. After arriving here and working for some time, he claimed he just felt drawn
towards it and never really thought about anything else when asked whether he had any
interest in studying or if he wanted to do something else. He completed all the stages and
procedures.

11.

Name: Devendran

Age: 30

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 3 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sai Kshatriya Gallery

Devendran is the brother of Velmurugan, the primary craftsman. He is married with two
children. When he arrived here, his brother showed him how to complete the task. He had
trouble hearing clearly. He was conducting the task that deals with a cease and desist to hang
in a company in Chennai before he came here. He does the third part of the process,
polishing, here. He goes to clean the temple that is directly across from their cluster, sits there
for a while, and then returns to his home.

12.

Name: Balaji

Age: 27

Gender: Male

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Marital Status: Married

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 6 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sai Kshatriya Gallery

Balaji has been in this line of work for over 6 years, and interestingly, before that he was a
driver. However, one day with a friend, he visited the place of employment where he had
previously worked, and he became so enamoured with it that he began going there every day.
Ultimately, he began developing this skill simply by watching other people at work. When
asked, How did he become an authority in this field? He claimed that his friend eventually
taught him how to do it, and that he is now completely self-sufficient. His work here is the
final stage of the polishing of the idol's principal detailing.

13.

Name: Anandan

Age: 55

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 30 years

Field: Stone carving

Anandan has been employed for about 30 years; he was born and raised in Mahabalipuram.
His father and grandfather both used to perform the same duties. After graduating from the
sculpture college with a passing mark, he now manages a store where 15 people work. The
course is a five-year program. Although statues are exported both domestically and abroad,
most statues are purchased in India. When asked about his early experiences, he explained
that there used to be a lot of breaking and that most of it wouldn't turn off as you would have
expected until 2 to 5 years later.

14.

Name: Vellagiri

Age: 72

Gender: Male

Marital Status: divorced

Place: Chengalpattu

33
Working Experience: 40 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: V B V Traditional Architectures and Sculptures

Vellagiri is 72 years old. His two sons are both educated and he hails from a tiny town close
to Chengalpattu. He has been working for 40 years and solely does polishing. They each have
profitable businesses that they started separately after studying sculpture in college. Although
he initially came here just for the money because he had to support two children, he came
here for the salary because anyone from this could help him convince his children to study
and pursue this line of work. Despite the fact that he has almost lost 90% to 80% of his
vision, he stays in the workplace .

15.

Name: Munmunswami

Age: 60

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Widow

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 50 years

Field: Stone carving

Shop name: Sri Sudhakar stone carving

Munmunswami, a shopkeeper who is 60 years old and who was born and raised entirely in
Mahabalipuram, has no experience in stone cutting or statue construction. He merely looks
after and maintains the store. He has been employed for four years, and in that time, he has
only mentioned that it was challenging at first due to the store's numerous products and
varying prices. His duty is to clean the store, which is open from 9 a.m. to 8 p.m. If anything
needs attention, he notifies the owner right away. He simply has to cook when he returns
home because his wife passed away and he has two children, a daughter and a son.

16.

Name:Santosh

Age: 29

Gender: Male

Marital Status:Single

Place: Visakhapatnam

Field: IT employee

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Santhosh, an IT professional from Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, is 29 years old. He is a person
who enjoys visiting various places, and one distinctive trait about him is that he takes
pleasure in learning about the well-known landmarks, local cultures, and different kinds of
companies in each place. When he visits, he makes sure to remain for a week or a few days
so he can try to learn the local language and meet people. He has travelled to many locations,
and he studied stone carving in our group. It is more convenient for him to travel as he now
works from home.He has been to Kerala, Rajasthan, Kerala, Mumbai, and Bangalore. As a
result, he had a strong sense of creativity as a child and always loved making art and working
with materials. He asserted that he also tried to use materials he discovered about the house to
imitate sequences from films, such as the building of the Charminar Taj Mahal. He added that
he used to enjoy painting but that no one had ever told him about art colleges like NIFT or
other chances for higher education because of his lack of education. He ultimately chose to
enrol in an engineering programme, though he now states that he wants to go back to his
original area of interest after working in IT. even feigning employment in the IT sector or
current financial gain. In order to at least try to return home and enjoy doing what he likes to
do when he has some free time, this person goes from place to place and attempts to study
their art, learn their language, and mingle with people. In essence, he is attempting to
actualize the childhood fantasy he had but never realised.

17.

Name: Dr Chandrashakaran

Age: 58

Gender: Male

Marital Status: Married

Place: Mahabalipuram

Working Experience: 28 years

Field: Professor(Stone carving )

College name:Government College of Architecture and Sculpture

Chandrashakaran is a native of Kadambadi, a small village close to Mahabalipuram. He

earned his doctorate in this area and worked for a university in the stone department of the
stone sculpting college. He eventually quit that position though, and went back to teach at his
old college. both a doctorate and an MA in sculpture. He was able to lead multiple seminars
despite teaching at numerous colleges. He married a singer because he yearned to sing but
was unable to. He's married and has two kids.He began a diploma programme in 1995. While
his colleagues enrolled in the eleventh and twelve grades after the tenth grade, his brother
enrolled him in this school. He avoided the real class though because he detested it and none
of his friends went to this particular college. They were all enrolled in classes at various
institutions, and they were all making fun of him by saying that he didn't understand what
they were all studying. But after three months, he finally made it to college and started to
show interest. He is currently the first person in his family to receive a PhD after finishing an

35
MA and M Phil in sculpture. Before, he showed no interest at all, but now that he has
reached heights.

CHAPTER FIVE: PRODUCTS

5.1. STONE CARVING PRODUCTS IN INDIA

The classical tradition of stone carving was closely intertwined with architecture. The
great history of Indian stone carvings is displayed in the country's most famous
temples, including those in Puri, Konark, Khajuraho, Kailash, and the Shore Temple
in Mahabalipuram.
The stone work in Varanasi exhibits a distinctiveness that sets it apart from other
parts of India. Carving gets done on a soft stone called gorara, which is sourced from
the Hamirpur and Mahoba regions, instead of using hard marble. Gorara is unique
because of its unpredictable range of colours. When polished, mottled gorara reveals
a beautiful range of shades, including grey, bright pink, green, and black. The limited
availability of gorara in small pieces restricts the size of its end products due to its
softness. Bowls and serving dishes are highly sought-after items.
To fully immerse oneself in the art of stone craft, it is essential to take a leisurely
walk through the intricate network of narrow lanes found in the Sonia and Kalimohal
areas of Varanasi, as well as Gokulpura in Agra. For curious collectors, it has the
potential to be a delightful journey of discovery. In these areas, one can find
approximately 4,000 artisans who are the driving force behind this age-old tradition,
skillfully crafting wonders from stone.
The high grade of marble and sandstone mined from the state's numerous quarries
spawned a history of stonemasons and artists. The quarries in Makrana are well-
known because it is from these quarries that the marble for the Taj Mahal was
quarried. The beautiful Dilwara Jain temples at Mt. Abu were also built with marble
from Makrana mines. The red sandstone that the Mughals used to construct their
forts and palaces at Agra, Delhi, and Fatehpur Sikri is still available in Rupbas (near
Agra) and Karauli. East Rajasthan Kota produces grey stone for flooring, Barmer
produces yellow marble for delicate sculptures, and Ajmer produces granite.
The state's stone carvers carve images of the deities out of the soft, chromatic stone
they mine from the quarries in Dungarpur. The sculptors must adhere to the rules
outlined in the Shilpa Shastra, an ancient Hindu text, because the subjects of these
images are heavenly sculpture and architecture.
The religious themes are carved in stone all over the state. One can see the lifelike
images being skillfully sculpted in different varieties of stone across the state. White
marble is used to carve statues of gods and goddesses, as well as animal and
human forms, in Jaipur.

