Big Picture in Focus: ULOd.

Analyze techniques in vehicular and pedestrian direction and

control in all situations and technical concepts in traffic accident
investigation.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms relevant to the study of this course and to demonstrate ULOd are
operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how the texts work in the
course. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of course. Hence, to be
able to fully appreciate the topics presented in this course, unlocking the meaning of these
terms is crucial.

o ACCIDENT - Is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces

unintended injury, death or property damage.

o ATTRIBUTE - Any inherent characteristic of a road, a vehicle, or a person that affects the
probability of a traffic accident.

o CONTACT DAMAGE - Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some foreign
object in a collision or rollover.

o DEBRIS - The scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other materials left at
the scene of accident caused by a collision.

o IMPACT - The striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor vehicle with
another motor vehicle.

o IMPENDING SKID MARK - These are marks caused by the forward rotation of the wheels
being slower than the forward movement of the vehicle.

o INITIAL CONTACT - The first accidental touching of an object in a collision course or

otherwise avoids the hazard.

o INJURY - It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur after the
accident but within the chain of events.

o KEY EVENT - An event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a
motor vehicle traffic accident.

o MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT - Events resulting in unintended injury or property damage

attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads.

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o MOTOR VEHICLE NON-TRAFFIC ACCIDENT - Any motor vehicle accident which occurs
entirely in any place other than a traffic way.

o MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENT - Any motor vehicle accident occurring in a traffic
way.

o NON-MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENT - Refers to any accident occurring on a

traffic way involving persons using the traffic way, travel or transportation, but not involving
a motor vehicle in motion.

o POLICE TRAFFIC DIRECTION - It is defined as telling drivers and pedestrians when, how
and where they may or may not move or stand at a particular place, especially during
emergencies or period of congestion.

o SKIDMARKS - The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel
condition places great pressure between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the
frictional force at this point becomes greater than the frictional force between the tire and
the road surface. Wheels skid during this condition.

o TACTIC - Any action taken by a traffic unit to avoid hazardous situations like steering,
braking or accelerating to avoid collision or any other accident.

o TRAFFIC ARREST - An enforcement action which consists of taking a person into custody
for the purpose of holding/detaining him/her to answer a charge of law violation before a
court.

o TRAFFIC CITATION - A means of having violators appear in court without physical arrest.

o TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT - It is an action of enforcement involving arrest, issuance

of Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP) or Inspection Report Summons, or warning of any
person who is believed to have violated a law, ordinance or regulation pertaining to traffic
laws.

o TRAFFIC PATROL - Refers to the observation of road conditions, the behavior of the
drivers and other users of vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision, law enforcement
and providing authorized traffic-connected services to the public.

o TRAFFIC WARNING - This is an enforcement action which does not contemplate possible
assessment of penalty by the court or otherwise as a result of warning alone.

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Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the last three (3) weeks of the
course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in
the succeeding pages. The topics presented in this section is taken from the approved
textbook of the course. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to the
resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles and other resources
that are available in the university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.

1. Traffic Supervision:

❖ To obtain its objectives, three (3) police activities are needed:

1. Traffic Law Enforcement
2. Traffic Direction and Control
3. Traffic Accident Investigation

1.1 Traffic Law Enforcement - It is an action of enforcement involving arrest, issuance of

Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP) or Inspection Report Summons, or warning of any person
who is believed to have violated a law, ordinance or regulation pertaining to traffic laws.

❖ Scope of Traffic Law Enforcement:

1. The action taken by police and the Court to compel obedience to traffic laws and
ordinances regulating the movement and use of motor vehicles for the purpose of
creating a deterrent to unlawful behavior by all potential violators.
2. Enforcement of traffic legislation is an area of activity aimed at controlling road users
by use of persuasive and punitive methods in order to effect a safe and efficient
traffic movement.
3. It applies to all statutes, ordinances and legally authorized regulations relating to the
use of streets and highways.

❖ Two Major Functions of Traffic Law Enforcement:

1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement – Enforcement of traffic laws deterrent to law
violators, special assistance to prosecutors, courts and incidental traffic service to
road users.
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement – It is performed by the court through
prosecution, adjudication and penalization of cases. These are undertaken by
any of the regular courts and the LTO Traffic Adjudication Service (LTO-TAS).

