DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION OF LOW

NOISE BIOPOTENTIAL AMPLIFIER FOR

ELECTROOCULOGRAM SIGNAL
An Industrial Oriented Mini Project report submitted

in partial fulfillment for the award of the

Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in Electronics & Communication Engineering
By

CHITTALURI RASHMITHA (Reg NO: 21895A0408)

CHIKKA PRIYANKA (Reg No: 21895A0408)

Under the guidance of

DR. SARIN VIJAY MYTHRY

Assistant professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

2023-24

i
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled Design
Implementation of Low Noise Biopotential Amplifier
for Electrooculogram Signal submitted by
CHITTALURI RASHMITHA (21895A0408), CHIKKA
PRIYANKA (21895A0407) to the Vignan Institute of
Technology & Science, Yadadri, Bhuvanagiri Dist., in
partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of B. Tech
in Electronics & Communication Engineering is a
bonafide record of project work carried out by him/her
under my/our supervision. The contents of this report, in
full or in parts, have not been submitted to any other
Institution or University for the award of any degree or
diploma.

Mr. Abdul Raqeeb Dr. P. A. Harsha Vardhini

Assistant Professor Head of the Department

(External Examiner)

ii
 DECLARATION

I / We declare that this project report titled Design

Implementation of Low Noise Biopotential Amplifier
for Electrooculogram signal submitted in partial
fulfillment of the degree of B. Tech in Electronics &
Communication Engineering is a record of original work
carried out by me/us under the supervision of DR.SARIN
VIJAY MYTHRY and has not formed the basis for the
award of any other degree or diploma, in this or any other
Institution or University. In keeping with the ethical
practice in reporting scientific information, due
acknowledgements have been made wherever the findings
of others have been cited.

Chittaluri Rashmitha 21895A0408

Chikka Priyanka 21895A0407

Date: Hyderabad
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Every project big or small is successful largely due to the effort
of a number of wonderful people who have always given their valuable
advice or lent a helping hand. We sincerely appreciate the inspiration;
support and guidance of all those people who have been instrumental in
making this project a success.

We thank our beloved Chairman, Dr. L. Rathaiah, who gave us

great encouragement to work.

iii
 We thank our beloved CEO, Mr. Boyapati Shravan, we
remember him for his valuable ideas and facilities available in college
during the development of the project.

We convey our sincere thanks to Dr. G Durga Sukumar,

Principal of our institution for providing us with the required
infrastructure and a very vibrant and supportive staff.

We would like to thank our Head of the Department of

Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dr. P. A. Harsha
Vardhini, a distinguished and eminent personality, whose strong
recommendation, immense support and constant encouragement has
been great help to us. We intensely thank him for the same.

We would like to thank our guide of the project, Dr. Sarin Vijay
Mythry (Assistant professor) who has invested his full effort in
guiding the team in achieving the goal.

Special thanks to my team mates, who helped me to assemble the

parts and gave suggestions in making this project. We have to appreciate
the guidance given by other supervisor as well as the panels especially in
our project presentation that has improved our presentation skills thanks
to their comment and advices. We take this opportunity to thank all our
lecturers who have directly or indirectly helped our project. We pay our
respects and love to our parents and all other family members and friends
for their love and encouragement throughout our career.

ABSTRACT
The aim of this project is to design a low noise biopotential amplifier.
LNAs play a crucial role in enhancing the EOG signal quality, enabling
its effective utilization in several biomedical applications. The EOG
signal represents the electrical activity generated by the movement of
the eye.
The circuit which a two-stage OPAMP is the core component of the
circuit. For every circuit in the current technology, enhancement of
power efficiency, area, reduced noise are the critical specifications.
Capturing bio-signals is pivotal, given their minute amplitude (typically
within a few millivolts) and low frequency (ranging from 0.1 Hz to 10
kHz). Crafting medical electronics for health monitoring involves
employing amplifier. Yet, achieving accurate bio-signal measurement
demands a high CMRR and precision amplification to mitigate input
noise and enhance signal strength. The target performance parameters
are power, gain, noise margin, CMRR, SQNR and so on. For this, our
design of biopotential amplifier is implemented in 90nm technology is
proposed. LNAs facilitate the acquisition of high-quality EOG signals,
iv
enabling advancements in ophthalmology, sleep research, brain-
computer interfaces, and human-computer interaction. Despite ongoing
challenges, future research and technological developments are expected
to unlock further potential in utilizing EOG signals for biomedical
applications.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DESCRIPTION PAGE NUMBER

CERTIFICATE ii
DECLARATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
CONTENTS vi
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOPOTENTIAL AMPLIFIERS 1
AND ELECTROOCULOGRAM SIGNALS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objective 1
1.2 General Introduction 1
1.3 Biopotential Amplifiers using CMOS technology 5
1.4 90nm technology 6
1.5 About cadence software 8
CHAPTER 2
2. INTRODUCTION TO CADENCE SOFTWARE
2.1. Introduction 11
2.2. Getting started 11
2.3. The library and cell hierarchy 13
2.4. Schematic entry in virtuoso composer 14
2.5. simulation with analog design environment 16
2.5.1 The DC analysis 17
2.5.2 The DC sweep 18
2.6. The parametric analysis 20 2.6.1. The AC analysis 23
2.6.1 The transient Analysis 24
CHAPTER 3
3. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION 25
3.1. Circuit diagram of two stage differential operational 26 amplifier
3.2. Description of circuit components 27

3.2.1 p-channel MOSFET 27

vi
3.2.2. n-channel MOSFET 28
3.2.3.Miller capacitance 30
3.2.4 Load capacitor 31
3.2.5 Operational Amplifier 33
3.2.6 Differential amplifier 35
CHAPTER 4
4.SCHEMATIC RESULTS
4.1 Schematic diagram 39
4.2 Graphs 40
Differential mode gain
Power
Noise

Output voltage
Transient response
AC response
DC response
4.3 Common mode schematic diagram 43
Noise
Gain
Phase

CHAPTER 5
5. LITERATURE SURVEY 47
5.1 Topology Description 47
5.2 Graphs 50
CHAPTER 6 54

6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

CHAPTER 7 55
7. FUTURE SCOPE
CHAPTER 8
8. CONCLUSION AND REFERENCES
8.1 Conclusion 60
8.2 references

vii
viii
x
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO
BIOPOTENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
AND ELECTROOCULOGRAM
SIGNALS
1.1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

In the past decades, keyboards, mice, and touchscreens have been the most popular
input devices to control computers. These traditional devices are effective in most
general situations such as for writing documents, searching and navigating the
internet, and gaming. However, people may encounter special situations in which
such traditional devices are not effective, for instance, when people want to
operate computer devices in a hands-free manner. Such scenarios may include
surgery, as medical doctors often wish to search for information and discuss the
procedure with advisors during an operation; augmented reality (AR) applications,
as they require fast and intuitive interactions; or some game playing. Some people
also experience difficulties in using traditional input devices. Furthermore, people
with advanced amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are unable to communicate
with people except by using their eye movements.

Numerous studies have been performed focusing on novel input approaches for
such situations. Hand-movements were detected using optical or infrared cameras,
and the intention of a user was recognized. Bioelectric signals, such as
electroencephalograms (EEGs), electromyograms (EMGs), and electrooculograms
(EOGs) were also utilized to understand a user’s intention. Among these
approaches our design focuses on the amplification of eog signals.

An EOG is a signal that changes according to eye-movements; the changes are

caused by the standing potential between the retina and cornea of the eyes. The
potential increases when the cornea approaches an electrode, and it decreases
when the cornea moves in the opposite direction. Figure 1 illustrates this process.
When the eyes are directed straight and the gaze is fixed, the electric potential
does not change and remains at a certain value. When the eyes move left to the
sensor, the electric potential increases sharply as the cornea reaches the sensor.
This phenomenon also occurs when the eyes are closed, or in the case of blind
people.

1
 Figure.1.1: Eye blinking EOG signals

An EOG often reflects activities other than eye-movements, and these are
commonly named artifacts. Eyelid-related artifacts are strong and occur frequently
when closing and opening the eyes. Such artifacts correspond to a dramatic
increase in the potential above the eyes. This high potential is the sum of the
retinal and corneal potentials, as the eyelid conducts the positive charges of the
cornea to the frontopolar region when it comes in contact with the cornea. Hence,
although eyelid-related artifacts originate from the same source as that of the eye-
movement signals, it is not significantly related to the eye-movement: The eyes
move only slightly (less than 5°) during eye blinks as there exists a mechanism to
suppress saccadic movements during eye blinks.

EMGs represent another artifact in EOGs, and they are observed when a person
moves his/her facial muscles or body during EOG measurement. EMGs originate
from activities such as jaw clenching, raising of the eyebrow, smiling, or walking.
The shapes of these artifacts differ according to the types of movement, electrode
position, and sampling rates; however, generally, high-frequency noise and
plateau-like waveforms, which exceed the potential range of eye-movement-
related signals, are noted.

The main purpose of EOG signal processing is to remove noise and emphasize
the signal of interest. A number of different eye movement types exist: saccades
(fast eye movement), fixation (fixing gaze onto a subject), miniature eye
movements (drift, tremor, and micro saccades during fixation), smooth pursuit
(when tracking a slowly moving target), and vergence (inward and outward eye
movements).
Among these movement types, saccades and smooth pursuit have been the main
research source of signal for HCI in the past decades, as the others, except for
fixation, are uncontrollable. Hence, these eye-movement related signals have been
considered as noise to remove in this field.