36
5.2. STONE CARVING PRODUCTS IN
MAHABALIPURAM
The temples of Mahabalipuram are renowned for their intricate carvings, which excellently
highlight the mastery of stone carving as both a decorative and devotional art form. The
traditional craftsmen skillfully carve a variety of masterpieces depicting mythological figures.
These include human figures, images of gods and goddesses, idols for worship, animal
figures, scenes from Hindu epics, various poses of Lord Vinayaka, and mounts for deities.
Lord Ganesh is occasionally called Lord Vinayaka. In addition, essential items for the kitchen
such as wet grinders, grinding stones, sculptures of notable individuals, and the letter Icon of
Buddha are produced as well.

Lord Vinayaka statues can be intricately hand-carved in a variety of postures and forms.
These statues often depict Lord Vinayaka with either four or eight arms, each holding
different symbolic objects. Lord Ganesh is frequently depicted engaging in dance or playing a
musical instrument, such as the flute. Sometimes, he is accompanied by or seen riding a rat
(or a mouse), which symbolises his all-pervasiveness. The rat symbolises being under
Ganesh's control, representing a spiritual journey towards self-realisation and grace. The
position of Lord Ganesh's The trunk holds great significance and carries special meaning.
Each of Ganesh's symbols and traits holds unique benefits for devotees. When the idol trunk
turns left, it symbolises blessings of wealth, success, and pleasure. On his right, the trunk
symbolises the benefits associated with moksha: the realisation that earthly pleasures are
temporary and the pursuit of ultimate bliss. Lord Vinayaka's statues commonly feature
several sacred symbols, including an elephant gods, bowls filled with Indian sweets or honey,
an axe, and an upside-down noose. These symbols hold great significance in the worship of
Lord Vinayaka. Gods symbolise the guidance needed to navigate the soul away from the
ignorance and illusions of this earthly existence. They serve as a metaphorical tool for
steering the soul, much like a person would guide an elephant away from a dangerous path.
Modakapatra, which is also referred to as a bowl of sweets, represents Ganesh's fondness for
sweets and his most beloved symbol: moksha, or liberation, which is considered one of the
most delightful aspects of life. The axe is a tool that is used to eradicate ignorance from the
world. The noose serves as a symbol of bringing loved ones closer to us while also reminding
us to extend our support and help to those who are in need, even in extraordinary
circumstances.

The exquisite sculptures depict the mastery of workmanship as well as the history of stone
carving at Mahabalipuram. Every aspect of stone carving is highly artistic and artistic-based.
The basic stone is transformed into legendary pieces with elaborate ornaments and
elaborately detailed facial expressions. A few art pieces by Anand Aew MP Hades are
interestingly made of stone with Jali work.

Stones Used for Making Various Products

Limestone, sandstone, and marble are often used for making sculptures. Due to limestone’s
fantastic weather-resistant properties, many of the sculptures and buildings made out of this
material thousands of years ago have been preserved to this day. Soapstone is highly resistant

37
to heat, and precisely for this reason, it has been traditionally used for making carved cooking
pots, pans, trays, and other household or functional items. Granite stone is very strong and
durable due to the high level of quartz content, so it is used for building columns, doors, and
lintels for architectural purposes. Gemstones like chalcedony, agate, amethyst, sard, onyx,
carnelian, heliotrope, jasper, and quartz are used for making jewellery pieces. Stones like
Soapstone, Alabaster, marble, and Paleva are used for making decorative showpieces of
different shapes and sizes for home decor. Stones such as marble, alabaster, limestone, and
granite are the most popular materials used in the manufacture of god and goddess statues to
create impressive sculptural works.

Stone Carving Product Range

Household items include products like cooking pots, pans, trays, and khalbatta. Jewellery
includes products like small pendants, alphabet jewellery, rings, necklaces, temples, and other
items made in different sizes and colours. Sculptures include various sculptures present in
museums, temples, and other monuments. Statues include statues of different goddesses,
deities, or personalities. Small decorations include products like candle stands, small
elephants, tortoises, ashtrays, agarbatti stands, lanterns, a Lord Buddha face, and other
decorative pieces.

Product Usage

In ancient times, the stone craft primarily focused on the art of carving stones to create small
weapons. Stone is used to make arrowheads, spears, javelin points, and hammers. These
implements were used for both hunting and cooking. As time passed, stone carving evolved
into a form of art.Stone carving was traditionally employed to create cathedral façade,
sculptures, and religious imagery. In modern times, stone carving products are also used for
decorative purposes at home. It is mostly used in temples, palaces, and for making decorative
pieces.

Stone carvings are often used for decorative purposes, both indoors and outdoors. Decorative
products like customised pillars, Lanterns, Stone Water fountains, Full-body deities or
portraits and water troughs Customised pillars can also be architectural as well as decorative
for household furnishing. Carved stone elements such as fireplace surrounds, wall panels, and
decorative accents can enhance the ambiance of a space and create a luxurious and timeless
appeal.

It also plays an important role in architectural design. Carved pillars, columns, capitals, and
lintels are used in the construction of temples, monuments, palaces, and other buildings.

In many cultures, stone sculptures and statues are considered sacred and are used to represent
deities, gods, goddesses, and spiritual beings. These carvings are placed in temples, shrines,
and sacred spaces for worship and devotion.

They are often used to create memorials and monuments dedicated to individuals, historical
events, or significant milestones. These can include statues, plaques, and gravestones that are
crafted with intricate carvings and inscriptions to commemorate and honour the subject.

38
Precious and semi-precious gemstones are also carved into delicate shapes for
jewellery or larger items and polished to produce pendants, earrings, bracelets, rings, and
other wearable items. Carved stone bowls, vases, candle holders, and kitchenware are
examples of functional items that combine practicality with artistic beauty.