❖ Important Goals of Enforcement Activities:

1. To increase safety level – Enforcement should be directed towards reduction of
accidents and/or minimizing their effects.

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 2. To increase traffic safety – When traffic violators are reduced, free-flowing
movement of traffic is ensured.
3. To insure harmonious and comfortable environment – When there is an
increase in the safety level and efficiency, traveling is more comfortable and faster,
reducing chaotic situations in the roadway.

❖ Three (3) Major Elements of Traffic Enforcement System:

1. Enforcement System
2. Road Users System
3. Road System (Traffic System)

❖ Five (5) Major Essential Steps in the Enforcement Process:

1. Detection of Violation
2. Apprehension (Contact or Non-Contact Apprehension)
3. Prosecution
4. Adjudication – Determines guilt or innocence of the accused before a court of law.
5. Penalization

❖ Reasons for Violation of Traffic Laws:

1. Physical disabilities/infirmities
2. Ignorance of traffic
3. Lack of training/exercise
4. Wrong attitude towards driving
5. PUV drivers for increased compensation
6. Driver’s apathy towards road signs, signals, markings
7. Influential people violate due to influence and feeling of exemption from laws

❖ Considerations that act as deterrents to motorists and pedestrians:

1. Fear of fine/punishment
2. Loss of driving privilege
3. Possibility of being involved in an accident
4. Good citizenship resulting from obeying traffic laws and regulations

❖ Kinds of Enforcement Action:

1. TRAFFIC ARREST – An enforcement action which consists of taking a person into

custody for the purpose of holding/detaining him/her to answer a charge of law
violation before a court.

Considerations:
• When can a traffic violator be arrested?
• How is the arrest made?
• Use of force in arresting
• Arrest in Traffic
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 • Recording data of arrest
• When taking a person into custody
• Transporting arrested person
• Warrantless Arrest/Citizen’s Arrest

2. TRAFFIC CITATION – A means of having violators appear in court without physical

arrest. The traffic enforcer should confiscate the violator’s driver’s license and
issue either a Traffic Citation Ticket (TCT), Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP),
or Traffic Violator’s Receipt (TVR).

Traffic Citation Ticket

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Temporary Operators Permit

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Traffic Violators Reciept

3. TRAFFIC WARNING – This is an enforcement action which does not contemplate

possible assessment of penalty by the court or otherwise as a result of warning
alone. There are three (3) types of traffic warning:

• Visual Warning – Usually used when you have observed a minor violation but
are more importantly occupied at the moment. Indicate them by gesture of the
hand and/or the head.

• Verbal Warning – This is a form of safety education. Enforcers would tell the
driver/violator that he violated a law and explain the hazards of such violations.

• Written Warning – This is a combination of verbal warning and citations. It gives

the spirit of verbal warning and the form of citation and is seldomly applied.

❖ Decision Enforcement – In determining what enforcement action to be taken, consider the

following:

• Degree of violation
• Accuracy of observation
• Traffic and weather condition
• Evidence gathered
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 • Whether it is a new law or not
• Continuous or momentary actions

❖ Pursuit in Traffic Enforcement – Pursuit is a part of routine enforcement activity

performed by police, and is used when a violating driver is detected. It is part of the
apprehension of a violator.
❖
Factors to be considered during pursuit:

1. When to pursue
2. Pursuit techniques to be applied
3. Identification of pursued vehicle
4. Itemize identification features of the vehicle pursued
5. Keep Headquarters advised
6. Stopping and approaching a violator

❖ Officer-Violator Relationship – The first reminder for an officer is to establish a pleasant

relationship with offending motorists/pedestrians. It can be accomplished through:

o Proper wearing of uniform/appearance

o Observance of standard operating procedures (SOP’s)
o Never open a conversation in a sarcastic/derogatory manner
o Being alert at all times, preparing for the unexpected
o Observe courtesy and respect in requesting for the driver’s license and
Vehicle
Registration Certificate (OR/CR)
o Proper termination of contact with
violator

❖ Road Check – Another enforcement activity which involves the conduct of actual inspection
of vehicles and motorists on the road.

