KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL AND BUILDING

ENGINEEERING

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT

KAVUMA TREVOR JOSHUA

20/U/ECE/7837/PE

Dr. NYENDE JACOB

(DECEMBER, 2022)

Question 1

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a) Discuss thoroughly about the structures of igneous rocks. (Illustrate
your answer with neat diagrammatic sketches if any.)
The term structure means the larger features of the rock that can be
seen on the outcrops in the field such as flow banding, layering, vesicles
among others. There are various structures of igneous rocks that will be
elaborated below.
Vesicular and Amygdaloidal Structures
Vesicular structures are those with cavities, bubbles of variable
dimensions and shapes. These are formed as a result of the escape of the
volatile constituents from the fluid lava.
Amygdaloidal structures are those in which the vesicles have been filled
up by some low temperature secondary minerals. e.g., Quartz, calcite,
zeolite, chalcedony.

Figure 1 vesicular structure

Figure 2 amygdaloidal structure

Vuggy structure
These are structures with angular cavities which are formed as a result
the collection of volatile fluid between existing crystals.
Platy and Sheet Structure
Platy structure is one with a set of different partings or joints which are
often interested by closely spaced, irregular joint planes.

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 Figure 3 sheet joints

Sheet structure is one with a set of well-defined horizontal joints or

surfaces.
Columnar/Prismatic Structure
Columnar structure is formed due to the development of centres of
nucleation contractions at equally-spaced intervals on the cooling
surfaces of homogenous magma.

Figure 4 columnar structure

Perlitic Structure
This is one with irregular, convolute and spheroidal cracks in glassy
material produced by contraction during cooling of magma.
Lava flow structure
A lava flow structure is one with dissimilar elongated lenticular patches
arranged parallel to the flow of the lava.

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 Figure 5 lava flow structure

Rift and Grain

These structures come up as a result of three sets of mutually
perpendicular, equally spaced joints, producing cubical blocks known as
mural jointing.
Pillow structures
These are ovoid structures resembling grain-filled sacks in size and
shape. They are formed from rapid chilling of highly fluid lava in contact
with water or water saturated sediments accompanied by the
development of budlike projections with tough elastic crusts.
Blocky and Ropy Lava
Blocky lava structure is one with a surface covered with a mass of
roughly jagged angular blocks of all dimensions with dangerously sharp
edges and spiny projections.
Ropy lava structure is one with a smoother surface which exhibit
wrinkled or corded forms that often resemble with the twisted braids of
ropes.
b) Discuss what you know about the processes of Sedimentation.
Sedimentation is the process of by which sediment is formed and
accumulates in layers. The processes include the separation of rock
particles from the material from which the sediment is derived, the
transportation of these particles to the site of deposition, the actual
deposition or settling of the particles, the chemical and other changes
occurring in the sediment, and the ultimate consolidation of the
sediment into solid rock
c) With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, describe briefly on primary
sedimentary structures.
Primary sedimentary structures are those that are produced at the same
time as the sedimentary rock in which they occur. These include bedding or
stratification, graded bedding and cross-bedding.

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Massive bedding
This is a thick homogenous bed which is structure less typically more than
10cm thick. Massive bedding shows the depositional environment changed
from a regularly repeating depositional system to one with very little change
over time.
Graded bedding
It is one in which the particles are sorted according to density, size and
shape. The types of graded bedding are normal grading and reversely
graded. Normal grading is where the particle size decreases upwards while
reversely graded is where the particle size increases upwards.
Cross bedding
This is formed on an inclined surface during deposition by crossing a bed to
another bed.

Figure 6 cross bedding

Ripple marks
These are ridge and furrow structures which are produced by currents of
wind or water flowing at a critical velocity over loose, granular sediments.
They are rarely seen in muddy of clayey sediments because the cohesive
properties of these deposits inhibit ripple formation. Current and wind ripple
marks are asymmetrical and they tend to form in roughly parallel sets.
Oscillatory motion of water in wave action tends to produce symmetrical
ripple marks, the crests of which are usually sharp.

Figure 7 wave ripple marks

Figure 8 current ripple marks

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Question 2
a) How can you identify a mineral by the help of their physical and
chemical properties?
The physical properties of minerals are colour, lustre, form, hardness,
cleavage, fracture, tenacity, specific gravity, fluorescence, magnetism,
electrical conductivity, fusibility, taste and touch.
Colour
A mineral can be identified by colour by observing with our eyes since
minerals have distinctive colours. For example, chlorite is green in
colour, quartz is colourless when pure then pink, yellow or grey in the
presence of chemical impurities. A mineral can also be identified by
producing streak. Streak is the colour of a mineral in the powdered
condition. It’s produced by rubbing the mineral on a streak plate.
Lustre
A mineral can be identified by lustre by exposing it to light and an
observation is made. A mineral can then be described as metallic if its
surface is polished and highly reflective, glassy or vitreous when a
mineral is translucent or transparent, highly reflective, resinous or
greasy when a mineral looks like hardened fat, often also feels greasy,
pearly when a mineral looks like a pearl, with low reflectance, silk if the
mineral is having a sheen like silk due to parallel fibers and dull. A
mineral is described as dull if it does not reflect light.
Hardness
A mineral can be identified by hardness by attempting to scratch the
minerals of Moh’s scale of hardness with the mineral in question. For
example, a mineral which scratches calcite but not fluorspar is said to
have a hardness between 3 and 4.
Specific gravity
A mineral can be identified by specific gravity by a steel yard apparatus
such as the Walker balance. The mineral is weighed in air and in water
and its specific gravity will be determined from
w1
G=
w 1−w 2

Where w1 -weight in air

w2- weight in water
The specific gravity of small minerals is estimated by the use of heavy
fluids such as bromoform and methylene iodide.