Products Packaging
When it comes to packaging stone carving products, the primary focus is on ensuring their
protection during transportation and storage. Padding materials such as foam, bubble wrap, or
tissue paper are used to protect the product from impacts and vibrations. The padding is
placed around the product to create a cushioning effect. Depending on the size and shape of
the stone carving product, it is necessary to provide additional support and stability to the
product. To hold the product firmly in place within the packaging box, custom-cut foam or
cardboard dividers are used. Strong and durable packaging boxes made of corrugated
cardboard or rigid material are used to withstand the weight of the stone carving product. The
box is usually several inches larger than the product on all sides. The packaging box is
securely sealed with packaging tape to prevent it from opening during transit. Labelling of
the package with necessary information such as the recipient's address, return address, and
any handling instructions or fragile labels is done. This helps the handlers be aware of the
delicate nature of the contents and handle the package with care. If the stone carving product
is valuable or of significant importance, it is beneficial to consider insuring the package
against loss or damage during transit. Additionally, Using a shipping service that provides
tracking capabilities allows the recipient to monitor the package's progress and ensure its safe
delivery.

Based on our initial study, it was observed that a majority of store owners employ the
practice of using newspapers as a means of wrapping their items and then storing them within
their respective warehouses. Additionally, during the sale of their items, they employ the
practice of wrapping them solely in newspaper, securing the wrapping with either tape or
thread to prevent the newspaper covering from becoming loose. They use multiple layers of
newspaper to protect the product in case one layer tears.

5.3. MOTIFS

Lotus
The symbol is often used for decoration and to represent supreme deities. Its portrayal is
important in many cultures and religions. The lotus flower symbolises purity and perfection,
thriving in muddy waters. Buddhists find inspiration in this flower, as it symbolises their
aspiration for a sincere and pure life. By 200 BCE, Buddhism had become congregational,
and the first great stupas were constructed. The lotus symbolically faced the world from its
sacred threshold. It symbolised abundance and offered mandalas as a symbol of hope. Each
mandala transforms into a roundel that depicts the stories of the Awakened One's life.

Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists all share a common desire to worship and honour divinities or

39
aspects of divinity. Commonality often leads to the development of an image-making instinct.
Three Hindu deities are linked to the lotus. Brahma, the Creator-god in Vedic mythology, is
born from a flower that emerges from Vishnu's navel. In the myth, Vishnu dreams the world
into existence while floating on the primordial waters, supported by his Cosmic Snake.

The Lotus-goddess, Sirima, is also called Sri or Lakshmi. She is revered as the goddess of
good fortune. The lotus symbolises transcended existence, emerging from the waters with
the sun of transcendence at its centre, surrounded by petals in a mandala.

Nagas

Tamil-speaking communities in the southeast peninsula place nagakals, commemorative

snake stones, under trees. The stones are now essential to regional temples. Serpents are often
linked to wisdom. Balarama is an incarnation of Vishnu, known as the Plough bearer. He is
often shown as a serpent. Adi Shesha, associated with Balarama, also has a human form.
Patanjali, a renowned grammarian and commentator from the second century BCE,
exemplifies this form.

Serpents are believed to carry jewels on their heads. The titles for exceptional awards and
honours are "shiromani" and "chudamani," meaning "crest jewels." Shiva, the deity of yoga,
language, and dance, wears serpents as jewels.

Serpents possess great power, holding the earth like a precious jewel on their crowned hoods.
The Dignagas, also known as the "Guardians of the Cardinal Points," are famous. They
constantly derive orientation from the boundless expanse of space.

Makara

The Mount for the River Ganga is well recognised and popular. It became significant when
the local watertime nymph joined the pantheon of minor divinities in the 4th century CE. The
divine RiGoddess Ganga and Goddess Yamuna had taken their positions on either side of the
temple entrance. Ganga was riding on an anga-mounted makara, while Yamuna was riding on
a Yamuna-mounted tortoise. Animal mounts and yakshas originated in ancient Bharhut.

An ancient ocean deity is often depicted riding a makara. Varuna is the Hindu deity
corresponding to the Greek god 'Ouranos'. In the Vedic hymns of 10,000 BCE, he is
portrayed as a solar god, symbolising justice and dominion over the world, and is also
revered as a water deity.
The technology of Vedic sacrifice, including the fire offerings, is unique. Indigenous worship
is simple and inclusive. Originally, the act involved circling the sacred item clockwise and
placing offerings, usually flowers, respectfully at its base. The temple priests regularly offer
offerings to the permanent temple sanctuary. The main icon, or shrine symbol, is bathed in
milk, honey, and melted butter. Stone-carved makaras with open mouths carry away the

40
residue.

The Kirttimukha
The Kirttimukha, also known as the "Glory Face," is a term used to refer to a specific entity.
Three elements commonly associated with this observation are the lotus, the Naga, and
specifically the Makara. The design creatively combines elements that are clearly inspired by
a lion's head, symbolising the powerful energies of the sun.

The 'Glory Face' is a mask that conceals the true identity of a demon. It enhances power.
The purpose of it is to instill fear and repel evil.It acts as a protective emblem.

Within the grand religious structures of Central Java, there is an alternative name attributed
to them: Kala, which is also referred to as the eternal embodiment of 'time' or the formidable
devourer. The influence of Mahayana and Tantric Buddhist and Hindu sects during the
classical and mediaeval periods was crucial in spreading iconic Indian art traditions to
Southeast Asia. The influence had a profound effect on the development of religion and the
state in the region. This point is highlighted in a story.

Matsya

The FISH, tortoise, and bear incarnations of Vishnu can be depicted in sculpture either as
pure 'animal form' or as a combination of animal and human features. The narrative friezes of
the Fish's descent depict the divine being as a colossal fish.

The uniqueness of this Avatara lies in its flood motif, which is incredibly ancient. It is so old
that it is considered to be on par with the Semitic tradition. It is possible that it existed in oral
tradition for a significant period prior to being recorded in written form around 800-600 BCE.
Furthermore, there are two stories, each of which is straightforward and carries the same
theological significance. Vishnu contracts and expands to protect the 'ark'. Vishnu delves into
the abyss to retrieve the profound revelations of the Vedas. Repetition serves to reinforce the
message.

According to the Indian perspective, 'ends' signify the start of new beginnings. For the world
to be remade, it must come to an end. As we delve into the era of the classical Middle Ages,
we can observe a distinct shift in the perception of space-time that becomes intertwined with
myth. It is both fabulous and precise.

Kurma: The Tortoise

The giant tortoise is one of Lord Vishnu's Ten Avtaras, or "descents," into the world. It is the
second descent, representing Lord Vishnu's commitment to upholding the dharma. Temple art
depicts ten entities. The first three are Fish, Tortoise, and Boar. Entities can be portrayed as
theriomorphic or half-anthropomorphic. They can also be shown as fully human, as long as

41
they have the right symbolic attributes of the god.