2
High frequency noises, such as tremor or high-frequency EMG artifacts, have been
often removed using median and low-pass filters. The cut-off frequency for the
low-pass filters, as reported in the literature, varies from 10 to 60. There is no
consensus on the best filter to remove these noises, but the use of low-pass filters
has been preferred in the literature. It is visually observable that a low-pass filter
does not preserve the edge steepness of saccadic eye movements, and using a
median filter, ten eye gestures could be recognized with an accuracy of 95.93%. In
addition, Bulling et al. demonstrated that an adaptive median filter is superior to a
low-pass filter. However, a recent study employed the median filter together with a
20-Hz low-pass filter, and twelve eye gestures were reported to be recognized with
an accuracy of 95%; further, it was claimed that a cut-off frequency of 20 Hz is
sufficient to include intentional eye-movements and remove high-frequency
noises. Despite this slight contradiction, both methods could obtain applicable
results. Hence, as noted in, it is reasonable to consider that the method for high
frequency removal should be selected taking into account other procedures of the
entire system.

Drift has conventionally been removed using high-pass filters, with the cut-off
frequency varying from 0.05 to 0.1. In a few exceptional cases, cut-offs of 0.175
[61 and 0.53 Hz were used; however, these cases dealt only with single and
directional eye movement, and they utilized the high-pass filtered signal together
with the raw signal. The reason for the low variation is that the low-pass filter
easily deforms the signal during saccade and fixation

The biopotentials generated by the human body have given rise to numerous
studies and to some applications. The biopotentials recorded by the movement of
the eyes are called an electrooculogram. The origin of this recording goes back to
the year 1848 when the German physicist Emil du Bois-Reymond observed for the
first time in history that the front of the eyeball (the cornea) is electrically positive
with respect to the back (the retina), thus concluding that the eye could be
modelled as a dipole. The eye, by performing different movements within its
orbital cavity, generates a measurable potential by means of conveniently arranged
electrodes.

The amplitude of the EOG signal varies with each person and environment;
however, it is considered that it is in the range of 50–3500 µV. The amplitude of
the signal obtained by placing two electrodes for registration is directly
proportional to the angle of rotation of the eyes within the range of ±30°.
Sensitivity is in the order of 20 µV per degree of movement. The frequency ranges
from continuous at about 50 Hz, although almost its entire spectrum, where most
of the useful information resides, does not exceed 38 Hz. The fact that the EOG
signal has a low bandwidth of interest is because the action potentials do not occur
at extreme speed. Another interesting aspect to keep in mind is that muscle noise
extends across the signal bandwidth almost steadily, which makes it very difficult
to eliminate it in its entirety.

As exposed, the EOG signal is small in amplitude and consists of very low
frequencies, so the presence of artifacts, interference, and noise in the biopotential
recording is practically inevitable. They may occupy either some specific

3
 frequency band or the entire frequency band. Therefore, they are very difficult to
remove without losing some signal information

Figure .1.2: EOG signals representation

In the realm of biomedical applications, the acquisition of electrooculography

(EOG) signals stands as a pivotal aspect in understanding and monitoring eye
movements. EOG signals, indicative of ocular activities, are inherently subtle and
necessitate precise amplification to extract meaningful information. This
introduction delves into the significance of amplifiers with low noise
characteristics in enhancing the fidelity of EOG signal acquisition.

Amplifiers serve as the backbone of EOG signal processing, addressing the

Inherent challenges associated with the minute electrical potentials generated byocular
movements. The criticality of low noise amplifiers becomes apparent in their ability to
boost the signal strength without introducing unwanted disturbances, ensuring a high
signal-to-noise ratio. This is paramount for discerning nuanced eye movements and
distinguishing them from background noise, enabling accurate analysis and diagnosis in
biomedical applications.

As researchers and clinicians delve deeper into the intricacies of eye-related

disorders and cognitive processes, the demand for advanced EOG signal
amplification technologies becomes increasingly pronounced. This exploration
underscores the indispensable role of low noise amplifiers in elevating the
4
precision and reliability of EOG signal acquisition, thereby contributing
significantly to the advancement of biomedical research and clinical
diagnostics.

Figure 1.3: Differential Amplifier

Figure 1.4:
1.1.2. BIOPOTENTIAL AMPLIFIERS USING CMOS
TECHNOLOG

Biopotential amplifiers are indispensable in biomedical applications due to

their pivotal role in extracting and enhancing weak physiological signals. In
fields like electrocardiography (ECG), electromyography (EMG), and
electroencephalography (EEG), these amplifiers serve as vital components in
5
monitoring and diagnosing various health conditions. Biopotential signals
generated by the body are often minute and susceptible to interference,
requiring amplification for accurate analysis. By boosting the strength of these
signals, biopotential amplifiers improve the signal-to-noise ratio, ensuring that
healthcare professionals obtain reliable data for precise diagnostics.

In cardiac monitoring, for instance, biopotential amplifiers help detect subtle

abnormalities in the heart's electrical activity, facilitating early identification of
cardiovascular issues. Similarly, in neurological studies, these amplifiers
contribute to capturing intricate brainwave patterns with heightened accuracy.
The significance of biopotential amplifiers lies in their ability to provide
clinicians and researchers with clear, discernible signals, enabling a deeper
understanding of physiological processes, early disease detection, and effective
patient management in the realm of biomedical applications. Their role extends
beyond mere signal enhancement; they are fundamental tools for advancing
medical knowledge and improving healthcare outcomes.

Biomedical applications in CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-

Semiconductor) technology are indeed emerging and making significant
contributions to the field of healthcare. CMOS technology, which is widely
used in electronics, is now being leveraged to develop innovative solutions for
various biomedical applications.

One area where CMOS technology is making an impact is in biosensors. These

sensors, integrated with CMOS circuits, can detect and analyze biological
signals such as glucose levels, DNA sequences, or protein interactions. This
enables the development of portable and wearable devices for monitoring
health conditions, such as glucose monitors for diabetes management.

The most critical part is recording the bio-signals as these signals have very
low amplitude as well as low frequency. Generally, the amplitude range
fluctuates within few milli-volts and the frequency varies from 0.1 Hz to 10
kHz. The medical electronics-based health caring devices are designed using
ADC, OTA, S/H and LPF. However, to make the biomedical electronics able to
measure bio- signals engineers need a high common mood rejection ratio
(CMRR) and high- precision amplifier to abate the input noise and amplify the
bio signals.

The biopotential amplifier is designed using a number of cmos devices to

obtain low noise, high gain and high CMRR in 90nm cmos technology.

1.4. Objective
The main objective of implementing a low noise biopotential amplifier for
an Electrooculogram (EOG) is to accurately and sensitively measure the small
electrical potentials generated by eye movements. The EOG signals are
relatively weak, so a low noise amplifier helps in amplifying these signals
while minimizing interference, noise, and artifacts, thereby allowing for a more
precise analysis of ocular movements, blinking, and other eye-related activities
6
for medical diagnostics, research purposes, or human-computer interaction
applications.

1.3. 90nm TECHNOLOGY

90nm technology refers to the manufacturing process used to create integrated

circuits (ICs) with a feature size of 90 nanometers. In simpler terms, it's a
measure of how small the individual components on a chip are.

Figure 1.5:90nm generation interconnect

With 90nm technology, designers can create smaller and more efficient
electronic devices. The smaller feature size allows for more components to be
packed onto a single chip, leading to higher performance and functionality.

This technology has been widely used in various fields, including computer
processors, memory chips, and other semiconductor devices. It has enabled
advancements in areas such as mobile devices, automotive electronics, and
consumer electronics.

Designing with 90nm technology involves considering factors like power

consumption, performance, and manufacturability. It requires specialized
design tools and techniques to ensure that the circuits and components work
effectively within the constraints of this technology.

When it comes to designing a low noise biopotential amplifier for EOG

signals, the goal is to create a circuit with high gain, high CMRR (common-
mode rejection ratio), and minimal noise. This amplifier is used to capture and
amplify the electrical signals generated by eye movements.

7
One of the key advantages of 90nm CMOS technology is its ability to reduce
power consumption while maintaining high performance. This makes it ideal
for applications such as mobile devices, where battery life is crucial.

In addition, 90nm CMOS technology offers improved speed and lower leakage
currents compared to previous generations. It also provides better integration
capabilities, allowing for the integration of various functions onto a single
chip.

Overall, 90nm CMOS technology has played a significant role in advancing the
field of electronics, enabling the development of smaller, faster, and more
power-efficient devices
.

Figure 1.6: Mencel interconnection

1.2.1. About cadence software

As for the simulation software called Cadence, it's a powerful tool widely used
for designing and simulating electronic circuits. It allows engineers to model
and test circuits before actually building them, which can save a lot of time and
resources

Cadence Design Systems provides a suite of electronic design automation

(EDA) software tools that are integral in the semiconductor and electronic
industry for designing and verifying integrated circuits (ICs) and systems.
Cadence software is widely used for its capabilities in enabling efficient and
accurate design processes, covering various stages from conception to
manufacturing.

One notable tool in the Cadence portfolio is Virtuoso, a comprehensive

platform tailored for analog and mixed-signal design. Virtuoso is renowned for
its versatility and advanced features, making it a preferred choice for engineers
involved in designing complex analog and digital circuits.

Virtuoso facilitates schematic capture, layout design, and simulation of ICs,

offering a seamless environment for designers to create and refine their
circuits. Its interactive and user-friendly interface allows engineers to visualize
8
and manipulate circuit elements with precision. The tool provides robust
simulation capabilities, enabling designers to analyze the performance of their
circuits under different conditions.

Moreover, Virtuoso supports the physical implementation

of designs, including the generation of layout and masks
essential for fabrication. The software integrates
seamlessly with other Cadence tools, forming a cohesive
design flow that enhances productivity and collaboration
among design teams.

