Material Cycles and Change

- The statement that "Everything must go somewhere" means that all materials in the
ecosystem are continually recycled and used over and over. no matter what you do,
and no matter what you use, it must go somewhere.
- An essential requirement for all living organisms to carry out their life functions is
nutrients. Essential nutrients categorized as macronutrients are required in fairly large
quantities such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. While
micronutrients such as iron, zinc, copper, and iodine are utilized in small amounts. All
these nutrients constitute matter in their simplest form or complex in a compound that
is not lost but merely moves through different places in nature while at the same time
transforming into another form in every movement it takes. The movement occurs
continuously from the nonliving environment to the living organisms, and back to the
nonliving environment. This cyclic movement of minerals from their reservoirs either in
the air, water, and soil, to the living components, and back to the reservoirs is called
nutrient cycling or biogeochemical cycles.
- The reservoir represents the natural capital or nutrient pool from which the elements
accumulated in large quantities during its long history on Earth. The continuous cycling
of nutrients from the natural capital or nutrient pool in the abiotic component of
environment to the living beings and then back to the nutrient pool together with other
interrelated biochemical reactions are what fuel life on earth. These reactions utilize the
energy from the sun to take gases from the air and nutrients from the soil, and the
resulting energy and chemical compounds move through all plants and animals on the
earth. We will look at the flow of three kinds of atoms within communities and between
the biotic and abiotic portions of the ecosystem: nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

1.1 Nitrogen Cycle

 Nitrogen is one of the basic elements that compose proteins and nucleic acids
such as DNA. Proteins are the major structural components of all living things.
Growth of plants will be limited if there is not enough nitrogen in the soil.
About 78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas (N2). However, in this state,
nitrogen cannot be used by organisms. Before nitrogen can be made available
 to plants and animals, it must be fixed by nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the
nodules of legumes such as soybean, mungo and peas which convert nitrogen
(N2) to ammonia (N3) of ammonium (NH4+) by a process called nitrogen
fixation. When these bacteria die, ammonia or ammonium is released and used
by other bacteria as energy source. A small portion of gaseous nitrogen is fixed
in the air by lightning and the fixed nitrogen is brought down to the soil by rain.

 In a process called nitrification, ammonia or ammonium is converted to nitrites

(NO2-) by nitrifying bacteria in the soil. Some of these bacteria convert nitrites
into nitrates (NO3-). When ammonia and nitrates that are released in the soil
are dissolved in wet soil, they are absorbed by roots of plants and become
incorporated into plant proteins. These plant proteins are then eaten by
animals by which animal proteins are formed.
 In ammonification, metabolic wastes such as urea, uric acid and remains of
animals and plants are broken down by decomposers releasing ammonia or
ammonium in the process. These substances will then undergo nitrification
converting them to nitrites then to nitrates. Nitrates not used by plants are
converted by denitrifying bacteria to nitrogen gas which is released to the
atmosphere. Some of the gaseous nitrogen is converted by nitrogen-fixing
bacteria to ammonia and ammonium, thereby repeating the cycle.
1.2 Phosphorus Cycle
 Compounds of phosphorus (P) circulate through water, the Earth’s crust and
living organisms in the phosphorus cycle. Most of these compounds contain
phosphate ions (PO43-), which serve as an important nutrient. In contrast to
the other cycles, the movement of phosphorus does not include the
atmosphere. The major reservoir for phosphorus is phosphate salts containing
PO43- in terrestrial rock formations and ocean bottom sediments. The
phosphorus cycle is slow compared to the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles.
 As water runs over exposed rocks, it slowly erodes away inorganic compounds
that contain phosphate ions. The running water carries these phosphate ions
into the soil where they can be absorbed by the roots of plants and by other
producers. Phosphate compounds are also transferred by food webs from
producers to consumers, eventually including detritus feeders and
decomposers. In both producers and consumers. Phosphates are a component
of biologically important molecules such as nucleic acids and energy transfer
molecules such as ADP and ATP. Phosphate is also a major component of
vertebrate bones and teeth. Phosphate can be lost from the cycle for long
periods of time when it is washed from the land into streams and rivers and is
carried to the sea. There it can be deposited as marine sediment and remain
trapped for millions of years. Someday, geological processes may uplift and
expose these seafloor deposits, from which phosphate can be eroded to start
the cycle again.
 Because most soils contain little phosphate, it becomes a limiting factor for
plant growth on land unless phosphorus as phosphate salt mined from the earth
is applied to the soil as a fertilizer. Phosphorus is also scarce in water thus,
limiting the growth of producer populations in many freshwater bodies because
phosphate salts are only slightly soluble in water and thus do not release many
phosphate ions that producers need as nutrients. Human activities associated
with deforestation affect the phosphorus cycle through the extraction of large
amounts of phosphate from the earth to make fertilizers, thus reducing the
phosphate levels in tropical soils. Topsoil that is eroded from fertilized crop
fields, lawns and golf courses carried large quantities of phosphate ions runoffs
into streams, lakes, and oceans. There they stimulate the growth of producers
such as algae and various aquatic plants. Phosphate-rich runoff from the land
can produce huge populations of algae, which can upset chemical cycling and
other processes in lakes.
1.3 Sulfur Cycle
 In this cycle, sulfur circulates through the biosphere beginning underneath the
earth locked in rocks and minerals and in the form of sulfate (SO42-) salts or
buried deep under ocean sediments. Sulfur also enters the atmosphere from
several natural sources. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) – a colorless, highly poisonous
gas with a rotten egg smell – is released from active volcanoes and from organic
matter broken down by anaerobic decomposers in flooded swamps, bogs, and
tidal flats. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a colorless and suffocating gas, also comes from
volcanoes.