The Fish and the Bour narrative was included in the Vishnu corpus through different versions
from various mythological layers. In this version of the Mahabharata, the Vishnu cult is
gaining popularity.

The sun, moon, and Vishnu's gems slowly rise from the ocean. The Lotus goddess, wearing a
white robe, emerges gracefully with the wine goddess. The four-tusked elephant representing
the rain god and the white stallion symbolising the sun appear together.

Varaha: The Cosmic Boar retrieves the Earth from the Oceanic
Abyss

Followers revere and adore this manifestation of Vishnu. Coins, seals, and archaeological
findings confirm the early temple scriptures' claim that Varaha had multiple shrines in the
fourth and fifth centuries CE.

The temple texts make considerate allusions to them. This is Vishnu's first incarnation to
receive such attention. In Sanskrit, iconography is pratima-lakshana, the image's
characteristic. We learn about the image's creation, interpretation, and reading. The
'Sacrificial Boar' The Sacrificial Boar refers to its Vedic sacrifice origins. This and the
Prehistoric Boar race the Earth out of the abyss. The Boar of the World's End is enthroned.
The Sacrificial buck is the only one that is completely white, unlike the others, which have
colours resembling the evening sky. Indian sculptures, similar to classical Greek marbles, can
be coloured partially or entirely.

Narasimha:The Man-lion manifests his divinity and protects the life

of his devotee

Narasimha, the Man-lion, reveals his divine nature and safeguards his devotee's life.
In Vishnu's fourth descent, the sun god chases away darkness and negative energy.

The Lion-Man Embodiment is enigmatic. He is a divine hybrid of human and animal species.
He can be seen in the "Between" of day and night, above and below, and outside and inside.
His self-disclosure is a gracious act. He embodies savagery, yet he is stunning, radiant, and
remarkably calm. He wakes up when needed. It surpasses all limitations to achieve its goal.

42
5.4. COLOURS
The extremely hard stone Granite is available in reds, greens, blue-greys, blue greens,
greys, blacks, and browns.

Limestone is a soft stone; it is available in colours like grey, buff, and a variegated
grey/buff soft.

Sandstone is found in separate categories such as buff sandstone, reddish brown

sandstone, and grey medium-to-hard sandstone

Marble ranges from medium to hard in the colours white, grey, green, red, black,
and variegated.
Another soft stone, soapstone, is found in greys, greens, and blacks.

Alabaster, which is a translucent type of soft gypsum, is found in colours like white,
grey, beige, orange, yellow, red, white translucent, and variegated.

Change of colour or tarnishing effect in monuments and sculpture

The calcite in marble and limestone dissolves when nitric, sulfuric, and sulfuric acids in
contaminated rain and air combine with it. We observe eroded surfaces, material loss, lost
surfaces, features exposed to the elements, and alterations to structures and monuments.
Stone surface material may be removed everywhere or simply in the places where it reacts
more strongly.
The shielded regions of monuments and constructions built of limestone and marble have
blackened crusts that, in some cases, have peeled off to show crumbling stone beneath. You
may expect that acid precipitation wouldn't impact them. The bulk of this black crust is made
up of gypsum, a mineral formed by the reaction of calcite, water, and sulfuric acid. Since
gypsum is soluble in water and can form anywhere on carbonate stone surfaces that are
exposed to sulphur dioxide gas (SO2), it usually washes off. It only persists in covered areas
where rain does not instantly moisten them.

Change of colour during polishing process

43
Polishing restores the stone's gloss and brilliance. The majority of the colour change is
caused by an increase in the stone's natural colour and pattern after polishing. When the
stone polishing process first starts, the stone may have minor faults, scratches, and surface
abnormalities. Throughout the polishing procedure, these surface flaws progressively
disappear, leaving the surface looking smoother and more consistent. Polishing may
improve the colour of the stone by emphasising the contrast between light and dark areas,
giving the colours a more likely and robust appearance. Polishing contributes to a more
uniform appearance of the stone's surface by reducing colour variations and irregularities
that may be present in unpolished stone.

CHAPTER SIX: PRICE RANGES,

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
CONTROL
6.1. PRICE RANGES OF STONE PRODUCTS
The price ranges depend on the workmanship done on the piece. The different types of
granite, marble, and tiger stone—red marble, green marble, and black marble—are
all there, and they work with all kinds of stones.

Per square foot, it's Rs. 600. So it is calculated that when they purchased the stone,
a minimum, or average, stone cost almost 20 to 30 thousand rupees. The bigger the
stone, the more it keeps increasing accordingly. Aitself, few are legal by the
government itself, like the black stone, but the white marble and stuff like that
isandgal, which is bought separately and pay extra for that so the stone there that we
saw, which was almost 1 lakh

They can cut the stones to a particular size; if the stone is bigger, they have a factory
with huge machines that can cut the stones, but in the shed or in the works. They
have basic tools that they use to cut the stones for detailing and smoothing. They
have very basic tools.

6.2. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CONTROL

QA/QC, which stands for quality assurance and quality control, is a process that ensures
goods and services meet consumer expectations. Quality assurance is a process or set of
activities that are used to gauge and ensure the quality of a product.

In the production of high-end stone carvings, quality control is essential. Skilled craftsmen
perform the initial carving and sketching of the product, which is the most important stage in

44
the production process. Skilled craftsmen are responsible for the final inspection and any
necessary modifications, while less skilled workers can contribute by deepening the
carvings.
After the head artisan has completed the initial sketching, the other artisans finish the job.
The head artisan performs a final inspection to ensure the quality of the product.

6.3. CHALLENGES AFFECTING ARTISANS AND

PRODUCT QUALITY
The challenges faced by rural Indian craftsmen have a significant impact on both their
livelihoods and the quality of their work. They experience suffering due to various causes
that lead to these problems. Rural craftsmen face several main issues, which include:

● Weak financial power and difficulty in obtaining bank loans

● Illiteracy of artisans
● Non-availability of quality raw materials
● Lack of skill improvement and technological upgradation
● Shift of rural customers to industrial products
● Lack of infrastructural facilities
● Lack of aggregation
● Very low income and irregular work;
● Lack of marketing support, neglect from the government, and the absence of non-
farm policies

Comprehensive solutions that encompass financial support, access to education and skill
development, improved infrastructure, market linkages, and government initiatives to
promote the welfare of rural artisans can address these challenges.

Financial support can be provided through various means, such as loans, grants, and
subsidies. Improving access to education and skill development can be achieved through
various means, such as offering scholarships, implementing training programmes, and
providing apprenticeships. Improved infrastructure refers to the development and
enhancement of various elements such as roads, bridges, and communication networks.
Market linkages can be established through various means, such as organising exhibitions,
fairs, and online marketplaces. Government initiatives can include various measures such as
tax breaks, subsidies, and marketing support.