In Cadence Virtuoso, engineers can perform tasks such as

transistor-level design, layout editing, and parameterized
cell development. The tool supports various simulation
techniques, including analog, digital, and mixed-signal
simulations, aiding in the validation of design functionality
and performance.

Additionally, Virtuoso includes features like design rule

checking (DRC) and layout versus schematic (LVS)
verification to ensure that the designed circuits comply
with manufacturing requirements and accurately represent
the intended functionality.

In essence, Cadence Virtuoso serves as a comprehensive

platform for IC design, offering a range of tools and
capabilities crucial for achieving precision, efficiency, and
reliability in the development of electronic circuits. Its
broad functionality makes it an essential resource for
semiconductor designers seeking to navigate the
complexities of modern integrated circuit design.

With Cadence, you can simulate the performance of your

amplifier design, analyze its characteristics, and make any
necessary adjustments before moving on to the physical
implementation. It's a handy software for electronic circuit
design and analysis!

9
 CHAPTER 2
2.LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
This project’s literature review is covered in the chapter. The two-stage differential
opamp topology is highlighted in the proposed architecture allows low noise and low
power consumption with a considerable gain is experienced in the amplifier.

2.2. Existing methods

Certainly, there are several methods for amplifying electrooculography (EOG)
signals, which measure the electrical potentials generated by eye movements. Some
common methods include:

2.2.1 Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps): This paper discusses about configuring

op-amps in different arrangements, such as inverting or non-inverting amplifier
configurations, can help amplify EOG signals. Op-amps have high voltage gain,
which is essential for amplifying the low-amplitude EOG signals generated by eye
movements. This high gain allows for the detection and analysis of subtle electrical
changes around the eyes. Op-amps can be configured in various ways to suit specific
amplification requirements. For EOG signals, instrumentation amplifier
configurations are often employed to provide high common-mode rejection and
differential amplification, helping to isolate the desired signals from noise.

Op-amps typically have low input impedance, which is advantageous for interfacing
with electrodes and ensuring minimal loading effects on the measured signals. This is
crucial to accurately capture the weak electrical signals from the eyes. Op-amps
operate linearly within their specified range, allowing for faithful signal reproduction.
This linearity is important for preserving the integrity of EOG waveforms during the
amplification process. Op-amps are integral components in analog signal processing
circuits. Their versatility and ease of integration make them suitable for designing
amplification stages in EOG signal acquisition systems.Many op-amps are designed
to have low inherent noise, contributing to the overall quality of the amplified EOG
signals by minimizing unwanted interference.

In summary, operational amplifiers offer a combination of high gain, configurability,

low input impedance, linear operation, and low noise, making them well-suited for the
sensitive task of amplifying and processing EOG signals in a reliable and accurate
manner.

2.2.2 Instrumentation Amplifiers: This document s appears to be PDF where it

discussees about amplifiers that are specifically designed for precise amplification of
small differential signals, which makes them suitable for amplifying EOG signals.
Instrumen tation amplifiers are specifically designed for differential signal
amplification. EOG signals are often measured as the voltage difference between
pairs of electrodes placed around the eyes. Instrumentation amplifiers excel at
10
amplifying this differential voltage while rejecting common-mode signals, such as
noise or interference. EOG signals are susceptible to common-mode noise, which can
be caused by environmental interference or other physiological signals.
Instrumentation amplifiers are designed with a high CMRR, meaning they effectively
reject signals that are common to both input terminals. This helps in isolating the
desired EOG signals from unwanted noise. These amplifiers typically have high input
impedance, minimizing the loading effect on the electrodes. This is crucial for
accurately capturing the weak electrical signals generated by eye movements without
significantly affecting the original signal. They commonly have a balanced input
structure, which aids in minimizing common-mode noise pickup. This is particularly
advantageous in biomedical applications where signal fidelity is crucial.

In summary, the use of an instrumentation amplifier for EOG signal amplification is

driven by its ability to provide differential amplification, high CMRR, adjustable
gain, high input impedance, and overall precision. These features make
instrumentation amplifiers well-suited for the accurate and reliable amplification of
EOG signals in research, clinical, or other applications.

2.2.3 Filtering Techniques: This paper about the amplifiers Employing filters like
high-pass, low-pass, or band-pass filters can help eliminate noise and amplify the
desired frequency components of the EOG signal.EOG signals can be susceptible to
various types of noise, such as electrical interference and muscle artifacts. Filtering
techniques, such as high-pass and band-pass filters, help attenuate unwanted low-
frequency noise and isolate the frequency range of interest, enhancing the signal-to-
noise ratio.EOG signals typically contain frequency components associated with eye
movements, blinks, and other relevant physiological activities. Filtering allows
researchers or clinicians to focus on specific frequency bands relevant to their
analysis, improving the accuracy of signal interpretation.Filtering helps remove
unwanted artifacts or baseline drift that may be present in the EOG signals. This is
particularly important for obtaining clean and reliable signals for subsequent
processing and analysis. Filtering helps optimize the balance between signal and noise
by selectively amplifying the relevant frequency components. This is crucial for
obtaining accurate and meaningful information from EOG recordings.

It's important to note that the choice of filter parameters, such as cutoff frequencies
and filter types, should be carefully considered based on the characteristics of the
EOG signals and the specific objectives of the study or application. Overall, filtering
techniques play a significant role in improving the quality and interpretability of EOG
signals during the amplification process.

2.2.4. Chopper Amplifiers:These specialized amplifiers reduce the low-frequency drift and
noise, which can be beneficial for amplifying EOG signals with improved accuracy. The use
of chopper amplifiers or chopper-stabilized amplifiers in electrooculogram (EOG) signal am
plification is primarily driven by their ability to mitigate certain sources of noise and interference.
Chopper amplifiers are a specific type of operational amplifier with a chopping mechanism
that can be advantageous in biomedical signal processing, including EOG applications,
for the following reasons:

11
Chopper amplifiers are designed to suppress low-frequency or 1/f noise, which is a
common type of noise encountered in physiological signal recordings. This is
particularly relevant in EOG, where low-frequency noise can interfere with the
detection of subtle eye movement-related signals. These Chopper amplifiers excel at
common-mode rejection, helping to eliminate interference that is common to both
input terminals. In EOG measurements, common-mode noise can be introduced from
various sources, and chopper amplifiers contribute to minimizing its impact.

These are known for their high precision and stability over time, which is crucial for
accurately amplifying and preserving the fidelity of EOG signals. This precision is
especially important when dealing with small voltage changes associated with eye
movements. They are effective in minimizing DC offsets, which can be present in
EOG signals due to electrode and skin interface issues. Removing DC offsets helps in
maintaining a baseline level and facilitates the accurate measurement of dynamic
changes in the EOG signal.

By addressing issues such as 1/f noise, common-mode interference, and DC offsets,

chopper amplifiers contribute to overall improvement in the quality of the amplified
EOG signals. This enhances the reliability and accuracy of subsequent signal analysis.

While chopper amplifiers offer advantages in noise reduction and signal quality
improvement, it's essential to consider the specific requirements of the EOG signal
and the overall system design. Factors such as power consumption, cost, and the
desired level of amplification should be taken into account when deciding whether to
use chopper amplifiers for EOG signal amplification.

When amplifying EOG signals, it's essential to consider the signal-to-noise ratio, as
these signals can be relatively small and susceptible to interference. Additionally,
proper electrode placement and signal conditioning play crucial roles in obtaining
accurate and reliable measurements.
2.2.5 Shielding and Filtering: Proper shielding techniques, along with effective
filtering (such as high-pass, low-pass, or notch filters), help reduce external
interference and noise picked up by the electrodes and the amplifier circuit.

2.2.6 Electrode Design and Placement: The choice of electrodes and their placement
on or around the eyes significantly impacts the quality of EOG signals. Proper
electrode materials and configurations are crucial for minimizing artifacts and
improving signal quality.

2.2.7 Signal Processing Techniques: Employing signal processing methods like

averaging, artifact removal algorithms, and adaptive filtering can further enhance the
quality of EOG signals by reducing noise and improving the signal-to-noise ratio.

These methods, when integrated and optimized, contribute to the development of low
noise biopotential amplifiers for EOGs, enabling accurate measurement and analysis
of eye movement-related electrical potentials.

12
 2.3 PROPOSED METHOD

Previously, OPAMPs have been designed by some researchers. The work of Shruit et al.
presented the structure of two stage OPAMP, where 3.3V power supply is applied for tsmc
0.35µm CMOS process. The design achieves around 86 dB gain with moderate phase and g
ain bandwidth (7.85 MHz) and also attains 240µW power. But for increasing the range of ope
rating region, GBW should increase and need a tradeoff between gain and power. This archi
tecture also illustrated, how performance varies with aspect ratio and voltage level. The work
of C. L. Kavyashree et al. realized two stage CMOS operational amplifier using 90nm process,
where the design consumes low power of around 38µW. The circuit drives a 20pF load capacitance. The circuit
which a two-stage OPAMP is the core component of the circuit. For every circuit in the current technology, enhancement
of power efficiency, area, reduced noise are the critical specifications. Capturing bio-signals is pivotal, given their minute
amplitude (typically within a few millivolts) and low frequency (ranging from 0.1 Hz to 10 kHz). Crafting medical
electronics for health monitoring involves employing amplifier. Yet, achieving accurate bio-signal measurement demands
a high CMRR and precision amplification to mitigate input noise and enhance signal strength. The target performance

13
 CHAPTER 3

3. INTRODUCTION TO CADENCE SOFTWARE

3.1. Introduction
Analog integrated circuit design is usually done by” paper and pencil” with
very simple models in a first stage. In a second stage, the behavior of the
circuit is verified by a simulation software tool with more precise models and
the circuit is then modified based on these results. However, the results from
the simulation software should more or less agree with the considerations
made in the first stage, when all components have been dimensioned.
Currently, the most sophisticated and wide-spread software package for the
analysis and synthesis of analog and digital integrated circuits is the Design
Framework II (DFII) of Cadence Inc., which is referred to as Cadence in the
following. The purpose of this exercise is to become familiar with the
schematic entry and simulation environment of Cadence. You are going to
perform the most important analyses on the basis of simple analog integrated
circuits. Note that the material conveyed in this exercise forms the basis for
all subsequent labs and is a prerequisite for their successful completion. We
therefore suggest that you keep this exercise within reach in the future labs.