❖
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 Objectives:

• Detect/inspect faulty vehicle equipment

• Inspect registration and licensing violation/s
• Detect/inspect intoxicated drivers (RA 10586) (Sobriety Test)
• Inspect the load/cargo of commercial transportation vehicles for load

weight Considerations:

• Minimum delay to motorist

• Thorough checking procedure (take note of the legalities of searches)
• Protection/safety of both motorist and enforcer
• Timing, location and frequency
1.2 Traffic Direction and Control:

Assigning of traffic officer on strategic places does not ensure obedience to traffic laws, rules
and regulations. It also serves as emergency solution when traffic lights suddenly fail, or when
traffic signal lights can’t control flow of traffic.

Traffic officers manning intersections can also provide emergency services to the public not
only during lights out but also during disasters or calamities like fire, or ambulances
responding. During these moments, traffic enforcers can immediately give way for them to
respond by directing and controlling traffic along intersections.

INTERSECTION – The space occupied by two streets at the point where they cross each
other.

POLICE TRAFFIC DIRECTION – It is defined as telling drivers and pedestrians when, how
and where they may or may not move or stand at a particular place, especially during
emergencies or period of congestion.
❖ Who are tasked to direct and guide traffic:

o Deputized LTO-LES Enforcers o PNP-HPG Officers o

Deputized MMDA Constables o Police Auxiliaries o
City/Municipal Traffic Enforcers
o Barangay Security Forces (Tanod)

❖ Suggested Methods of Directing and Guiding Traffic:

o Use hand signals to designate decisions to motorists and pedestrians.

o Supplement the arm/hand signals with a whistle:
▪ One long blow to STOP
▪ Two short snappy blasts for GO
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 ▪ Three blasts for assistance o If two or more officers are assigned in
one intersection, only one makes the decision, while the other takes theirs from
him. o To stop a moving lane, point at the car you intend to stop and give the
driver the opportunity to stop.
o The hand signal should be made with the arm extended, and the palm facing the
person/vehicle to be stopped.

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❖ Night Control of Traffic:

o When light is sufficient, work the same with daytime

o If light is not sufficient, use flashlight:

▪ To STOP, direct the flashlight in line of the vision and move back and
forth.
▪ For GO, use the same motion as in daylight except with flashlight. ▪
Supplement actions with a whistle.

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1.3 Traffic Patrol – Refers to the observation of road conditions, the behavior of the drivers
and other users of vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision, law enforcement and
providing authorized traffic-connected services to the public.

❖ Types of Traffic Patrol:

• Line Patrol – Involves either moving or stationary observation at a certain route or

point of a major street in a city. Usually done by foot patrol officers.

• Area Patrol – Involves the conduct of observation either by moving patrol or

observation of a certain area which included a number of streets, roads or sections
of a highway.

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❖ Types of Stationary Observation:

• Conspicuous Observation – The observer remains in full view of traffic conditions

and places himself in any place where he could be seen by all traffic users.

• Visible Patrol – Stationary observation which the observer is in full view but so
located as to require effort on the part of users to discover him (e.g. side street)

• Concealed Patrol – The observer is not visible to persons using ordinary power of
observation from the roadway being observed.

❖ Purposes of Traffic Patrol:

• Deterrent to violations and dangerous driving
• Detecting and apprehending violators
• Observing and reporting traffic conditions
• Observing and reporting road conditions
• Providing certain services to the public
• Handling emergencies as they arise and keeping traffic flow smoothly
1.4 Traffic Accident Investigation:

❖ What Traffic Accident Investigation Determines?

• WHAT happened?
• WHO were involved?
• WHERE did it happen?
• WHY did it happen?
• WHEN did the accident happen?
• HOW did the accident occur?
❖ Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation:
• Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the accident.
• Police – To find out whether there is enough evidence of law violation in the
accident.
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 • Lawyers and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the drivers
involved in the accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted.
• Officials and others want specific information about accidents to know how to
prevent future accidents.

❖ Common Words and Phrases Used in Traffic Accident Investigation:

1. ACCIDENT – Is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces

unintended injury, death or property damage.

2. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT – An accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.

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 3. MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT – Events resulting in unintended injury or property
damage attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads.

4. KEY EVENT – An event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence
of a motor vehicle traffic accident.

5. DEBRIS - The scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other materials
left at the scene of accident caused by a collision.