These solutions will help improve the lives of rural artisans and the quality of their products.

6.4. IPR (INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS)

Intellectual property rights refer to the rights granted to individuals over the creations of their
minds. Creators are typically given exclusive rights to their creations for a specific duration.
Indian handicrafts are known for their exceptional aesthetic and functional value. They
showcase a harmonious combination of design expertise and technical craftsmanship. The
Indian industry plays a crucial role in the country's economic development. Every year, it
contributes over Rs. 15,000 crore to foreign exchange earnings and employs approximately
67 lakh people.

45
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) play a crucial role in the Indian handicraft sector. They help
preserve the unique designs and methods of handicrafts, which are susceptible to being
imitated. Ensuring that handicraft producers receive a fair return for their work is important. It
allows consumers to purchase authentic handicrafts and supports the livelihoods of these
producers.
Globalisation has brought significant challenges to this industry, specifically in terms of
competition from similar crafts in countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia,
China, and others. In addition to the challenges mentioned earlier, the industry also grapples
with the problem of cheap counterfeits.

The widespread infringement of their products has the greatest negative effect on producers
of distinctive craft goods because it causes them to lose markets. Following the TRIPS
agreement, the implementation of Intellectual Property Rights in India has provided a means
to safeguard the distinct products of the country.

The implementation of "Geographical Indications" (GIs) is a way to protect unique craft

products that come from specific regions. This use of Intellectual Property mechanisms
helps safeguard these products. By effectively preventing any misuse or exploitation of the
"regional brand name," this approach also establishes a unified brand for these products.
There are various types of intellectual property rights (IPR) that can be used to safeguard
handicrafts. These include patents, trademarks, and geographical indications. Patents are a
means of safeguarding novel and innovative designs for handicrafts. Handicraft businesses
can use trademarks to protect the names and logos they use. Geographical indications are a
means of safeguarding the names of specific locations that are linked to specific handicrafts,
like Kashmir shawls or Banarasi silk. Under Section 13 (1) of the Geographical Indications of
Handicrafts Registration and Protection Act, 1999, Assistant Registrar, GI Registry, Chennai,
Chinnaraja G. Naidu, granted the coveted certificate to Tamil Nadu Handicrafts Development
Corporation Limited (Poompuhar), Tamil Nadu Government, for Mahabalipuram Stone
Sculpture.

In addition to its other applications, IPR can also be used to promote handicrafts. The
government of India has launched several initiatives to promote the use of IPR in the
handicraft sector. These initiatives involve offering training to handicraft producers on how to
utilise IPR and assisting them in the process of registering their IP rights.
The use of IPR has played a significant role in boosting the Indian handicraft sector. In
recent years, India's handicraft exports have experienced a significant increase in value.
This growth has resulted in the sector providing employment opportunities for millions of
people. In addition to its other benefits, IPR has played a crucial role in enhancing the quality
of handicrafts. It has also contributed to promoting sustainable production practices in this
industry. This policy offers numerous advantages to artisan and craft producers, in addition
to brand building and marketing. By enhancing the value of their products, safeguarding
them against piracy, and ultimately improving the socioeconomic status of artisans, boosting
sales and profitability are achieved.
The future of the Indian handicraft sector relies heavily on the use of IPR. It plays a crucial
role in safeguarding the distinct designs and techniques employed in handicrafts. By doing
so, IPR contributes to maintaining the competitiveness and sustainability of this sector.

46
CHAPTER SEVEN: MARKET STUDY

7.1. IMPORT AND EXPORT OF STONE

CARVING PRODUCTS (INDIA)
● According to the data provided by India Export, the total number of stone carvings
shipped from India was 15,000 pieces, which were sold to a total of 1,995 buyers.
The United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany take the lion's share of India's
exports of carved stone products, making India the top exporter of carved stone
products in the world. India, Italy, and Germany are the top three countries that
export stone carvings. India is in first place with 15,030 exports, followed by Italy with
11,643 shipments, and Germany is in third place with 10,349 shipments. These
figures have been up to date until May 27, 2023, and they are derived from India's
Export Data for Stone Carving. This information was collected from 70 nations' export
and import cargoes, and it includes the names of customers, suppliers, and key
decision-makers in addition to their contact information (such as phone numbers,
emails, and LinkedIn profiles).

● The types of stones:

Natural Stone
Granite Stone
Limestone

● Top exporting countries for the past ten years:

India
Italy
Germany
Spain
Netherlands
China

● Top importing countries for the past ten years:

United States
United Kingdom
Germany
Netherlands
Canada
United Arab Emirates

● Top buyer countries for the past ten years:

United States
India
Germany

47
Hong Kong,
United Kingdom
Vietnam

● Top supplier countries for the past ten years:

India
China
Indonesia
South Korea
Hong Kong
Vietnam

7.2. SWOT ANALYSIS

For Sri Raja Stone Carving Centre:
STRENGTHS:
● As a result of excellent teamwork, the artisans communicate effectively and have a
streamlined workflow.
● Popular in the area, the owner has good connections.
● It is the first store in a row of tourist attractions and is situated in an ideal location with
convenient road access.
● The artisans are extremely skilled at their craft, resulting in dependable and high-
quality products.
● The artisans are compensated well for their efforts.
● They source and import goods, as well as handle custom orders.
● In comparison, the cluster has a larger number of workers, ranging in age from 20 to
50.
● There is instruction and encouragement for audience members who want to learn
more about the art form.

WEAKNESSES
● The working environment is hazardous due to open circuits, live wires, improper tool
storage, and other factors.
● Poor water hygiene makes the surroundings unsanitary.
● Ineffective methods of material waste disposal accumulate clutter in and around the
cluster.
● In the absence of medical precautions, there is a higher risk of accidents and
mishaps.
● The small-scale design of the cluster is crowded and unorganised.
● The lack of signage in the cluster and the store makes it difficult to notice and fails to
capture attention visually.

OPPORTUNITIES
● With better marketing strategies and signage, the exterior image of the store can be
improved.
● As they have an existing online website for the store, the artisans can explore

48
 opportunities to export their creations or sell them through this online platform to a
global audience.
● Expansion of the cluster and the store can attract more passersby.
● Targeting niche markets, modern art would increase and widen the stone carving
consumer base and cater to a huge chunk of the craft market.
● Opening up other branches in other tourist locations around Mamallapuram
increases their purchase numbers.
● Imprinting the logo or brand identity on the structure as a mark of the store’s identity
can help the store market itself better and promote the store.
● Undertaking custom orders via public art installations can contribute to enhancing the
city's public areas.
● Exhibitions are a great way for artists to show off their creations and expose them to
new markets and audiences.