3.2 Getting Started

Open a terminal session and enter the following commands:

cd ˜ virtuoso
&
uebung2 design
ams-
hk4.10 &

The last command starts — after approving the creation of a new cockpit
structure — the DZ-cockpit(Fig. 1) for different processes of the Austrian
chip foundry AMS (Austria Micro Systems). We will use the C35B4M3 0.35
µm 2P3M CMOS process throughout the AIC labs. The nominal supply
voltage for this process is 3.3 V. The process specific parameters for Cadence
are provided by the chip foundry as design kits. However, AMS calls its
design kit AMS Hit Kit. Click on Design Framework II to start Cadence DFII.

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 Figure3.1: Cockpit structure –DZ cockpit

When starting Cadence, multiple windows appear on the screen. Ignore and
close the What’s New? windows. Fig. 2 shows the Command Interpreter
Window (CIW) of Cadence. In this window, tools and functions may be invoked either
through the menu or by typing a SKILL command in the command line. SKILL is a
Cadence proprietary dialect of the programming language LISP. Note that the tools
display important messages in the area above the command line! Therefore it is a good
idea to enlarge this window a litte bit.

Figure 3.2: Command Interpreter Window (CIW).

The window of Fig. 3 entitled Library Manager is Cadence’s ”file manager”

that manages libraries and cells. The Library Manager may be invoked from
the Command Interpreter Window by clicking Tools. Library Manager.

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 Figure 3.3: Library Manager.

3.3. The Library and Cell Hierarchy

Have a look at Fig. 3: the column to the far right shows the different views of
the transistor nmos4. At the moment only the schematic view, needed to draw
a circuit representation, and maybe the layout view with the physical layout
of the transistor are relevant to us.
Generally, circuits may become large and complex. Therefore, it makes sense
to sum up self-contained parts of a circuit as blocks - especially if these
blocks are to be used more than once in the overall circuit. A hierarchy level
above, only a graphical representation of the block is necessary, which is
called the symbol view. This concept allows to structure circuits in a
hierarchical way. Different cells may be arranged in categories for the sake of
more clarity. The cells that have not been assigned to a certain category
appear in the category Uncategorized. The category display may be enabled
and disabled with the tick box Show Categories in the upper left corner of the
Library Manager. Note that a cell may belong to more than one category.
Therefore, the category does not constitute a hierarchical structure.Cells and
categories are assigned to a library. At the moment, the libraries analog Lib
and PRIMLIB are relevant to us. PRIMLIB is an AMS library and contains
the components (MOSFETs, resistors, capacitors, etc.) of the selected
technology. Generate your own library for this exercise by clicking File. New.
Library in the Library Manager. Enter My Library for Name and click OK. A
technology file has to be assigned to your library. Accept the default Attach to
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an existing technology library and select TECHC35B4 as Technology Library
in the subsequent dialog box. The generated library My Library should now
appear in the Library Manager. Now generate a cell called NMOS dc and its
schematic view. To do this, first select My Library in the Library Manager.
Then click File. New. Cell View and choose NMOS dc for Cell Name,
schematic for both, View Name and Type, and Schematics XL for
Application. After clicking OK the schematic entry window pops up and we
are ready to assemble our circuit.

3.3.1 Schematic Entry in Virtuoso Composer

The composer serves as graphical schematic entry tool. This section introduces
the most relevant commands by means of a simple example.

Figure 3.4: Composer Window.

If you followed the tutorial correctly so far, then you should have the window
displayed in Fig. 4 on your screen now. Buttons for frequently used
commands can be found in the toolbars. Moving the mouse cursor over a
button allows you to get a short help text such as Check and Save for the
third button from the left.
Further help for the active command is provided in the status line of the
composer window, where at the moment HIT-Kit: ams˙4.10 is displayed. By
pressing ESC, you can terminate the active command before completion.

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 Figure 3.5: Schematic for the NMOS DC characteristics.

The schematic of your first circuit is depicted in Fig. 5. At first, place the
transistor by clicking Create Instance. In the dialog box, you can specify the
wanted component either by filling in the fields Library, Cell, and View by
hand, or by using the browser. Now press Browse and look for nmos4 in the
library PRIMLIB and select the symbol view.
Move the mouse cursor over the composer window. The mouse cursor now
shows the symbol of the NMOS transistor. Before you place the transistor,
enter 0.7u for Width and 0.35u for Length in the Add Instance window. Use
the same value for Width Stripe as for Width. Note that no space is allowed
between the value and the factor u! Before you place the component, it may
be rotated in 90◦ steps by pressing r. You may now finally place the transistor
with the left mouse button.
In order to edit the parameters, select the component with the left mouse button.
Then either click on the
Property q button in the toolbar or choose Edit.Properties. Objectsfrom the
menu. As an alternative the Property Editor (usually on the left) can be used.
For working efficiently with Cadence, it pays to memorize the shortcuts of
the most often used commands. The shortcuts are shown in the pertaining
menu entries, e.g. [Objects... q]. Have a look at the menus Edit and Create to
get an overview of the most important commands for drawing a circuit!From
the analog Lib, place the ground connection gnd and a voltage source vdc for
both the gate and drain voltage according to Fig. 5. Use the symbol view here
as well. For both voltage sources enter 3 V for the DC voltage.
Note: the gnd connection is absolutely needed by the simulator in order to define
a reference potential and therefore has to be included in each circuit!!!
The ports of the components may be connected with the command Create.
Wire (narrow) w. If this command is active, the composer suggests a
connection with the symbol ⋄ near the mouse cursor.
Pressing (for s snap) accepts the proposal and allows to connect the various
components in a convenient manner.Enter the desired label in the Names field of the
corresponding dialog box and position the label on the wire you would like to name.

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Like wires, components are designated automatically as well, e.g., V0 in case of a
voltage source. To change the name, select the corresponding component and press q.
You may now change the field Instance Name accordingly.
Now change all the net and instance names in your circuit according to Fig. 5
and save your design with File. Check and Save X.

3.3.2 Simulation with Analog Design Environment

The circuit may now be simulated directly from the Composer Window.
There are different kinds of simulations. One of them is the DC analysis. The
DC analysis returns the DC operating points of the circuit components.
Additionally, a parameter such as the voltage of a voltage source or the
temperature may be varied to determine the DC operating points for each
condition.
The transient analysis determines the behavior of the circuit in the time doma
in, e.g. the step response for a low pass filter.The AC analysis linearizes the circuit
around the specified operating point and then determines the behavior of the
circuit in the frequency domain in steady state for a sinusoidal source. It can e.g.,
return the amplitude and phase response of an amplifier. The AC analysis is a
small signal analysis which means that the nonlinear components are linearized in
their bias points first. Only then is the actual frequency analysis performed by the
simulator. Besides the mentioned analyses there are many others. However, these
are not in our interest at the moment.
Now start the simulation tool Analog Design Environment (ADE) from the
Composer with the command Launch. ADE L. If dialogs appear asking for
permission to check for a (G) XL license, click O.K. The window depicted in
Fig. 6 will appear on your screen.
The menu entry Setup. Simulator/Directory/Host allows you to select the
simulator (we are going to use spectra) and to specify the directory in Project
Directory where the simulation data should be written to. Accept the defaults
here.
The file path to the simulation models may be specified with Setup. Model
Libraries. Again, accept the defaults.

3.3.3.The DC Analysis

Select Analyses. Choose in the Analog Environment and click on dc in the

following dialog box. Make sure to tick Save DC Operation Point and click OK.
Now run the simulation by clicking Simulation. Netlist and Run. First, the netlist
is generated which is then passed to the Analog Design Environment

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 Figure.3.6: Analog Design Environment.

simulator along with the model parameters and simulation settings. Finally,
the simulator is invoked.After the simulation has completed you can have the
DC bias values printed by first clicking results. Print. DC Operating Points
and then selecting the NMOS transistor symbol.

3.3.5. The DC Sweep

Now we want to simulate the steady state behaviour of the NMOS transistor
when the drain source voltage is rising from 0 to 3.6 V. Select
Analyses.Choose→dc→Component Parameter →Select Component and
select the voltage source V1 in the composer (see Fig. 7). A dialog box with a
selection of parameters pops up. Choose DC voltage and click OK. For the
Sweep Range use 0-3.6 and proceed with OK. With these settings, a DC
analysis is performed for each relevant value of VDS within the given range.
Before you start the simulation, you have to define which voltages and
currents should be saved. Choose Out puts. Save All in the Analog Design
Environment and make sure that all pub is ticked for Select signals to output
(save) and that all is ticked for Select device currents (currents). Set the
subcircuit probe level to 1. Proceed with OK and start the simulation.After
the simulation has completed, open the window shown in Fig. 8 with Tools.
Calculator. Have a look at the second toolbar from the top (vt, vf, ...). The
first letter stands for voltage and the second one denotes the type of analysis: t
for transient analysis, f for frequency analysis, s for DC sweep, and dc for DC
analysis. The second row of the toolbar contains the same analyses pertaining
to currents.In order to plot the drain current IDS as a function of the drain
source voltage VDS, click is in the calculator and then on the drain port
(marked by a red square) of the transistor in the Composer Window. Now the
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display line of the calculator reads IS("/M1/D"). If so, use the Tools. Plot
function to get the characteristic shown on the left of Fig. 9.

