1

Study and design of innovative techniques for the energy and 3

environmental recovery of sewage sludge. 4

Filippo Laganà1*, Domenico De Carlo 2 and Matteo Cacciola 3 5

1 Dept. of Health Science “Magna Græcia” University Catanzaro, Italy; e-mail filippo.lagana@unicz.it 6
2 Dept. DICEAM “Mediterranea” University Reggio Calabria, Italy; e-mail domenico.decarlo@unirc.it 7
3 TEC Spin-in, Dept. DICEAM, “Mediterranea” University Reggio Calabria, Italy; matteo.cacciola@gmail.com 8
* Correspondence: filippo.lagana@unicz; 9

Abstract: Environmental surveys have shown in recent years how little attention has been paid to 10
the management of the sludge. The research work carried out aims to change historical customs, 11
focusing attention and involving the research activity on the “problem of cleaning sludge”. The 12
most innovative aspects of the research concern the functional controls of sonication, the reduction 13
of the amount of water in sludge, and the energy consumption in the plant. The sonication aims to 14
reduce the specific weight to improve its stabilization. The reduction in the energy consumption of 15
the plant aims to reduce the processes that have a significant environmental impact. The reduction 16
of the specific weight of the sludge, carried out under various experimental conditions, showed a 17
reduction in particle size of approximately 50% (amplification 20% and 40%) and about 55% (am- 18
plification 60%). The results obtained from this work show that only a comprehensive analysis can 19
provide useful tools to managers or planning bodies. The reduction of the specific weight of the 20
sludge must be associated with a context of zero impact because the ultimate objective must relate 21
to overall environmental savings and not specific savings. 22

Keywords: Energy; Sludge; UT Sonication; Thermal Drying. 23

24

1. Introduction 25
The adoption of circular business practices entails a change in production and con- 26
sumption patterns. The rationale for choosing new circular systems focuses on the pre- 27
vention, reuse, and recycling of materials used. 28
Citation: To be added by editorial
All efforts, including those leading to the integrated water service, are part of this. 29
staff during production.
Specifically, sludge, the primary 'deficit' in the system, can be a resource for extracting 30
Academic Editor: Firstname Last- matter and energy from the purification processes. 31
name The fact that sludge production has increased as a result of increased cleaning efforts 32

Received: date
in affected areas is real. According to historical data, quantitative production has in- 33
Revised: date creased by 10% over the last five years [1]. Therefore, sludge from municipal waste dis- 34
Accepted: date posal represents an important resource from which materials and energy can be recov- 35
Published: date ered. Dry sludge produced from wastewater treatment typically consists of carbon (25– 36
35%), nitrogen (4-5%), phosphorous (2–3%), and oxygen (20–25%), with the addition of 37
smaller amounts of other valuable components that are useful for various applications [2]. 38

Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.

Sewage sludge is a substance that can promote the transition to a circular economy due 39
Submitted for possible open access to its abundance of nutrients and organic materials. Historically, extension to agricultural 40
publication under the terms and land has been the most popular use. Due to its nutrient supply, the use of sludge as an 41
conditions of the Creative Commons alternative to artificial fertilisers has been scientifically proven to have a number of posi- 42
Attribution (CC BY) license tive effects on the physical and agronomic aspects of the soil [3]. Increasing soil organic 43
(https://creativecommons.org/license matter is a tool to combat climate change as well as to maintain soil fertility and halt 44
s/by/4.0/).