THREATS:
● Larger stores with a well-established market identity can overtake.
● The appeal of stone carving might wane in the face of modern art.
● Cyclical economic conditions have an impact on luxury arts like stone carving.
● Lack of education among some of the artisans may lead customers to doubt the
authenticity of the craft.
● Reduced interest in and preservation of ancient skills may lead to the demise of this
great art form.

For the stone carving market in Mahabalipuram:

STRENGTHS:
● The raw materials are easily accessible.
● The utilisation of local natural resources is done well.
● The distinctive designs contribute to the exclusivity of the art and make it stand out in
the broader market.
● The exquisite craftsmanship and unique rock-cut architecture attract tourists and
history enthusiasts from around the world, contributing to the local economy.
● Stonework techniques continue to inspire generations of artists and sculptors across
India and beyond. Its techniques, styles, and themes have left a lasting impact on the
evolution of Indian art and continue to influence contemporary artists.
● The stone carving market in Mahabalipuram offers a diverse range of products, from
small souvenirs to large sculptures and architectural elements. This diversity caters
to a wide audience, making the art accessible to different collectors and buyers.

WEAKNESSES:
● Stone carving is a time-consuming and intricate process that demands skilled
artisans. Over time, there has been a decline in the number of skilled artisans
practising this profession. The lack of skilled craftspeople hinders the preservation
and continuation of this historic art form.
● Preserving these ancient structures requires the implementation of conservation and
restoration efforts. However, a lack of sufficient funding, knowledge, and resources
can hinder the conservation and restoration processes.

49
 ● In order to carve stones, quarry stone must be extracted, which raises concerns
about sustainable material sourcing.
● Due to its intricacy and specialised talents, stone carving may not be available to
many artists or communities.
● The craft requires expensive materials and tools, making it expensive for artists and
customers.

OPPORTUNITIES:
● In order to minimise the environmental impact of quarrying activities and preserve the
biological balance in the area, it is essential to prioritise sustainable sourcing
practises.
● Establishing art galleries and studios in Mahabalipuram to showcase and sell
stonecraft artwork presents a promising opportunity. These spaces provide platforms
for local artists to showcase their skills and creations, drawing in art enthusiasts and
collectors.
● The stone-carving businesses in the area can create a unique selling point by
partnering with hotels and resorts to offer stonecraft workshops or display local
artwork.
● Collaboration with contemporary artists and modern art to create fusion art works that
blend traditional designs with modern concepts can widen the market for
contemporary art enthusiasts.
● Educating and spreading awareness will help maintain the value of the craft and
keep the ages-long tradition alive. Efforts to protect and promote this craft through
workshops, training programmes, and exhibitions should be made.

THREATS:
● Unauthorised carving and damage to the old stone carvings in Mahabalipuram are
unfortunately quite common. It is important to note that many of these carvings are
protected as historical monuments.
● Unauthorised carving by individuals or organisations seeking to create new
sculptures can result in harm to existing structures and compromise the historical
integrity of the site.
● The high demand for products has the potential to be commercially exploited by
unscrupulous individuals who may engage in the illegal trafficking of authentic
artefacts or create counterfeit replicas. Engaging in such actions poses a threat to
the historical significance of Mahabalipuram and depletes its cultural assets.
● In order to carve stones, quarry stone must be extracted, which raises concerns
about sustainable material sourcing.

7.3. MARKET GROWTH AND DRIVERS

According to the 2010–2026 predictions of the market, the stone market share is expected to
increase to 85,22,06,55,000 Indian rupees from 2021 to 2026, at a CAGR of 3.6%.

For dimension stones,

According to the US Department of Commerce, the private construction industry as a whole
increased by 7.05 percent annually in 2020. Multiple economies, including Vietnam, the

50
Philippines, and Myanmar, are anticipated to experience expansion in the building and
construction sectors. The increasing demand for bridges, airports, trains, and power
infrastructure is anticipated to propel the industry's growth, particularly in China and India.
The implementation of this rule is anticipated to boost the demand for natural stone products
made from limestone, marble, and granite in the local region. These goods are emission-
free. There has been a notable surge in construction activity in the Asia-Pacific region's
growing economies, including China, India, and Southeast Asian countries. The global
dimension stone market is projected to witness growth during the forecast period, primarily
driven by the rise of construction activities.

For granite:
The global granite market is currently witnessing growth as there is a rising demand for
granite in a wide range of applications. These include tabletops, desktops, backsplashes,
bathroom sinks and basins, and kitchen counters. The rising demand for residential granite
and the increase in investment in construction activities are what are driving the growth of
the granite market. In addition, granite is highly prized for its remarkable durability against
corrosion and its capability to retain its colour over time. Therefore, it is widely used in a
multitude of applications, including sculpture and monuments, construction, engineering, and
numerous other fields.

For Marble:
Between 2022 and 2031, the worldwide Marble Market is expected to rise at a 5.9% CAGR.
Marble is a popular choice for interior design and decoration in both residential and
commercial sectors.

In addition to its use in manufacturing sculptures, showpieces, and artefacts, it is also

utilised for beautification in interior design. During the forecast period, the growth in
investment in housing and home upgrades to improve the aesthetic appeal of dwellings is
expected to be a key driver of market expansion. The advent of 3D sculpture making and the
increasing popularity of Marble in the international market of art and design are projected to
increase demand for marble as a raw material. Marble sculpture is an ancient craft that has
lately acquired popularity due to the increase in modernity and construction activity. Thus,
the use of marble in 3D sculpting and the marble carving business are projected to be key
market developments in the next few years.

CHAPTER EIGHT: GOVERNMENT

INITIATIVES
8.1. THE TOURISM POTENTIAL OF
MAMALLAPURAM
Stonecraft Tourism: A Case Study

Mamallapuram ranks among the top ten destinations for foreign visitors in India. Tourists are
attracted to this city for various reasons beyond its architecture. The region is situated in a

51
breathtaking environment. Great numbers of casuarina forests and lovely white-sand
beaches can be found. The highway connecting Chennai and Mamallapuram is lined with
numerous tourist attractions, which adds to its appeal. Due to the large number of tourists
visiting Mamallapuram, the market for stone crafts in the area is experiencing significant
growth. Both government and private museums in Mamallapuram exhibit a wide range of
stonecraft items that date back to the Pallava era and continue up to the present day. The
School of Architecture, along with other institutions, utilises these museums as educational
resources. The Sound and Light performance on the history, culture, and crafts of
Mamallapuram is another highly sought-after attraction for tourists. In 2013, Mamallapuram
welcomed approximately 15 million foreign visitors, resulting in a steady annual growth of 18
to 20% in the city's foreign exchange earnings.