After the simulation has completed you can have the DC bias values printed by
first clicking
Results. Print. DC Operating Points and then selecting the NMOS transistor
symbol.

Figure 3.7: DC Sweep.

Instead of using the calculator you may plot the simulation results directly
from the Analog Environment with help of the command Results. Direct Plot
DC and by selecting the port or net of interest with the mouse in the
schematic.
Press ESC to terminate the selection and to plot the curve.A third possibility is
to use the results browser which you start from the ADE with Tools. Results
Browser. It gives direct access to all saved signals, operating points etc. Click on
the dc folder to show the saved results of the DC (sweep) analysis. A double-click
on a signal directly plots it in the window on the right. More options can be
accessed with the right mouse button, such as using the selected signal in the
calculator or exporting the simulation results as a .csv file.

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 Figure 3.8: Calculator.

Figure 3.9: Results Browser and output characteristic of the NMOS transistor.

3.6 The Parametric Analysis

The parametric analysis allows you to simulate the IDS(VDS) characteristic for various VGS in a single
pass. For this, replace the DC voltage value of the source V0 with the variable vgs and save the changes
with File. Check and Save. Now click Variables. Copy from Cell view in the ADE in order to import your
variable. The command Tools. Parametric Analysis brings the window depicted in Fig. 10 to your screen.

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 Figure 3.10: Input window for the parametric analysis.

Type or select vgs for Variable, set the Range Type to from/To and choose a range
of 1 to 3.5. Set Step Mode to Linear Steps and enter 0.5 for Step Size.
Make sure that Sweep? is checked. Now start the simulation with Analysis.
Start Selected.
The plot may be produced the same ways as for the DC sweep analysis, e.g.,
choose is in the calculator, click on the drain port, and hit Tools. Plot
afterwards. This should result in the IDS (VDS, VGS) characteristic of Fig.
11. However, if you have kept the plot window from the DC sweep open, the
new graphs will be added without removing the old one. You can hide a graph
with the ’eye’ button or delete it by first selecting and then pressing Del.

Figure 3.11: IDS (VDS, VGS) characteristic.

Problems:
Simple Amplifier Circuit
A simple single-stage amplifier is to be built with a n-channel MOSFET as
shown in Fig. 12. VDD is 1 V and the n-channel MOSFET has the following
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dimensions: W = 2.5µm, L = 30µm. The MOSFET should operate at a gate
source bias of VGS = 1.4V and a drain source bias of VDS = 2.3V.

Figure 2.12: Simple NMOS amplifier.

1. Mark the operating point on your characteristics sheet obtained before!

2. Draw the load line! How large is the load resistance?

3. Create a new cell amplifier in your library My Library. Open the schematic
view for this cell and draw the amplifier circuit of Fig. 12 in the same
manner as in section 4. Use the cell res of analog Lib to model the resistor
R. Simulate the output voltage VOUT as a function of VIN with the help of
the DC sweep analysis. Choose the range 0-3.3 V for VIN. After the
simulation, click on vs in the calculator window and then on the net
representing VOUT in the composer.

(a) Based upon your VOUT = f(VIN) plot, specify the range of VIN in
which the circuit works as an amplifier!
(b) Is this range also visible on your sheet with the load line? Mark the
range on this sheet!
(c) Determine the gain dV OUT in a couple of operating points
dV IN with help of VOUT = f(VIN) plot!

4. As you may see, the gain is fairly small.

(a) How must the load resistance or the load line be changed in order to
achieve a higher gain?
(b) Is it reasonable to replace the load R with an ideal current source?
Draw the load line of ani deal current source in a qualitative manner!

Now quit the Analog Environment with Session. Quit and close all windows
except the Command Interpreter Window and the Library Manager.
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 3.6.1 The DC Analysis

In the DC analysis of implementing a low noise biopotential amplifier for

Electrooculograms (EOGs), several parameters are considered:

DC Offset Rejection: Evaluating the amplifier's ability to reject DC offsets is crucial since
any offset in the signal can affect the accurate measurement of EOGs. Ensuring that the
amplifier has low offset voltage and high common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is
essential.

Input Impedance: High input impedance is necessary to minimize loading effects on the
EOG signal and reduce the disturbance caused by the electrode impedance. This helps in
capturing weak EOG signals without altering them significantly.

Noise Performance: Assessing the amplifier's noise characteristics is critical. Low-

frequency noise, often present in EOG signals, should be minimized to avoid masking the
small electrical potentials generated by eye movements. Amplifiers with low voltage noise
and low 1/f noise are preferred for EOG applications.

Gain and Bandwidth: Determining the appropriate gain and bandwidth of the amplifier is
essential to accurately capture and amplify the EOG signals without introducing distortion
or amplifying noise excessively.

Power Consumption: Considering the power consumption of the amplifier is crucial,

especially in portable or wearable EOG systems. Low-power consumption amplifiers are
advantageous for longer battery life and reduced heat generation.

Stability and Linearity: Ensuring the amplifier's stability and linearity are maintained across
the desired range of operation is important for accurate and reliable EOG signal
amplification and analysis.

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During DC analysis, designers evaluate these parameters to optimize the amplifier's
performance for accurately capturing and processing the low-level EOG signals while
minimizing noise, offset, and distortion.

3.6.2 The AC Analysis

In this section, you are going to simulate the amplitude and phase response of a
RC network.
Create a new schematic cell view named RC net in your library My Library
and draw the circuit shown in Fig. 13 using the components vdc, cap, res and
gnd of the analogLib library.

Figure 2.13: Circuit of RC network

Figure 3.14: RC network.

Select the voltage source and press q (or use the Property Editor subwindow).
Set AC Magnitude to 1 V. Save the design and start the Analog Environment.
Click Analyses.Chooseand select ac. For Sweep Range choose 1K for the
start frequency and 1G for the stop frequency. Pick Logarithmic as Sweep
Type and set the number of points per decade to 100. Proceed with OK and
start the simulation.
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 In order to plot the amplitude response of the circuit, press the vf button in the calculator
and select the VOUT net in the composer. Now click onto dB20 (is found in the
Modifier functions set) and then Tools. Plot. Repeat the procedure for the phase
response but use phase instead of db20 this time.

3.6.3 The Transient Analysis

Figure 3.15: Transient response

Power analysis in the implementation of a low noise biopotential amplifier for Electrooculograms
(EOGs) involves assessing and optimizing the power consumption of the amplifier circuitry. Several
aspects are considered during power analysis:

Low Power Design: Emphasis is placed on selecting components, such as low-power operational
amplifiers (op-amps), transistors, and other circuitry, to minimize overall power consumption. This is
especially crucial for portable or wearable EOG systems where battery life is important.

Efficiency Optimization: Designing the amplifier circuitry with efficiency in mind involves using
techniques like power supply voltage regulation, minimizing unnecessary current consumption in
various stages of the amplifier, and utilizing low-power components wherever possible.

Trade-off with Performance: Balancing power consumption with the desired performance of the
amplifier is crucial. Achieving low power might sometimes involve compromises in gain, bandwidth,
or other specifications, so designers aim to optimize power without significantly sacrificing
performance.

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 Power Supply Configuration: Evaluating the power supply configuration and its impact on the
amplifier's power consumption is important. Utilizing efficient voltage regulation methods and
choosing appropriate power supply voltages can contribute to reducing overall power usage.

Standby or Sleep Modes: Implementing standby or sleep modes when the amplifier is not actively
processing EOG signals can significantly reduce power consumption, especially in battery-operated
devices, without compromising functionality.

Heat Dissipation: Managing heat dissipation is crucial, especially in compact or wearable devices.
Minimizing power consumption not only prolongs battery life but also reduces heat generation,
enhancing user comfort and device reliability.

Power analysis in the implementation of low noise biopotential amplifiers for EOGs involves a careful
balance between achieving the necessary signal amplification, maintaining performance parameters,
and minimizing power consumption to ensure efficient operation, longer battery life, and optimal
functionality of the system.

Now we would like to simulate the step response for the RLC network.
Replace the voltage source V0 with the cell vsin from the library analogLib
and set the following values:

Voltage1 :50NV
Voltage2 :2V
Pulse Width: 5us
Save the design and click Analyses.Choose in the Analog Environment. Now pick the
tran analysis and enter 9u for Stop Time. Make sure that Enabled in the lower left
corner of the window is ticked and proceed with OK. Delete the contents of the
Waveform Window and start the simulation. Now plot the input voltage by pressing vt
in the calculator and clicking on the net VIN in the composer. Press Tools. Plot
afterwards. Use the same procedure to plot the output voltage VOUT. Measure the
peak of over- and undershoot with help of point markers Now conduct the
same analysis with the m initial conditions VC(t=0) = −5V and
IL(t=0) = 400mA. For . this, select the capacitor and press q (or use the Property
Editor subwindow). You may now specify the initial voltage in the field Initial
condition. The same procedure applies to the inductor. Save the design and start
the simulation. Use the command File. Reload. Current Subwindow + r of the Ctrl
Waveform Window to refresh the input and output voltage plots.
Again, measure the peak of over- and undershoot.
This completes the introduction to Cadence. You may now close the Analog
Environment and quit Cadence with the command File. Exit of the Command
Interpreter Window.
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 3.6.4. Gain Analysis

In the context of implementing a low noise biopotential amplifier for

Electrooculograms (EOGs), gain analysis involves optimizing the amplification factor
to ensure adequate signal amplification while minimizing noise and distortion. Here
are key aspects related to gain analysis:

Optimal Gain Setting: Determining the appropriate gain setting is crucial to amplify
the weak EOG signals without amplifying accompanying noise excessively. It involves
finding a balance between amplification and maintaining a favorable signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR).