Environments 2023, 10, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/environments

Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16

desertification. Other forms of treatment work to restore certain nutrients, such as phos- 45
phorus; others seek to recover nitrogen; and others use the anaerobic digestion method. 46
In this respect, the biogas produced represents an opportunity in terms of decarbonisation 47
and energy independence. In fact, the conversion of biogas into biomethane to be used as 48
a fuel for cars or to be integrated into the gas network is increasing, even storing it in smart 49
grids to be used during peaks in demand or drops in discontinuous renewable sources 50
[4]. When the potential for using sludge as a nutrient is lost due to a lack of quality criteria 51
or legal restrictions, waste-to-energy is a common remedy. The production of new mate- 52
rials from sludge treatment, including innovative bioplastics, the production of laterites, 53
glass materials, activated carbon, biocarbon’s, and biofertilizers with a high phosphorous 54
and potassium content, is being improved through the development of a number of tech- 55
nologies [5]. If, in addition to the above, we were to consider the energy that could be 56
obtained from the appropriate treatment of sewage sludge, then it would become clear 57
how necessary it is to classify sewage sludge not as waste but as a resource. 58

2. Materials and Methods 59

The proposed research work aims to bring significant methods of innovation to a 60
cleaning plant. For this reason, it is proposed to use innovative methodologies and create 61
a prototype to reduce the energy consumption present on the water and sludge lines. In 62
order to best meet the objective, the experimental part was divided into three phases. The 63
first part of the research study focused on ultrasound pre-treatment (Sonication). The sec- 64
ond part focused on the implementation of a mathematical model capable of detecting the 65
decrease in the amount of liquid and condensate present in a bathtub used for the treat- 66
ment of sludge. The third and final phase focused on the design and realisation of the 67
prototype of the tub for the treatment of cleaning sludge. 68

2.1. UT sonication on sludge 69

The first part of the research study focused on ultrasonic pre-treatment, also known 70
as sonication. The aim is to break up sludge flocs and bacterial cells, leading to the release 71
of intracellular and extracellular material into solution for advanced biodegradation dur- 72
ing the anaerobic digestion process. Ultrasound is generated using magnetostrictive and 73
piezoelectric techniques. During sonication, the transducer converts electrical energy into 74
mechanical sound waves that are amplified by the booster, and the mechanical waves are 75
carried by the horn into the liquid. Like any other sound wave, the ultrasound passes 76
through the sludge medium, generating a series of cycles of compression (exerting posi- 77
tive pressure) and contraction (exerting negative pressure) [6]. 78
The negative pressure, when large enough, in the rarefaction zone overcomes the 79
molecular attractive forces in the liquid, which, as it breaks down, forms voids, i.e., cavi- 80
tation bubbles. 81
Heat generation, high-dynamic shear forces, and sonochemical effects are believed 82
to be responsible for sludge disintegration and are related to cavitation phenomena. The 83
performance of ultrasound for sludge pre-treatment depends on a number of important 84
parameters, such as specific energy input, sonication intensity, duration, frequency, and 85
sludge characteristics. 86
The frequency of ultrasound is of crucial importance for the effectiveness of ultra- 87
sonic systems involved in sludge pre-treatment since the critical size of microbubbles is 88
governed by the operating frequency. 89
At high-frequency operation (of the order of MHz), cavitation bubble formation is 90
more difficult than at low-frequency operation (of the order of kHz), and lower-frequency 91
operation (20–40 kHz) has proven to be more effective in achieving the desired sludge 92
disintegration. 93
The measurements were carried out by sonicating 125 ml of sludge according to the 94
parameters given in Table 1 and with the experimental apparatus shown in Figure 1. 95
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

Table 1. Colloid stability in function of the ζ potential variable. 96

Potential ζ [mV] Colloid stability

0 to ±5 Rapid coagulation or flocculation
±10 to ±30 Incipient instability
±30 to ±40 Moderate stability
±40 to ±60 Good stability
> ±61 Excellent stability
97