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b) Write short notes on the following rock forming minerals.
i. Quartz
Quartz is colourless when pure, however, in the presence of chemical
impurities or included particles it is pink, yellow or grey.
It is glassy or vitreous in nature.
It has no cleavage.
It exhibits a conchoidal fracture. i.e., it breaks with a curved surface.
It has a specific gravity of 2.65.
It has a hardness of 7 according to Moh’s scale of Hardness.
Quartz has a piezoelectric property. i.e., they develop a charge when
pressure is applied along certain directions.
It is resistant to weathering.
ii. Feldspars
Feldspars are described as aluminium silicates of potassium, sodium,
calcium and rarely barium.
They are tectosilicates in atomic structure. i.e., the basic unit of the SiO 4
tetrahedron in them occurs in a 3-dimensional framework type structure. In
this framework, silicon is generally replaced by aluminium thus making
aluminium silicates. The other cations Ca, Na and K also occur in the
framework.
Feldspars form a large group of monoclinic and triclinic minerals and the
most abundant constituents of the igneous rocks. It has two sets of good
cleavage planes.
Feldspar has a hardness of 6 according to Moh’s scale of Hardness.
It has a specific gravity ranging from 2.56 – 2.7.
iii. Micas
These are the silicates of aluminium and potassium, together with
magnesium (and iron in the dark varieties such as biotite). Some varieties
contain sodium, lithium or titanium. The hydroxyl radical is always present
and is commonly replaced partially by fluorine.
All micas are phyllosilicates, i.e., in their atomic structure, SiO 4 tetrahedra
are arranged in sheet pattern.
All micas crystallize in the monoclinic system but the crystal forms resemble
hexagonal forms.

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It has a perfect cleavage by which it splits into very thin flakes.
Flakes of mica are flexible and elastic. i.e., they can be bent and returned to
their flat tabular shape.
iv. Calcite or Gypsum
Calcite is composed of calcium carbonate.
Calcite crystallizes under the hexagonal system.
It has three directions of cleavage.
It has a rhombohedral form.
It has a vitreous lustre.
It has a hardness of 3, not scratched by fingernail, but easily scratched by a
knife.
It undergoes vigorous reaction with acids.
Question 3
a) Discuss the relationship between the engineering geologists and civil
engineers.
Civil engineers and engineering geologists are related in a way that both
have a cardinal goal of safety of any project. For any project to be
successful, civil engineers must understand the land upon which the
project rests. Geologists therefore undertake geological studies where the
load bearing properties of the rock in a place are determined to ensure
that it can hold the load of the structure.
During implementation of the project, safety is still a key aspect. With
the geological studies undertaken, drawbacks at any site are spelt out
with also precautionary steps thus saving lives, time and money.
Civil engineers and engineering geologists also have an aim of keeping
the project within cost. A civil engineer may design a structure for a
particular place but the foundation may be too deep this making the
project too costly. With the aid of the engineering geologist, an economic
foundation may be designed. Furthermore, for large projects, materials
are needed in large quantities. The geologist carries out surveys on
materials near the site thus recommending the nearest places to pick
from suitable materials for the project.

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b) Describe the importance of engineering geology in civil engineering.
Civil engineers aim at safety, stability, economy and life of the structures
that they construct. Civil engineering constructions like dams and
bridges will have their foundation on geological formations of the earth’s
surface. Therefore, their stability and safety depend on the competence
of the in-situ rocks of the sites concerned. Also, to be economical, such
competent foundation rocks should be at a shallow depth. Further, for
huge constructions like dams, building materials are required in very
large quantities near the site. Otherwise, the cost of construction will
increase. These critical details of civil engineering importance can be
obtained from geological and geophysical studies.
The role of geology in civil engineering is to indicate in advance the
existing drawbacks in any of the sites so that suitable precautionary
steps are taken to overcome them and sites made safe for undertaking
construction. Furthermore, geological studies are important because
ideal sites i.e., those without adverse geological conditions are rare.
Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials and
their occurrence, formation, durability, strength, hardness and uses.
Before starting any major/minor civil construction at a place, a detailed
geological report which is accompanied by geological maps and sections
is prepared. The detailed report contains the detailed geological report
contains types of rocks (Petrology), types of formations (geological
structures) and physical properties of earth (Geophysics). Petrology is
the study of rocks, where it provides rock hardness, chemical
composition, strength, durability etc.
Petrology is important as it gives the required loadbearing properties of
the rock which will help in deciding the usage. Sometimes there is a
possibility of rocks of acceptable compressive strength being susceptible
to chemical reactions, and may not be preferred for construction in
certain fields.
Structural Geology is the study of patterns that are formed below the
earth like folds, faults, joints and unconformity. Structural Geology is
the necessary factor at present for major construction projects. On
account of the effects of these anomalies on the structures, there are few
examples with negligible geological considerations which create loss to
both life and property.
Geophysics is the study of physical properties and composition of the
interior earth using gravity field, magnetic field and geothermal field.
Modern geophysics methods that are used in civil engineering are mainly
non-destructive testing. Geophysics is particularly important for shallow
constructions where the underground amenities are unknown.

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