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): Analyzing the trade-off between signal amplification

and noise is critical. Increasing gain amplifies both the signal of interest and any
accompanying noise. The goal is to maximize the signal's strength relative to the noise
level.

Saturation and Dynamic Range: Ensuring that the chosen gain setting does not cause
signal saturation or clipping is important. A suitable gain setting should allow for the
amplification of EOG signals within the amplifier's dynamic range without distortion.

Filtering Considerations: It's essential to consider the impact of filtering (such as high-
pass or low-pass filters) in conjunction with gain settings. Proper filtering can help
eliminate unwanted frequencies while preserving the EOG signals, influencing the
overall gain required.

Amplifier Linearity: Assessing the amplifier's linearity across the chosen gain range is
crucial. Linearity ensures that the amplified output faithfully represents the input
signal without introducing non-linear distortions.

Calibration and Verification: Once a gain setting is determined, calibration and

verification processes should be implemented to validate the amplifier's performance
at that gain level under different conditions, ensuring accuracy and reliability.

The gain analysis process involves finding the optimal amplification level that
effectively magnifies EOG signals while minimizing noise, maintaining linearity, and
preventing signal distortion, ultimately leading to accurate and reliable measurement
of eye movement-related electrical potentials.
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 CHAPTER 4

4. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
4.1. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF TWO STAGE DIFFERENTIAL OPERSTIONAL
AMPLIFIER

Figure4.1: Two-stage differential opamp

A two-stage operational amplifier (op-amp) circuit consists of two

amplification stages, often designed to achieve higher performance compared to a
single-stage op-amp. The first stage is typically a differential amplifier, which
provides high input impedance and common-mode rejection. This stage amplifies
the voltage difference between the two input terminals.

The second stage is usually a voltage amplifier that takes the output of the
first stage and further amplifies it to obtain the desired overall voltage gain. This
stage contributes to achieving a high overall gain for the op-amp circuit. The
combination of these two stages allows for improved performance characteristics
such as higher bandwidth, increased gain, and better signal-to-noise ratio.

Additionally, the two-stage op-amp design allows for more flexibility in

tailoring the circuit to specific requirements, enabling designers to optimize
parameters like bandwidth, speed, and power consumption. This architecture is
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commonly used in operational amplifiers to meet the diverse needs of various
applications, ranging from audio amplification to signal processing in electronic
circuits.

4.2 Description of circuit components

MOSFET is a three-terminal, voltage controlled, high input impedance, and

unipolar device which are essential components in different electronic
circuits. Generally, these devices are classified into two types enhancement
MOSFET & depletion MOSFET based on whether they have channels in their
default condition or not correspondingly. Again, enhancement MOSFETs are
classified into p channel enhancement and n channel enhancement &
depletion MOSFETs are classified into p channel depletion and n channel
depletion MOSFETs. So this article discusses one of the types of MOSFETs
like P channel MOSFET.

4.2.1 P-channel MOSFET(PMOS)

A type of MOSFET in which the channel is composed with a majority of charge

carriers as holes is known as p channel MOSFET. Once this MOSFET is activated,
then the majority of charge carriers like holes will move throughout the channel.
This MOSFET is in contrast to N channel MOSFET because in N MOSFET the
majority of charge carriers are electrons. The P Channel MOSFET symbols in
enhancement mode and depletion mode are shown below.

Figure 4.2: P Channel Mosfet Symbols

The P- channel MOSFET includes a P- Channel region that is arranged in between

the two terminals like source (S) and drain (D) & the body is n- region. Similar to
N channel MOSFET, this type of MOSFET also includes three terminals like
source, drain, and gate. Here, both the source & drain terminals are doped heavily
with p type materials and the type of substrate used in this MOSFET is n-type.

Types of P Channel MOSFET

There are two types of p channel MOSFETs available P channel enhancement

MOSFET & P channel depletion MOSFET.

P -channel Enhancement MOSFET

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 The p channel enhancement MOSFET is simply designed with a lightly doped n-
substrate. Here, two p-type materials with heavily doped are separated through the
channel length like ‘L’. The thin silicon dioxide layer is deposited on the substrate
which is normally called the dielectric layer. In this MOSFET, the two P-type
materials form the source (S) & the drain (D) and the aluminum is used as the plating
on the dielectric to form the gate (G) terminal. Here, the MOSFET’s source and the
body are simply connected to the GND.

The P Channel MOSFET characteristics are discussed below.

• These MOSFETs are voltage-controlled devices.
• These devices have high input impedance values.
• In P-channel, the conductivity of the channel is due to the negative polarity at
the gate terminal.
As compared to the n channel, the p channel Mosfet characteristics are similar
but the only difference is the polarities because the values of substrates are not
the same here.

The advantages of P Channel MOSFET include the following.

• This MOSFET design is very simple so it is applicable where space is restricted
like low-voltage drives & non-isolated POLs applications.
• This is the simplified gate driving method within the high side switch place &
frequently reduces the overall cost
• The efficiency provided by the MOSFETs is higher when operating at low
voltages.
• As compared to JFETs, MOSFETs have high input impedance.
• They have high drain resistance because of less channel resistance.
• These are very simple to manufacture.
• It supports high-speed operation as compared to JFETs.

4.2.2 N-channel MOSFET (NMOS)

A type of MOSFET in which the MOSFET channel is composed of a majority

of charge carriers as current carriers like electrons is known as N channel
MOSFET. Once this MOSFET is ON, then the majority of charge carriers
will move throughout the channel. This MOSFET is a contrast to P-Channel
MOSFET.
This MOSFET includes N- the channel region which is located in the middle
of the source & drain terminals. It is a three-terminal device where the
terminals as G (gate), D(drain), and S (source). In this Transistor, the source
& drain is heavily doped n+ region & the body or substrate is of P-type.

N Channel MOSFET Symbol

The N channel MOSFET symbol is shown below. This MOSFET includes three
terminals like source, drain and gate. For the n-channel mosfet, the arrow symbol
direction is inward. So, the arrow symbol specifies the channel type like P-channel
or N-channel.

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 Figure4.3: N Channel MOSFET Symbol

Types of N Channel MOSFET

The N channel MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device that is classified into two

types enhancement type and depletion type.

Characteristics:

N channel MOSFET has two characteristics like drain characteristics and transfer
characteristics.

Drain Characteristics

The drain characteristics of the N-channel mosfet include the following.

Figure4.4: Drain characteristics

The drain characteristics of the n channel mosfet are plotted in between the output
current & the VDS which is known as Drain to source voltage VDS.

so, we can find the input impedance:

The Miller effect is not confined to discrete circuits – it will appear any time a
resistor, capacitor or inductor is connected across an amplifier – which, given
33
the ubiquity of parasitics, means nearly all the time. You need to be aware of
this important effect and decide if it is going to be important for your circuit.

Figure 4.5: Miller capacitor for an OPAMP

4.3 LOAD CAPACITOR

The load capacitor in an amplifier circuit for electrooculography (EOG)

signals plays a crucial role in optimizing signal integrity and ensuring
accurate signal amplification. EOG signals, which represent the electrical
potentials generated by eye movements, are typically low-amplitude and
susceptible to noise. The load capacitor contributes to the overall performance
of the amplifier in several key ways.

Figure 4.6: Load capacitance

Firstly, the load capacitor helps in shaping the frequency response of the
amplifier. EOG signals often contain information within a specific frequency
range. The load capacitor can be chosen to provide a desired high-pass or
low- pass filtering effect, allowing the amplifier to focus on the relevant
frequency components of the EOG signals while attenuating noise and
unwanted frequencies. This filtering capability is essential for extracting
meaningful information from the raw EOG signals.

Secondly, the load capacitor influences the input impedance of the amplifier.
Proper matching of the input impedance with the source impedance of the
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EOG electrodes is crucial for maximizing signal transfer and minimizing
signal distortion. The load capacitor, in conjunction with other circuit
elements, helps in achieving an optimal input impedance, ensuring that the
amplifier efficiently captures the weak EOG signals without introducing
additional noise or distortion.

Moreover, the load capacitor contributes to stabilizing the amplifier by

providing a reactive component that can help compensate for phase shifts
introduced by other components in the circuit. This phase compensation is
vital for maintaining the fidelity of the EOG signals throughout the
amplification process.

Additionally, the load capacitor affects the overall gain of the amplifier. By
carefully selecting the capacitance value, designers can control the gain of the
amplifier within the desired range. This flexibility is crucial for adapting the
amplifier to different EOG signal amplitudes and ensuring that the signals are
amplified to levels suitable for further processing or analysis.

Furthermore, the load capacitor aids in reducing the impact of common-mode

noise. EOG signals are often accompanied by common-mode interference,
such as power line noise. The load capacitor, in combination with appropriate
filtering techniques, helps in rejecting common-mode noise, enhancing the
signal-to-noise ratio of the amplifier.

In summary, the load capacitor in an amplifier for EOG signals is

indispensable for shaping the frequency response, optimizing input
impedance, stabilizing the circuit, controlling gain, and mitigating common-
mode noise. Its proper selection and integration are paramount for designing
an amplifier that accurately amplifies EOG signals while minimizing
unwanted artifacts, contributing to the precision and reliability of eye
movement measurements in various applications, including medical
diagnostics and human- computer interaction.