98

Figure 1. Test apparatus for the sludge pre-treatment process by sonication. 99

The ζ potential is a measure of the magnitude of electrostatic repulsion/attraction or 100

charge between particles and is one of the fundamental parameters known to influence 101
stability. A high value of potential ζ confers greater stability on colloidal systems, as elec- 102
trostatic repulsions arise that prevent the aggregation of dispersed particles. When the 103
potential is low, attractive forces prevail over repulsions, making it easier for processes 104
such as coagulation and flocculation to occur. 105
Another important parameter in the sonication process is the poly-dispersibility in- 106
dex. Indeed, the latter provides a reliable measure of the average size of a particle size 107
distribution by dynamic light scattering. The varying stability of colloids as a function of 108
the change in potential ζ and the poly-dispersibility index are important parameters to 109
provide a detailed insight into the causes of dispersion, aggregation, or flocculation. In 110
addition to the above specifications, both sonication parameters (Table 2) and operating 111
conditions (Table 3) must be observed to implement the process. The UT drying process, 112
the samples were dried in an oven at 100 °C for 2 hours. 113

Table 2. Sonication parameters. 114

Parameter Range
Ultrasonic frequency [kHz] 20 [kHz], constant
Amplification, A (%) 20, 40, 60 [A]
Sonication duration (min) 0-60 min (sampling every 5 min)
Volume (ml) 125

Table 3. Operating conditions of sonication. 115

Parameters
Amplification, A (%) 20 40 60
Power (W) 0.3 0.8 1.6
Tfinal (°C) 20 28 36
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

2.2. Model of moisture detection and reduction in a sludge treatment tank 116
The sonication process is an important step in reducing the specific gravity of sludge. 117
The ultrasonic pre-treatment, however, is only one step in the entire innovation process. 118
The next step is the implementation of a mathematical model simulating the thermody- 119
namic evolution of moist air in a sludge treatment tank. The objective is to detect the 120
amount of water reduction and condensation in the sludge when the properties of the 121
external environment and boundary conditions change. The model imports experimental 122
data for air temperature, pressure, and water vapour concentration. 123
The water vapour concentration is assumed to be homogeneous inside the box and 124
equal to the external concentration. The model has been programmed and numerically 125
solved by exploiting the COMSOL® Multiphysics environment. 126
The first step of the implementation in Comsol concerns the interpolation of the rela- 127
tionships between the temperature variation over time (Figure 2), the pressure applied to 128
the geometry over time (Figure 3), and the concentration of water vapour in the sludge as 129
it varies over time (Figure 4). 130

131

Figure 2. Input data: Interpolation External temperature (K) at changing time (s). 132

133

Figure 3. Input data: Interpolation External pressure (Pa) at changing time (s). 134
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

135

Figure 4. Input data: Interpolation Concentration of water vapour (mol/m3) at changing time (s). 136

Having defined the input parameters for the model, the relative humidity is set as 137
the output. 138
The second step is to construct the geometry and define the materials. In particular, 139
a two-dimensional axisymmetric geometry was constructed (Figure 5), in which the heat- 140
ing source is represented in red, the sludge to be treated in blue, and the aluminium tank 141
containing the sludge in light grey. 142

143

Figure 5. Axisymmetric geometry of the sludge treatment tank [m]. 144

Once the geometry is realised, the physical parameters are set, considering the exter- 145
nal temperature variation calculated at the inlet and the calculation of the boundary flows. 146
In addition, a regularisation of surface flows and surface-to-surface radiation is applied to 147
the model. Equation (1) governs the physics of the model: 148

𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝐶 + 𝜌𝐶 µ ⋅ 𝛻𝑇 + 𝛻 ⋅ 𝑞 = 𝑄 + 𝑄 (1)
𝜕𝑡

149
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

The two constituent relationships used to determine equation (1) are: 150
1. Fourier's law of heat conduction, which states that q is inversely proportional to 151
T (v, t). 152

𝑞 = −𝑘𝛻𝑇(𝑣, 𝑡) (2)

where the positive constant k for thermal conductivity is linked to the characteristics 153
of the material [7]. 154
Of course, k cannot always be considered a constant because it varies on T in some 155
cases. The heat shifts from high temperature to low temperature, which is why equation 156
(2) has a negative sign. 157
2. The constitutive equation (3) 158