 Particles of sulfate (SO42-) salts, such as ammonium sulfate, enter the

atmosphere from sea spray, dust storms and forest fires. Plant roots absorb
sulfate ions and incorporate sulfur as an essential component of many proteins.
In the oxygen-deficient environments of flooded soils, freshwater wetlands and
tidal flats, specialized bacteria convert sulfate ions to sulfide ions (S2-). The
sulfide ions can then react with metal ions to form insoluble metallic sulfides,
which are deposited as rock or metal ores which are often extracted by mining
and converted to various metals and the cycle continues. Human activities have
affected the sulfur cycle primarily by releasing large amounts of sulfur dioxide
(SO2) in the atmosphere. We release sulfur to the atmosphere in three ways:
First, we burn sulfur-containing coal and oil to produce electric power. Second,
we refine sulfur-containing oil (petroleum) to make gasoline, heating oil, and
other useful products. Third, we extract metals such as copper, lead, and zinc
from sulfur-containing compounds in rocks that are mined for these metals. In
the atmosphere, SO2 is converted to droplets of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and
particles of sulfate (SO32-) salts, which return to the earth as acid deposition,
which in turn can damage ecosystems.
1.4 Ecosystem Changes associated with the Nutrient Cycles
 Anthropogenic impacts of modern technology are now transferring some
chemical elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and carbon through the
air, water, soil, and biosphere at rates that are faster than natural processes. As
our population increases, so does our utilization of resources and rates of
transfer increase as well. This is a fast- emerging problem resulting from rates of
transfer which became significantly large for a particular element that pollution
of the environment eventually became apparent. Our urban society has
garnered much of the use of resources and has contributed to much of the
release of various compounds and chemicals into the biosphere, soil, water, and
atmosphere and thus, constitute the biggest malefactor of environmental
problems. Among the very common environmental problems are the following:
1. Eutrophication and Fish kills - Eutrophication is generally defined as an
increase in suspended nutrients in water bodies such as nitrogen and
phosphorus that promote increase in algal growth, which adversely degrade
water quality. For example, increased phytoplankton biomass can increase
turbidity, reduce light penetration, and decrease levels of oxygen, all of
which ultimately have negative consequences for organisms that live in the
lake. Not only are the effects of eutrophication detrimental to lake biota,
but they also pose a risk to human health in the form of harmful algal
blooms. Generally, the process of eutrophication is natural for water bodies.
As time passes, a buildup of nutrients, sediment, and plant material slowly
fills the lake basin and eventually, the process ends when the basin becomes
colonized by terrestrial vegetation. But due to human activities, nutrient
inputs have greatly increased the pace at which eutrophication can occur.
Human-induced eutrophication, also called cultural eutrophication, is
attributed to increased phosphorus inputs from sources such as agricultural
fertilizers or partially treated sewage. A negative impact of eutrophication
and increased algal growth is a loss of available oxygen, known as anoxia.
These anoxic conditions lead to fish kills and death of other aquatic
organisms such as amphibians. While it is true that algae produce oxygen,
but only when there is enough light. Eutrophication reduces the clarity of
water and underwater light. When waterbodies become eutrophic, algae
are starved of light. Competition ensues causing a large population of algae
to die, thereupon decomposers acting on the dead algae depletes oxygen