4.4 Operational amplifier

35
 Figure 4.7: Operational Amplifier

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) play a crucial role in biomedical

applications, providing the necessary signal conditioning, amplification, and
filtering functions for various physiological measurements. Here are key roles
of operational amplifiers in biomedical contexts:

1. Signal Amplification:
Operational amplifiers are fundamental for amplifying weak bioelectric
signals. Physiological signals, such as electrocardiograms (ECGs),
electroencephalograms (EEGs), and electromyograms (EMGs), are often
characterized by low amplitudes. Op-amps amplify these signals to levels
suitable for further processing and analysis, ensuring that subtle variations in
the signals can be accurately detected.

2. Differential Amplification:
Biomedical signals are frequently differential in nature, meaning they
represent the voltage difference between two points. Op-amps configured
differentially enhance the signal of interest while rejecting common-mode
noise, improving the signal-to-noise ratio and providing a more accurate
representation of physiological activity.

3. Filtering:
Operational amplifiers are employed in filter circuits to eliminate unwanted frequency
components from bioelectric signals. Filtering is crucial for isolating specific frequency
bands relevant to the physiological phenomenon under investigation, such as heart rate in
ECG signals or certain frequency components in EEG signals.

4. Instrumentation Amplifiers:
Specialized operational amplifier configurations, such as instrumentation
amplifiers, are designed for high-precision amplification of small differential
signals. These amplifiers offer high input impedance, low output impedance,

36
 and excellent common-mode rejection, making them ideal for biomedical
applications where signal accuracy is paramount.

5. Summing Amplifiers:
Op-amps configured as summing amplifiers are utilized in applications
where multiple bioelectric signals need to be combined or averaged. This is
common in situations where information from different sensors or electrode
sites is aggregated to provide a comprehensive view of physiological activity.

6. Active Electrodes:
Op-amps are often incorporated into active electrode designs. Active
electrodes use integrated amplifiers to boost the signal directly at the electrode
site, minimizing signal degradation due to long electrode leads. This is
particularly important in applications like EEG where maintaining signal
integrity is crucial.
7. Feedback Control Systems:
Operational amplifiers are used in feedback control systems within
biomedical devices. These systems maintain stability and regulate parameters,
such as the amplitude or frequency of a signal, contributing to the accuracy
and reliability of measurements in various medical instruments.

8. Signal Conditioning:
Op-amps are employed for conditioning raw signals before further
processing. This may involve adjusting signal levels, compensating for
baseline drift, or shaping the waveform to facilitate subsequent analysis.
Signal conditioning ensures that the signals are in a suitable form for accurate
interpretation.

9. Low-Noise Applications:
In sensitive biomedical measurements, where low noise is critical,
operational amplifiers with low input noise characteristics are employed.
These op-amps help maintain signal integrity by minimizing additional noise
introduced during the amplification process.

4.5. DIIFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

37
 Figure 4.8: Block diagram differential Amplifier

Here's how a two-stage differential amplifier fulfills this role:

1. Signal Amplification:
EOG signals are inherently weak, and a two-stage differential amplifier is
designed to provide substantial signal amplification. The dual-stage
configuration allows for increased overall gain, ensuring that the small
voltage differentials associated with eye movements are effectively boosted to
levels suitable for further processing.

2. Common-Mode Rejection:
The differential nature of a two-stage amplifier facilitates excellent
common- mode rejection, which is crucial for EOG signal processing.
Common-mode signals, such as noise or artifacts not related to eye
movements, are often present in the recording environment. The two-stage
design minimizes the impact of these unwanted signals, enhancing the signal-
to-noise ratio and improving the overall quality of EOG recordings.

3. Frequency Response Optimization:

EOG signals exhibit specific frequency characteristics related to eye
movement patterns. The two-stage differential amplifier can be tailored to
optimize the frequency response, allowing for selective amplification of the
relevant frequency components while attenuating noise and irrelevant signal
frequencies. This customization is essential cting accurate information about
the nature and timing of eye movements.

4. High Input Impedance:

The amplifier's high input impedance is essential in EOG applications
where electrodes are attached to the skin. High input impedance minimizes
the loading effect on the signal source, ensuring that the recorded signals

38
accurately represent the electrical potentials generated by eye movements
without significant distortion.

5. Linear Operation:
The two-stage differential amplifier operates linearly within its designed
range. Linearity is critical in EOG signal processing, as it preserves the
Proportional relationship between eye movements and the recorded electrical
signals. Non-linear distortions could lead to misinterpretation of eye
movement data.

6. Stability and Precision:

The two-stage configuration enhances stability and precision in signal
amplification. This is crucial for long-term monitoring and analysis of EOG
signals, where maintaining the integrity of the recorded data over time is
essential for accurate interpretation and diagnosis.

The two-stage differential amplifier serves as a key component in EOG signal

processing systems, addressing the challenges associated with weak signals,
common-mode interference, and specific frequency characteristics. Its design
features contribute to the reliability and accuracy of EOG recordings, making
it an integral part of biomedical instrumentation for studying eye movements
in various applications, including clinical diagnostics and human-computer
interaction research.

In conclusion, the history of the differential operational amplifier in

biomedical applications reflects a trajectory of technological advancements
driven by the need for precision in bioelectric signal amplification. From its
early conceptualization to modern integrated circuit implementations, the
differential op-amp has played a vital role in advancing the capabilities of
biomedical instrumentation. Its importance lies in its ability to accurately
amplify subtle physiological signals while rejecting common-mode
interference, contributing significantly to the diagnosis and monitoring of
various medical conditions.

CHAPTER 5

5. METHODOLOGY
5.1 Introduction
This project aims to design a low noise biopotential amplifier. LNAs play a crucial
role in enhancing the EOG signal quality, enabling its effective utilization in
several biomedical applications. The EOG signal represents the electrical activity
generated by the movement of the eye.The circuit which a two-stage OPAMP is
the core component of the circuit. For every circuit in the current technology,
enhancement of power efficiency, area, reduced noise are the critical
specifications. Capturing bio-signals is pivotal, given their minute amplitude
39
 (typically within a few millivolts) and low frequency (ranging from 0.1 Hz to 10
kHz). Crafting medical electronics for health monitoring involves employing
amplifier. Yet, achieving accurate bio-signal measurement demands a high CMRR
and precision amplification to mitigate input noise and enhance signal strength.
The target performance parameters are power, gain, noise margin, CMRR, SQNR
and so on. For this, our design of biopotential amplifier is implemented in 90nm
technology is proposed. LNAs facilitate the acquisition of high-quality EOG
signals, enabling advancements in ophthalmology, sleep research, brain-computer
interfaces, and human-computer interaction. Despite ongoing challenges, future
research and technological developments are expected to unlock further potential
in utilizing EOG signals for biomedical applications.

5.2 Circuit diagram &Description

Figure5.1: Two stage Low noise biopotential amplifier

The architecture of an OPAMP may be discerned by the block diagram shown in Fig, from where the
following point can be observable:
1. The first stage of the OPAMP consists of a differential amplifier.
2. The second stage is comprised of gain stage such as common source stage with compensation capacitor
Cc which plays a vital role for the closed-loop stability.
3. Finally, there is an output buffer stage. It should be noted that if the load of an OPAMP is a capacitive
load, the output buffer stage is neglected.

Two MOSFETs M1 and M2 are in saturation region and are assigned to receive differential inputs. The
M3 and M4 also operate in saturation region and work as a current mirror. The bias voltage is applied to
the gate of M5 MOSFET, which provides the tail current. A basic op-amp may become unstable at higher
frequency. This issue can be resolved by applying different compensation techniques with the aid of
capacitors. and sometimes both resistors and capacitors between different stages of the op-amp . There are
many compensation topologies, such as miller capacitor compensation, self-compensating and so on .

40
 A. Differential Input Stage
This stage consists of four MOSFETs M1, M2, M3 and M4. The gates of MOSFETs M1 and M2 are
inverting and noninverting terminals respectively. According to the gain of the first stage (differential
stage) the differential input signal will be amplified. The gain of the stage depends on the
transconductance of M2 times the total output resistance measured at the drain of M2. Because of three
distinct advantages the current mirror (CM) load has been applied here. First of all, output resistance of
CM load is high. Secondly, the process of differential input to single-ended output conversion can be
performed by using CM topology and finally, it also helps to improve CMRR. The CM load consists of
M3 and M4.
B. Second Stage (Output)
The actual goal of this stage is not only to improve additional gain but also output voltage swing of the
amplifier. The second stage, a common-source (CS) configuration, which consists of transistor M6 and
M7, receives the output from the drain node of M2. The output of the first stage is amplified by M6 and
M7. Again, similar to the first stage an active transistor M7 behaves like a load for M6 transistor. The gain
of this stage can be calculated as the Gm (transconductance) of M6 multiplied by the output resistances of
M6 and M7 MOSFETs

CHAPTER 6
6. SIMULATION RESULTS
6.1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AMPLIFIER

6.2 Graphs
6.2.1. Differential mode signals

6.2.1.1 Differential mode gain

41
6.2.1.2 Differential mode power

6.2.1.3 Noise

42
 6.2.1.4 Transcient Respons3(Output voltage)

6.2.1.5 AC response

6.2.1.6 DC response

43
6.2.2 Common mode schematic

6.2.2.1 Common mode Gain

6.2.2.2 Power

44
 6.2.2.3. Noise

6.2.2.4 phase

Table (i) Desired Specification

45
 Specification Values

Frequency 10Hz

Noise < 17.071av

Gain > 60 dB

Load / Source 50Ω

Impedence
Power consumption < 3uW

6.3 SIMULATION READING OUTPUTS

Table (ii) Comparison of our amplifier work with other works in same Technology

Parameters [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] This

work
Technology (nm) 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
No. of Stages 2 1 1 1 1 1 2
Frequency (GHz) 0- <200hz 0.5-30hz 868mhz <10khz 40.2 10Hz
150hz
CMMR <110 >65 >70 100 >108 >70 68.6
Noise 56.9 1.145 3.19uv -12 -17.071
798.187nv
Power 3.7uv 18.8 4.5 1.8v 1.8v 0.32 2.98uw
Output voltage <80mv 1.8 2 1.2 78.84 1.21
Gain 2500 12dB 39.75 33 40 40 71.14dB

6.4. Basic Formulas

CHAPTER 7
7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
7.1 Advantages
All the simulations have been done using Cadence in 90nm CMOS process. The
gain, slew rate, gain-bandwidth etc. are controlled by trading off different circuit
parameters such as tail current, (W/L), gm, compensation capacitor etc. Before
tuning with circuit parameters, the aspect-ratios of the MOSFETs have been
calculated carefully using formula. In conclusion, the circuit shows a gain of 73.3
dB with bandwidth of 3.3GHz, while consuming on 0.21mW power. However, the
other performance parameters are also satisfactory. But, depending on specific
46
application user may need to trade off again among circuit parameters. In
summary, low-noise EOG amplifiers play a crucial role in enhancing the accuracy
of eye movement detection. Engineers must carefully consider the trade-offs
between noise, power consumption, and bandwidth when designing such
amplifiers for practical applications.