𝑒 = 𝐶 𝑇(𝑣, 𝑡) (3)

where Cp is the specific heat of the material at constant pressure and connects the 159
internal energy and absolute temperature. Thus, by combining equations (2) and (3) and 160
assuming that the Reynolds theorem is applicable, we find equation (1) [8]. 161
The heat source temperature of 45°C is imposed on the hot side by circulating water 162
and dissipating the heat in a water/air exchanger. The 12V-powered cells are positioned 163
so that both sides remain within the allowed ranges. Due to the very high thermal inertia, 164
a PWM control is used at a frequency between 10 Hz and 20 Hz. The negative feedback of 165
the device ensures certain safety without a limiting resistor. The next steps before calcu- 166
lating the results are the construction of the mesh and the configuration of the mathemat- 167
ical study. The mesh is constructed following the values given in Table 4 and is shown in 168
Figure 6. 169

Table 4. Setting up the Mesh. 170

Description Value
Minimum element quality 0.1199
Average quality of elements 0.8502
Triangular elements 5072
Quadrilateral elements 572
Elements on Sides 616
Vertex elements 20
171

172

Figure 6. Unstructured Triangular Mesh. 173

Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

In order to better analyse the behaviour of the sludge treatment tub under variations 174
in external temperature, external pressure, and water vapour, studies in the stationary 175
and transitional regimes have been established. 176

2.3. Model of moisture detection and reduction in a sludge treatment tank 177
The steps completed to date have involved the sonication of the sludge to reduce its 178
specific weight and the implementation of a mathematical model for the preliminary 179
study of the decrease in the sludge's water and condensate content. 180
The last phase involved the design and construction of the prototype to minimise 181
moisture, as implemented in the model and installed in the sludge line. 182
The sludge treatment tank was designed (Figure 7) with mechanical and electronic 183
components and specific materials suitably chosen for the successful treatment of the 184
sludge. 185

186
Figure 7. Designing Sludge Treatment Tank. 187
188
The sludge treatment tank consists mainly of a steel tank connected to a heat source, 189
which is required to heat the sludge inside the aluminium tank (Figure 8). 190

191
Figure 8. Sludge treatment Prototype. 192
193
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

The entire prototype is insulated by a layer of polystyrene, which is used to prevent 194
heat loss. 195
The sludge is treated and amalgamed using a mixer (Figure 9), powered by a special 196
mechanical component, installed above the tub (Figure 10). 197

198
Figure 9. Mixer and Sensors placed inside the sludge treatment tub. 199
200

201
Figure 10. Mixer drive engine - Bathtub block for pressure increase. 202
203
The sensors (Figure 9) have been installed inside the treatment tub. The sensors are 204
intended to measure the resistance value of the sludge and thus obtain its degree of 205
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

humidity. In addition, temperature sensors have been mounted in such a way as to mon- 206
itor the operating temperature during the heating of the bathtub and are essential for 207
monitoring the parameters of the sludge. 208
The operation of the aforementioned prototype is simple and direct. In fact, the pro- 209
totyped treatment tub processes the sludge from the pressed tape, amalgamating it with 210
the mixer. A heating system is installed around the sludge container, which has the task 211
of bringing the system to a maximum temperature of 110°C. Temperature is needed to 212
further dehydrate the sludge, decreasing its moisture concentration. 213
For safety reasons, a pressure drain valve is placed in the bathtub. When the pressure 214
increases abnormally, the internal steel device rises and stops in the high position in the 215
silicone body, leaving excess vapour out. 216

3. Results 217
This section may be divided by subheadings. It should provide a concise and precise 218
description of the experimental results, their interpretation, as well as the experimental 219
conclusions that can be drawn. 220
The results obtained are classified according to the stages carried out so far. It is es- 221
sential to specify that the process must follow the steps described in Section 2. 222