The initiative is set to take place in a cluster of villages near Mamallapuram, which is home
to numerous artists. The project involves constructing roads, sewers, water lines, street
lights, retail establishments, exhibition spaces, residences, and work sheds. These
structures will have attractive facades, walkways, and signboards. Visitors will be greeted
with a beautiful entrance arch when the community opens in the middle of next year. The
Union Handicrafts Development Commissioner has announced that it will offer financial
assistance for the village project, amounting to Rs 1.9 crore. The concept of a "craft tourism
village" combines the promotion of crafts, the well-being of artisans, and tourism. According
to a senior official from THDC, artisans have a higher likelihood of making sales to tourists
when they reside and work in the same location.

The Union government should allocate Rs 563 crore for the comprehensive development
project in Mamallapuram. During the Modi-Xi summit in October 2019, a comprehensive plan
was devised. This plan encompassed the construction of a life-size statue of Bodhidharma
and the creation of a Buddhist pilgrimage circuit within the state, which would include
Mamallapuram. The Union Minister of State for Tourism called a virtual meeting with the goal
of evaluating the various policies put into place by the federal and state governments two
months ago. The Minister for Tourism in Tamil Nadu, Vellamandi N. Natarajan, emphasised
the importance of addressing the demand during the meeting. A representative from the
state tourism department has confirmed that the funds have not been released yet. The plan
to harness the tourism potential of Mamallapuram has yet to be implemented as it remains
confined to written documents.

The Minister for Rural Industries, TM Anbarasan, recently visited the "Craft Tourism Village"
under construction in Mamallapuram, Chennai. The Crant Tourism Village was constructed
with a budget of Rs. 5.6 crore. Its purpose is to facilitate the connection between tourists and
sculptors who wish to sell their handmade products. In a recent press release, it was
announced that the minister has inspected various projects aimed at beautifying the area.
These projects include the sculpting studios on Five Rathas Road, the sculptor cottages in
Karanai Village, and a memorial plaque at the entrance of the Craft Tourism Village in
Mamallapuram. The total cost of setting up these projects amounts to Rs. 1.8 crore. The
announcement states that relevant officials have been given instructions to construct these
amenities with great attention to detail. The goal is to emphasise the importance of
Mamallapuram and make it attractive to foreign tourists. According to the news statement,
an assessment was conducted on a new display complex that consists of 36 pavilions
dedicated to marketing craftsmen's goods. The Minister of Tamil Nadu recently conducted a
review of the 'Craft Tourism Village' project in Mamallapuram.

Craft Cultural Extravaganza

A four-week cultural festival at Mamallapuram showcases the finest dance forms of India in
accordance with the rich Indian cultural tradition. Dancers from various regions of India come
together to showcase a diverse range of classical and folk dance styles. The soothing

52
sounds of the wind and waves accompany their performances as they take place among
lovely sculptures. Tourists are quite fond of these two attractions, as well as the lively and
enthusiastic Pongal harvest festival.

Stone Carving and the Concept of Craft

According to the identity cards of the stone carvers in Mamallapuram, stone carving is considered a
craft. These cards classify them as "artisans" and confirm their registration with the Tamil Nadu
Handicrafts Development Corporation, which is under the administration of the Tamil Nadu
government. Stone carving holds official status as a craft within a political context. However, it is also
regarded as a religious practice based on the Shilpa Shastras and the longstanding Hindu tradition of
stone carving.

Labelling stone carvers as artists, artisans, or craftsmen can have political and national implications,
as these labels can be used to serve the interests of various groups. India has a rich history of
utilising traditional crafts, particularly weaving, as a means of promoting nation-building and national
ideology during colonial struggles (McGowan, 2009). Traditional crafts have continued to maintain
their political connotations throughout history. According to Stephen Inglis (1999b: 8), contemporary
craftspeople are at the forefront of artistic exploration as they delve into the artistic traditions of their
ancestors as well as the contemporary practices of other cultures. He further argues that as we
develop a greater global awareness, we also become more conscious of and protective of our local
ideologies (ibid.). In her book Craft Matters: Artisans, Development, and the Indian Nation (2009),
Umhya Venkatesan explores the various descriptions and prevalent imagery used to depict craft
producers and their work in present-day representation. nine distinct ways of representing craft: the
craft producer as a "natural being"; craft as a valuable natural resource; craft production symbolising
the simplicity of village life and technology; the traditional and isolated rural craft producer; craft as an
economic and political challenge; an uneducated craft producer who desires to change their
occupation; a cunning artisan seeking excessive profit from their work; craft that unifies the Indian
nation and represents collective heritage; and lastly, craft objects that embody connections between
past and present, socially and physically distant individuals, and diverse social groups.

These representational elements, along with Inglis' (1999b) statement, are relevant to the stone
carvers at Mamallapuram, particularly in relation to tourism fantasies, as explored in Chapter 2. In
both a historical and modern context, stone carving is a crucial component of Mamallapuram and its
reputation as a centre for stone carving, and without the current activity, much of its appeal would be
lost. However, from the viewpoint of tourism, the most essential component is that stone carvers, like
the Pallavas, who are said to be their forefathers, work with stone; whether they are classified as
artists or artisans is not as crucial.

Stone carvers are craftspeople, which makes them vulnerable to national and government efforts that
are influenced by how the skill is viewed as a national treasure and a component of Indian identity in
opposition to colonialism's past (cf. McGowan 2009). Stone carvers are located within significant
national and societal discourses in this way, but they have limited control over these discourses
themselves. Practically speaking, these titles worry the carvers most when it comes to potential
advantages like getting free health insurance or being qualified for a government loan. Although the
modern Mamallapuram stone carving practice has similarities to the classic Indian Hindu stone
carving described above, it has also evolved with the times. The development of electric tools, which
have made granite carving less labour- and time-intensive, is one of the more recent improvements.
But since these sculptures were largely created without ceremonial objectives, soft stone carving
represents a new niche within the context of traditional, sacred Hindu stone carving. The majority of
Mamallapuram's soft stone sculptures are still hand-carved, so they resemble more conventional
carving methods. The specifications and guidelines were, however, interpreted more loosely in soft
stone carving than in traditional carving instructions. Additionally, new meanings have been added to
traditional Hindu imagery to make it more marketable to Western tourists. As a result, carvings made
in Mamallapuram can be broadly categorised into two groups: soft stone carvings made by hand for
tourists as decorations and without strict adherence to the proper forms and measurements; and
granite carvings made with electric tools for Indian people for religious purposes based on traditional
iconography and a proportion system. Despite the fact that this does not necessarily reflect their
educational background, the majority of stone carvers were experts in just one type of carving.