Low Input Noise: The primary benefit of a low-noise EOG amplifier is its ability
to capture weak electrical signals from the eye with minimal interference. This is
crucial for accurate eye movement detection.

Tunable Gain and Bandwidth: offers tunable gain and bandwidth. This
flexibility allows customization based on specific EOG signal characteristics.

Low Power Consumption: The circuit consumes only 1 μA, making it suitable
for wearable and implantable devices that require prolonged operation without
frequent battery replacements.

Compact Size: The amplifier occupies a small area (0.624 mm²) due to its design
using advanced CMOS technology.
High Signal Quality: Biopotential amplifiers are designed to provide high signal
fidelity, reducing noise and interference, which is crucial for accurately capturing
subtle EOG signals associated with eye movements.

Adjustable Gain: These amplifiers typically have adjustable gain settings,

allowing users to tailor the amplification to the specific characteristics of EOG
signals, optimizing the signal-to-noise ratio.

Wide Frequency Response: Biopotential amplifiers often have a wide frequency

response range, ensuring that both low and high-frequency components of EOG
signals are faithfully reproduced without distortion.

Common-Mode Rejection: They incorporate common-mode rejection features,

mitigating artifacts and interference caused by environmental factors or
physiological signals unrelated to eye movements.

Low Input Impedance: Biopotential amplifiers usually have low input

impedance, minimizing the loading effect on the electrodes and enhancing signal
acquisition from the relatively high-impedance EOG electrodes.

Filtering Capabilities: These amplifiers often include adjustable filters to

eliminate unwanted noise and artifacts, enabling precise extraction of EOG
signals.
47
 Portable Design: Many biopotential amplifiers are designed to be portable,
facilitating convenient use in various settings and applications, such as monitoring
eye movements in clinical or research environments.

Integration with Signal Processing: They can be seamlessly integrated with

signal processing techniques for further enhancement, such as filtering, averaging,
or feature extraction, to extract meaningful information from EOG signals.

In summary, biopotential amplifiers play a crucial role in optimizing the

acquisition and analysis of EOG signals by providing high-quality, customizable
amplification while minimizing interference and noise.

7.2 Disadvantages

Biopotential amplifiers used for electrooculography (EOG) signals have some disadvantages:

Artifact Sensitivity: EOG signals are often weak and can be easily affected by artifacts, such as eye
blinks and muscle movements, which can introduce noise into the signal. Biopotential amplifiers may
be sensitive to these artifacts, leading to inaccurate recordings.

Electrode Placement Challenges: Precise electrode placement is crucial for obtaining reliable EOG
signals. Incorrect placement can result in distorted or ambiguous signals. Achieving and maintaining
proper electrode contact can be challenging, especially during prolonged monitoring.

Limited Spatial Resolution:EOG signals are generated by eye movements, and biopotential
amplifiers may have limited spatial resolution in capturing fine details of eye movement patterns. This
limitation can affect the accuracy of tracking specific eye movements.

Cross-Talk with Other Signals: Biopotential amplifiers may pick up signals from nearby muscles or
other bio potentials, leading to cross-talk. This interference can make it difficult to isolate and analyze
pure EOG signals.

Skin Impedance Variability: Skin impedance can vary between individuals and even over time for
the same individual. Changes in skin impedance can affect the quality of the recorded EOG signals,
and biopotential amplifiers may not always compensate adequately for these variations.

Cost and Complexity: High-quality biopotential amplifiers designed for EOG recordings can be
expensive. Additionally, the setup and calibration processes may require technical expertise, making
the use of these amplifiers less accessible for some applications.

Power Consumption: Some biopotential amplifiers may have higher power consumption, especially if
they are part of a portable or wearable system. This can impact the device's battery life and portability.
48
Complex Design: Achieving low noise while maintaining tunability requires
intricate circuitry. Designing and optimizing such amplifiers can be challenging.

Trade-off Between Noise and Power: As mentioned earlier, reducing noise often
comes at the cost of increased power consumption. Engineers must strike a
balance between achieving low noise and keeping power requirements
manageable.

Limited Bandwidth: While the amplifier offers tunable bandwidth, there’s still
a practical limit to the achievable bandwidth. Some EOG signals may fall
outside the selected bandwidth range.

Despite these disadvantages, biopotential amplifiers are widely used for EOG due to their ability to
capture electrical signals related to eye movements, making them valuable in various applications such
as sleep studies, human-computer interaction, and medical diagnostics.

CHARTER 8
FUTURE SCOPE
The future scope of designing and implementing a low-noise biopotential
amplifier for electrooculogram (EOG) signals holds significant promise in
the field of wearable and implantable medical devices. Here are some potential
directions for further research and development:
1. Miniaturization and Integration:

o Explore techniques to reduce the size of the amplifier circuitry

while maintaining performance. Integration with other components
(such as electrodes, analog-to-digital converters, and wireless
transceivers) can lead to compact and efficient wearable devices.
49
 o Investigate chip-scale packaging and flexible substrates for
seamless .integration into clothing or accessories.

2. Energy Efficiency:

o Develop power-efficient designs to prolong battery life in wearable

devices. Techniques like sub-threshold operation, duty cycling, and
energy harvesting can be explored. o Investigate energy-
efficient biasing schemes and adaptive power management.

3. Noise Reduction:

o Continue research on noise reduction methods to enhance the

signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Techniques such as chopper
stabilization, correlated double sampling, and noise-cancelling
architectures can be employed.
o Explore advanced noise modelling and simulation tools to
optimize amplifier performance.

4. Adaptive Gain Control:

o Implement adaptive gain control mechanisms that adjust the

amplifier gain dynamically based on the input signal amplitude.
This can prevent signal saturation and improve accuracy.
o Investigate machine learning-based approaches for real-time gain
adjustment.

5. Wireless Communication:

o Integrate wireless communication capabilities into the amplifier

circuitry. This enables real-time data transmission to external
devices or cloud servers. Explore secure communication protocols
and low-power wireless standards (such as Bluetooth Low Energy)
for seamless connectivity.

6. Biopotential Signal Fusion:

o Combine EOG signals with other biopotential signals (such as

electroencephalogram, electromyogram, or electrocardiogram) for
comprehensive health monitoring. o Develop algorithms for
multi-modal signal fusion and feature extraction.

7. User-Friendly Interfaces:

o Design intuitive user interfaces for patients and healthcare

professionals. Visualizations, alerts, and personalized feedback can
enhance usability. o Investigate haptic feedback or auditory cues
for real-time interaction.
50
 8. Clinical Validation and Trials:

o Collaborate with medical practitioners and researchers to validate

the amplifier’s performance in real-world scenarios. o Conduct
clinical trials to assess accuracy, reliability, and patient comfort.

CHAPTER 9
9.1 CONCLUSION AND REFERENCES

9.1.1 CONCLUSION
Wearable and implantable devices for continuous monitoring of biopotential
signals are crucial for improving people’s everyday life, Low power bio potential
amplifiers play crucial role for monitoring all biomedical signals in biomedical
applications. In summary, the development of low-noise amplifiers tailored for
specific biopotential signals contributes to the advancement of wearable health
monitoring systems, benefiting both patients and researchers alike. The EOG
signal has primarily served as the last alternative for biomedical applications till
date, owing to the problems discussed earlier. need for using EOG in biomedical
applications became acute, especially in the design of medical instruments for
paralyzed people.

The development of the EOG Low Noise Amplifier also helped us in working on
some previously unexplored applications in medical instrumentation such as
reliable hospital alarm systems. The significant achievement of this bio amplifier
is its versatility, for it can used to work on pragmatic biomedical applications of
EOG signal processing as well as aid in theoretical analysis experiments.

All the simulations have been done using Cadence in 90nm CMOS process. The
gain, slew rate, gain-bandwidth etc. are controlled by trading off different circuit
parameters such as tail current, (W/L), gm, compensation capacitor etc. Before
tuning with circuit parameters, the aspect-ratios of the MOSFETs have been
calculated carefully using formula. In conclusion, the circuit shows a gain of 71.2
dB with bandwidth of 3.3GHz, while consuming on 2.98mW power. However, the
other performance parameters are also satisfactory. But, depending on specific
application user may need to trade off again among circuit parameters.

9.1.2 REFERECES
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