3.1. Sonication 223

The first results relate to particle size analysis for samples of sonicated sludge. The 224
instrument used works on the principle of laser light diffusion. The granulometric distri- 225
bution is calculated by measuring the angular intensity of diffused light produced by the 226
sample. Ultrasonic pre-treatment has been used to optimise the efficiency of sludge solu- 227
bilization and reduce particle size. 228
During sonication, the mechanical (hydraulic) cutting forces increase the volume en- 229
gaged by the particle, and the highly porous clay flakes are broken down into micro flocks. 230
The distribution of particle size before and after sonication at different densities of power 231
and duration is shown in Figure 11. 232

233
Figure 11. Distribution of particle dimensions over time at different amplifications. 234
235
As shown by the trend in Figure 11, only at the highest power level of 1.6 W is there 236
a marked decrease in particle size (55%) for a sonication duration of 20 and 25 minutes. In 237
the case of a power of 0.8 W, there is a 49% reduction (20–25 minutes) and a 52% reduction 238
in the case of a power of 0.3 W (30–45 minutes). In addition, the research study determined 239
the potential ζ, an important index for determining the electrical surface charge of sludge 240
particles. The potential tends to decrease as the negative surface charge of the sludge de- 241
creases. This index provides an indication of the potential stability of the colloidal system. 242
The initial value of the potential ζ is -11.8 mV. This result is in agreement with the usual 243
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

range (-10 mV to -30 mV) of the ζ potential [9]. The value of the ζ-potential following pre- 244
treatment by sonication showed no specific tendency, as Table 5 shows. 245

Table 5. Potential ζ and Conductivity for ultrasound-treated sludge. 246

Amplification -
Untreated 20% (35 min.) 40% (25 min.) 60% (25 min.)
Treatment time
Potenziale ζ (mV) -11.8 -12.2 -11.5 -9,62
247
Likewise, dispersants "deflocculate" solids and thus significantly reduce the viscosity 248
of a dispersion. As a result of this effect, the solid load, i.e., the amount of dispersible 249
powder material, can be increased accordingly. This results in a stable dispersion with 250
potential values ζ above +30 mV or below -30 mV. Tests on the effectiveness of the com- 251
bined effect of a dispersing agent and ultrasonic treatment were verified and reported in 252
Table 6. 253

Table 6. Potential ζ for sludge containing a dispersing agent and treated with ultrasound. 254

Amplification -
20% (35 min.) 40% (25 min.) 60% (25 min.)
Treatment time
Silcosperse [%w/v] 0.5 1 1.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 3
Potenziale ζ (mV) -12.3 -11.8 -11.5 -14.8 -11.1 -12.2 -12.1 -15.2 -12.5 -11.6 -12.3 -14.9
Conductivity (mS/cm) 1.11 1.10 1.12 1.28 1.12 1.12 1.14 1.19 1.17 1.14 1.16 1.20
255
The data confirmed that the combination of ultrasound treatment with a dispersing 256
agent (3% v/v) promotes the production of a stable dispersion by increasing the interaction 257
between ultrasound and sludge particles. As the dispersing agent concentration increases, 258
an increase in conductivity is observed due to a higher concentration of free ions in solu- 259
tion as a result of the sludge disintegration process. The effectiveness of sludge disinte- 260
gration and solubilization was monitored by checking the Chemical oxygen demand 261
(COD) trend in the sludge supernatant. The COD values for untreated and ultrasonically 262
treated sludge are shown in Table 7. 263

Table 7. COD values for untreated and ultrasound-treated sludge. 264

Parameter Untreated 20% (35 min.) 40% (25 min.) 60% (25 min.)
COD (mg/L) 2012 2200 3534 3429
265
The treatment of samples with ultrasound produces an increase in the COD value, 266
indicating a high content of oxidisable organic material in the sample as a result of the 267
disintegration process. The sonication tests to verify the effect in the sludge drying phase 268
were conducted in the same frequency range. The sludge disintegration process reduces 269
the size of the flakes, facilitates the migration of steam outside the flake, and limits its 270
aggregation. The results of the tests conducted are shown in Table 8. 271