53
Stone carving has grown in popularity in Mamallapuram alongside the development of tourism, and it
has always been a leisure activity that is open to people from all social strata. Only a small portion of
the stone carvers at Mamallapuram really belonged to the Viswakarma caste, despite the fact that it
was still perceived as a traditional art and skill and a hereditary employment of this caste. In this
regard, the Government Sculpture College's function has been significant since it has opened up
stone carving to individuals from diverse backgrounds. Despite the lack of caste-based connections
with stone carving, it has become a hereditary profession in many families since the college's
founding in 1957, since more than one generation of students had access to instruction in carving.
However, due to their particular interests, many carvers also hail from families that had no prior
carving knowledge.

CONCLUSION
Stone carving is more than just a skill; it is a testament to human ingenuity and creativity. Its
ability to transform the inert into the sublime is a reflection of our capacity to shape the world
around us. This research document has attempted to capture the essence of stone carving
—its rich history, intricate techniques, and profound impact—while also recognising the
challenges and opportunities that lie ahead. It serves as a bridge between artistic expression
and societal identity. Its role in cultural preservation, architectural embellishment, and public
commemoration underscores its contribution to the very fabric of societies around the world.
In the grand tapestry of human artistic endeavours, stone carving stands as a resilient and
timeless thread. Its continuation relies on the collective commitment of artists, artisans,
scholars, and enthusiasts to ensure that its legacy endures, inspiring generations to come.
This research document has delved comprehensively into the intricate world of stone
carving, uncovering its historical significance, artistic evolution, technical processes, and
enduring cultural impact. Through a thorough examination of diverse stone carving
techniques, tools, and artistic styles, we have gained valuable insight into the immense skill
and creativity required to transform raw stone into exquisite works of art.

APPENDICES:
APPENDIX 1: Glossary
Term Pronunciation and Definition

Akshamala Akṣamālā The akshamala denotes a string

(Noun) made up of beads where each bead

represents the 50 letters of the

alphabet, from a (अ) to ksha (क ् ष),

54
 Hence, it is known as Aksha Malika

Upanishad.

Anthropomorphic an-thruh-puh-mawr-fik A suggestion of human characteristics

(Noun) for animals or inanimate things.

Caryatid kar-ee-at-id A Caryatid is a sculpted female figure

(Noun) serving as an architectural support,

taking the place of a column or pillar

supporting an entablature on her head.

Garbhagriha garbhagṛha A garbhagriha is the innermost

sanctuary of Hindu and Jain temples,

what may be called the "holy of

holies."

or "sanctum sanctorum". The term

garbhagriha comes from Sanskrit

words garbha for womb and griha for

house.

Kalasa Kalaśa Kalasa is a pitcher, the pinnacle of a

(Noun) Temple.

Kataka Mudra kah-tuh-kah This Mudra is called Kapittha,

(Noun) which means Goddess Lakshmi and

Saraswati. It is also used to portray

milking cows, holding cymbals, or

55
 holding a flower.

Neolithic nee-uh-lith-ik The Neolithic, or New Stone Age,

(Adjective) is an archaeological period, the final

division of the Stone Age in Europe,

Asia, and Africa. It saw the Neolithic

Revolution, a wide-ranging set of

developments that appear to have

arisen independently in several parts of

the world.

Pagoda puh-goh-duh A pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with

(Noun) multiple eaves common to Nepal,

China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar,

Vietnam, and other parts of Asia.

Palaeolithic pælɪəʊˈlɪθɪk The Palaeolithic, or Palaeolithic, also

(Adjective) called the Old Stone Age, is a period in

human prehistory that is distinguished

by the original development of stone

tools and which represents almost the

entire period of human prehistoric

Technology.

Pasupata Pāśupata The word Pashupata (also spelled as

(Noun) Pashupatha or Pasupata) is derived

from the word Pashupati (or

56
 Pasupathi), which is a popular epithet

of Lord Shiva, meaning the lord of the

animals or the lord of all living beings

(jiv tool,as).

Pneumatic tool noo-mat-ik A pneumatic tool, air tool, air-powered

(Adjective) tool or pneumatic-powered tool is a

type of power tool,driven by

compressed air supplied by an air

compressor. Pneumatic tools can also

be driven by compressed carbon

dioxide (CO2) stored in small

cylinders,llowing for portability.

Prakara prakara Prakara is a Sanskrit word referring to

(Noun) the high walls surrounding the temple

Grounds.

Somaskanda Somāskanda Somaskanda is a mediaeval form of

(Noun) Hindu iconography, a representation

of Shiva with his consort Uma and

their son Skanda, depicted as a child.

Stonemasons stoʊnˌmeɪ.sən Stonemasons cut and prepare stone

(Noun) to build or repair stone structures.

These may include homes, historical

buildings, monuments, headstones,

57
 and statues. Stonemasons may also

use a range of other natural materials,

such as granite and quartz.

Theriomorphic Theriomorphous Theriomorphic means having an

(Adjective) animal form.

Uyyala uyya-l-a Uyyala refers to a cradle, a swinging

(Noun) bed.

Variegated VAIR-ee-uh-gay-tu Having a pattern of different colours

(Adjective) or marks.

Vaishnavites Vaish·na·vities Vaishnavas (sometimes known as

(Noun) Vaishnavites) are Hindus who follow

Vishnu and want to show Vishnu

that he is the most special deity .

They focus their worship on the ten

incarnations of Vishnu, which

include Rama and Krishna. This

kind of Hinduism is called

Vaishnavism .

APPENDIX 2- Bibliography

Resources
Stone Crafts of Agra: How Carved and Inlaid Products are Made - Google Arts & Culture.
(n.d.). Google Arts & Culture. https://artsandculture.google.com/story/stone-crafts-of-agra-
how-carved-and-inlaid-products-are-made/HgUhBzMmLJ-aKQ

Handcrafted Stone Products of Agra - Google Arts & Culture. (n.d.). Google Arts & Culture.

58
https://artsandculture.google.com/story/handcrafted-stone-products-of-agra/
zwWx4MIvdnpkJA

Jaisalmer Stone - Google Arts & Culture. (n.d.). Google Arts & Culture.
https://artsandculture.google.com/story/jaisalmer-stone/cAUhxrXva9A6Jw

Stone Crafts of Agra: How Carved and Inlaid Products are Made - Google Arts & Culture.
(n.d.). Google Arts & Culture. https://artsandculture.google.com/story/stone-crafts-of-agra-
how-carved-and-inlaid-products-are-made/HgUhBzMmLJ-aKQ

Buy Authentic Konark Stone carving Online | GiTAGGED. (n.d.). Buy Authentic Konark
Stone Carving Online | GiTAGGED. https://www.gitagged.com/online-store/handicraft/stone-
craft/konark-stone-carving/

Stone Carving - Stone Wall Carving Price, Manufacturers & Suppliers. (n.d.). Stone Carving
- Stone Wall Carving Price, Manufacturers & Suppliers.
https://www.exportersindia.com/indian-suppliers/stone-carving.htm/

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