levels in the water further. As a result, eutrophication sets in, leading to an
anoxic and lethal environment for aquatic organisms.
2. Red Tides - “Red tide” is the common name for what is scientifically
described as “algae blooms.” Harmful algae blooms (HAB) are the sudden
proliferation of one or more species of microscopic plants either algae or
phytoplankton, which live in the ocean and produce neurotoxins that can
cause negative and sometimes fatal effects in fish, birds, marine mammals,
and even humans. There are approximately 85 species of aquatic plants that
can cause harmful algae blooms. In high concentrations, some HAB species
cause the characteristic reddish color of the water, but other species can
turn the water green, brown, or purple, while others, or do not even
discolor the water at all. Red tides are caused by the rapid multiplication of
dinoflagellates, a type of phytoplankton due to the sudden abundance of
nutrients in seawater which triggered the explosive growth of
dinoflagellates. Coastal water pollution from human sewage, agricultural
runoff, and other sources contributes to red tides, along with rising ocean
temperatures. On the other hand, red tides and harmful algae blooms
sometimes occur where there is no apparent link to human activity.
Although these species of algae or phytoplankton have created serious
health concerns for humans, they remain as essential elements in the
foundation of the food chain, without which, higher life forms, including
humans, would not exist and could not survive.
3. Acid rain - also called acid deposition or acid precipitation with a pH of
about 5.2 or below, is caused by the emission of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx; the combination of NO and NO2) from human
activities. These are mainly the products of fossil fuel combustion. Acid
deposition can reduce the pH of aquatic environments and lower
biodiversity. In terrestrial ecosystems, it weakens trees, depletes soil of
important plant nutrients and buffers, and can release aluminum bound to
soil particles and rock in its toxic dissolved form. Acid rain contributes to the
corrosion of surfaces and is responsible for the deterioration of limestone
and marble buildings and monuments. Acid rain can be significantly reduced
by getting sulfur out of fossil fuels. Aside from being a pollutant itself, sulfur
was discovered to interfere with pollution control technologies and
therefore needs to be removed from the fuel for significant air pollution
reduction strategy to work. Studies have shown show the benefits of sulfur
reduction far outweigh the costs, even though required refinery
investments continue to be significant. In fact, the European Union
developed the Euro-IV, near-zero sulfur fuel which significantly reduced
total fuel costs by increasing fuel economy. The considerable potential for
greenhouse gas emission reductions adds further to the health,
environmental, and social benefits of sulfur reduction.
1.5 Biogeochemical Cycle Sustainability Goal
 If we are to maintain a quality environment on Earth, the biogeochemical cycles
need to operate within the ranges of transfer and storage necessary to sustain
healthy ecosystems. This is one reason why understanding biogeochemical
cycles is very important. For example, when it became apparent that the
release of sulfur into the atmosphere is seriously degrading the quality of the
atmosphere, the European Union strived significantly to control these
emissions. We are still a long way to fully understanding the complexities of the
biogeochemical cycles. Currently, there are very large uncertainties in the
measurement of fluxes of chemical elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
sulfur, and others. Understanding these natural processes intensively will allow
us to better address environmental problems in the future.