Table 8. Sludge drying test. 272

Sample Type Initial weight (g) Final weight (g) % Weight reduction
Untreated sludge 37.52 34.02 9.3
Sludge treated with US
38.05 34.01 10.6
(60% A)
273
The effect of ultrasonic treatment of the sludge sample is shown by a modest change 274
in weight reduction of 1-2% compared to the untreated and dried samples under the same 275
experimental conditions. This effect therefore shows a slight reduction in moisture content 276
in the US-treated sample compared to the untreated sample. 277
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

3.2. FEM Model Results 278

The findings from the FEM model are provided after the sonication procedure, which 279
showed a decrease in the sludge's specific gravity. 280
The model was implemented in a steady state and then in a transient regime. The 281
pressure and sludge distribution velocity results are obtained at an inlet temperature of 282
296.96 K (Figures 12–14) and at an inlet temperature of 377.96 K (Figures 15–17). 283

284
Figure 12. Pressure distribution at t=15s and at T= 296.96 K. 285
286

287
Figure 13. Temperature distribution at t=15s and at T= 296.96 K. 288
289
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

290
Figure 14. Water vapour propagation velocity of the material at T=296.96 K. 291
292

293
Figure 15. Pressure distribution at t=15s and at T= 377.96 K. 294
295

296
Figure 16. Temperature distribution at t=15s and at T= 377.96 K. 297
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16

298

299
Figure 17. Water vapour propagation velocity of the material at T=377.96 K. 300
301
The results, as shown in Figures 12–17, highlight the different behaviour of the sludge 302
depending on the operating temperature. In addition to the significant change in pressure, 303
it can be seen that the surface flow velocity on the wetter material is 0.5*10-6 m/s lower 304
than on the drier material. This experimental result represents the specific objective for 305
the prototyping of the treatment tank. In fact, both processes, before sonication and after 306
heating, together constitute the fundamental steps for reducing the specific weight of the 307
sludge. 308

3.3. Measurement campaign on the realised prototype 309

The operation of the prototype aims to validate the results obtained from the mathe- 310
matical model and, therefore, to further dehydrate the sludge obtained from the soni- 311
cation process by decreasing its moisture concentration. The results obtained during the 312
measurement campaign and shown in Table 9 showed a further percentage reduction in 313
sludge weight. 314

Table 9. Sludge drying test. 315

Sample Type Initial weight (g) Final weight (g) % Weight reduction
Tank-treated sludge 38,05 33,52 11.91
316
In the sludge treatment tank, the samples were processed at approximately 105 °C, 317
also for 2 hours. 318
Comparing the data on the initial and final weight of the pre-treated, UT-treated, and 319
tank-treated sludge gives the trend depicted in Figure 18. 320
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16

Initial Weight (g) Final weight (g) % weight reduction

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3

Untreated sludge UT-treated sludge (60% A) Tank-treated sludge

321
Figure 18. Untrated sludge (blue) - UT (Orange) - Prototype Heat Source (Grey). 322
323
As is evident from the trend, there is a slight reduction in the percentage of sludge 324
weight reduction with the use of the prototype. It should also be noted that the exclusive 325
use of the prototype has a higher energy expenditure than the UT sonication process. 326
From this consideration, the prototype was therefore used after the sonication process. 327
As shown in Figure 19, it can be seen that the consequential combination of the two 328
processes, first sonication and then treatment at elevated temperatures, results in a signif- 329
icant reduction in the rate of heating of the UT pre-treated sludge material. 330

Initial Weigth (g) Final weigth (g) % weight reduction

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3

Untreated sludge UT-treated sludge (60% A)

Tank-treated sludge after UT
331
Figure 19. Untreated sludge (blue) - UT (Orange) - Prototype Heat Source after UT (Grey) 332

4. Conclusions 333
The research work conducted concerned the development of techniques and devices 334
for reducing the amount of water in sewage sludge. At the same time, the study developed 335
methodologies capable of reducing the weight of the sewage sludge and demonstrated 336
the effectiveness of ultrasonic treatment in disintegrating the sludge. The tests were first 337
carried out in the laboratory and subsequently validated in a cleaning plant. They were 338
conducted under various experimental conditions and showed a reduction in particle size 339
of around 50% (20% and 40% amplification) and around 55% (60% amplification). This 340
result was also verified by an increase in COD in the supernatant of the sludge and by a 341
greater reduction in moisture content, resulting in a weight reduction. 342
In addition, the use of a dispersing agent combined with ultrasonic treatment pro- 343
motes the production of a stable dispersion and also increases its disintegration efficiency. 344
The addition of such an agent should be further analysed to verify the possible reuse of 345
the sludge for agricultural purposes. In addition, the use of a dispersing agent combined 346
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 16

with ultrasound treatment promotes the production of a stable dispersion and also in- 347
creases its degradation efficiency. Thermal, mechanical (ultrasound, ball mill, high-pres- 348
sure homogenizers), or chemical (acid or basal hydrolysis, oxidation processes with ozone 349
or Fenton) pre-treatments in fact allow to accelerate the solubilization phase of the partic- 350
ulate material and decrease the particle size by improving the performance of the process 351
with reference especially to the decomposition of volatile solids and the subsequent pro- 352
duction of biogas. The choice of thermal pre-treatment by ultrasound, unlike other types 353
of pre-treatments, has been extensively considered in the study stage because it provides 354
a valid sludge reduction and, at the same time, is easily integrated into a non-avant-garde 355
cleaning system. The mechanical forces generated by ultrasound are able to disintegrate 356
the structure of the sludge foil at low energies, resulting in considerable energy savings, 357
unlike other pre-treatments. By increasing the energy, a complete breakdown of cell mem- 358
branes can be achieved, resulting in the release of large amounts of organic material in 359
solution and improving the performance of anaerobic digestion. At the same time, the 360
implementation and combination of the use of the prototyped treatment bathtub favour 361
the cell disintegration of the treated material. 362
In fact, the disintegration process can be achieved thermally (at 170-190° for 30–60 363
minutes), resulting in a high level of solubilization together with a change in the sludge's 364
characteristics, which leads to a significant improvement in filterability and a reduction 365
in pathogens [10]. The interventions on the sludge line aimed at improving the perfor- 366
mance of anaerobic digestion and the stability characteristics of the sludge deserve atten- 367
tion, as treated in the laboratory stage and subsequently on the plant. In the research con- 368
ducted, both thermal processes and mechanical processes were applied, among which the 369
disintegration treatment with ultrasound was undoubtedly affirmed, which, unlike other 370
pre-treatments, resulted in energy savings of about 60% of the preventable consumption. 371
Following the ultrasound treatment, the sludge was heated in a prototyped treatment 372
bathtub. Both the implementation phase and the testing phase on the treated material re- 373
sulted in a slight decrease in the final weight of treated sludge compared to the ultrasonic 374
heating procedure. We also tested the sludge following the sonication process, which con- 375
firmed a significant reduction in the percentage of the final weight of the sludge. 376
In conclusion, the research work has confirmed that, unlike processes that require a 377
very expensive structural intervention on the plant, the ultrasound technique produces 378
performance effects on the treated material and has a reduced energy cost compared to 379
other processes present in the literature. Furthermore, the combined implementation and 380
use of the prototype further improves the final product, making the cleaning sludge in its 381
final treatment phase fairly light, thereby reducing the cost of disposal. The research work, 382
in spite of its complexity, did not solve the many defects present during the cleaning pro- 383
cess. The research must be improved, the prototype must be more reliable during the pro- 384
duction phase, and some problems must be solved both in the energy field and in the area 385
of reliability of the manufactured product. Future developments, in fact, will concern the 386
perfection of the prototype and the testing of both processes on different types of cleaning 387
sludge. 388
389

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.L.; methodology, D.D.C and F.L.; software, M.C and 390
F.L.; validation, D.D.C and F.L.; formal analysis, M.C.; investigation, M.C, D.D.C and F.L.; resources, 391
D.D.C., F.L.; data curation, D.D.C and F.L.; writing—original draft preparation, F.L.; writing—re- 392
view and editing, D.D.C and F.L.; supervision, M.C and F.L. 393

Funding: This research received no external funding. 394

Data Availability Statement: We encourage all authors of articles published in MDPI journals to 395
share their research data. In this section, please provide details regarding where data supporting 396
reported results can be found, including links to publicly archived datasets analysed or generated 397
during the study. Where no new data were created, or where data is unavailable due to privacy or 398
ethical restrictions, a statement is still required. Suggested Data Availability Statements are availa- 399
ble in section “MDPI Research Data Policies” at https://www.mdpi.com/ethics. 400
Environments 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 16

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by both the BATS Laboratory, Department of Health 401
Science 'Magna Graecia', Catanzaro, Italy, and the NdT&E Laboratory, Department DICEAM 'Med- 402
iterranea', Reggio Calabria, Italy and the Cooperative TEC Spin-in Department DICEAM 'Mediter- 403
ranea', Reggio Calabria, Italy. 404

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. 405

References 406
1. F. De Leonardis, "L’economia circolare alla prova dei fatti. La responsabilità estesa del produttore (EPR): i consorzi di gestione 407
degli imballaggi." APERTACONTRADA, Volume 1, pp. 1-28, 2017. 408
2. G.M. Rabie, Abd El-Halim Hisham, E.H. Rozaik. "Influence of using dry and wet wastewater sludge in concrete mix on its 409
physical and mechanical properties." Ain Shams Engineering Journal Volume 10.4, pp. 705-712, 2019. 410
3. N. Ekane, K. Barquet, A. Rosemarin. "Resources and risks: Perceptions on the application of sewage sludge on agricultural land 411
in Sweden, a case study." Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 5 (2021): 647780. 412
4. S.A. Pullano, M.G. Bianco, C.D. Critello, F. Laganà, D. Menniti, F. Ruberto, R. Tiriolo, A.S Fiorillo, "Biomass Plant and Sensors 413
Network for Process Monitoring and Energy Storage in a Superconducting Magnetic Device", Safety of Technogenyc Environ- 414
ment, vol. 6, ISSN 2255- 6923, 2014. 415
5. A.I. Bădănoiu, T.H.A. Al-Saadi, G. Voicu, “Synthesis and properties of new materials produced by alkaline activation of glass 416
cullet and red sludge”. International Journal of Mineral Processing, 135, pp. 1-10, 2015. 417
6. K.Y. Show, T. Mao, D.J. Lee, “Optimisation of sludge disruption by sonication”. Water Research, 41(20), pp. 4741-4747, 2007. 418
7. R. Singh, S. Sadeghi, B. Shabani, “Thermal Conductivity Enhancement of Phase Change Materials for Low-Temperature Ther- 419
mal Energy Storage Applications”, Fluids, 12, 75 2019. 420
8. G. Angiulli, S. Calcagno, D. De Carlo, F. Laganá, M. Versaci, “Second-order parabolic equation to model, analyze, and forecast 421
thermal-stress distribution in aircraft plate attack wing–fuselage”, Mathematics, 8(1), 6, 2019. 422
9. C.F. Forster, “Factors involved in the settlement of activated sludge—I: Nutrients and surface polymers”, Water research, 19(10), 423
pp. 1259-1264, 1985. 424
10. C. Bougrier, J.P. Delgenes, H. Carrère, “Combination of thermal treatments and anaerobic digestion to reduce sewage sludge 425
quantity and improve biogas yield”, Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 84(4), pp. 280-284, 2006. 426

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual au- 427
thor(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to 428
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. 429