6. SKID MARKS – These are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to
rotate, usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels are locked.

7. HAZARDS – Generated when a critical space-motion relationship between a traffic

unit and another object develops due to movement of either or both.

8. STRATEGY – It is the adjusting of speed, position on the road, direction of motion,

giving of signals to turn or slow down or any other action in situations involving
potential hazards.

9. TACTIC – Any action taken by a traffic unit to avoid hazardous situations like
steering, braking or accelerating to avoid collision or any other accident.

10. IMPACT – The striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor vehicle
with another motor vehicle.

11. CONTACT DAMAGE - Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some
foreign object in a collision or rollover.

12. FACTOR – Any circumstance contributing to a result without which the result could
not have occurred or it is an element necessary to produce the result.

13. CAUSE – The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without any one
of which result could not have occurred.

14. ATTRIBUTE – Any inherent characteristic of a road, a vehicle, or a person that

affects the probability of a traffic accident.

15. MODIFIER – A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or temporarily.

❖ Kinds of Traffic Accidents:

1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – Refers to any accident occurring on a traffic

way involving persons using the traffic way, travel or transportation, but not involving
a motor vehicle in motion.
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 2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident – Any motor vehicle accident which occurs
entirely in any place other than a traffic way.

3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – Any motor vehicle accident occurring in a traffic
way.

❖ Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event:

1. Running off road – Usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling on the roadside
or on a cliff along mountainous roads.

2. Non-collision on road – This does not involve any collision. (e.g. overturning)

3. Collision on road – This type of accident includes all forms of accident as long as
there is a collision. It could also involve the following:
• Pedestrians
• Other motor vehicles in traffic
• Parked motor vehicle
• Railroad train
• Bicycle
• Fixed object
• Other objects

❖ Classification of Accidents According to Severity:

1. Property Damage Accident – There is no fatality or injury to any person but only
damage to the motor vehicle or to other property including injury to animals.
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 2. Slight – Only slight damage to properties
3. Non-fatal Injury Accident – This results in injuries other than fatal to one or more
persons.
4. Less Serious – Only less serious injuries to persons.
5. Serious – Causes serious injuries to persons.
6. Fatal – This results in death to one or more passengers.

❖ Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents:

1. Simultaneous Factors
2. Sequential Factors
3. Operational Factors
4. Driver Perception Factors

❖ Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident:

1. Perception of Hazard – It is seeing, feeling or hearing and understanding the usual

or unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the accident
about to happen.

2. Start of Evasive Action – It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a
collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard.

3. Initial Contact – The first accidental touching of an object in a collision course or

otherwise avoids the hazard.

4. Maximum Engagement – The greatest collapse or overlap in a collision. The force

between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at maximum
engagement.

5. Disengagement – It is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with

which it has collided. The force between the object ceases at this time.

6. Stopping – This is when the traffic units involved come to rest. It usually stabilizes
the accident situation.

7. Injury – It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur after the
accident but within the chain of events.

8. Other Events that May Occur During the Accident:

➢ Point of Possible Perception – The place and time of which the hazard
could have been perceived by a normal person. It precedes actual perception
and is the beginning of perception delay.
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 ➢ Point of No Escape – It is the place and time after or beyond which the
accident cannot be prevented by the traffic unit under consideration.

➢ Perception Delay – The time from the point of possible perception to actual
perception.

➢ Final Position – It is the place and time when objects involved in an accident
finally come to rest without application of power.

❖ Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation:

1. Reporting – Basic data collection of all vehicles and persons involved.

2. At-Scene Investigation – It involves all action taken by the investigator at the scene
of the crime/accident.
3. Technical Preparation – Involves delayed traffic accident data collection and
organization for study and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction – This involves efforts to determine from whatever
information is available, how the accident happened.
5. Cause Analysis – Usually involves final analysis on the causes of accident which
are bases for the prevention of accidents.

1.5 Skidmarks: A Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation

SKIDMARKS – The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel condition
places great pressure between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the frictional force at
this point becomes greater than the frictional force between the tire and the road surface.
Wheels skid during this condition.

❖ Underlying Principles on Why Skidmarks is a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation:

1. Measurement of skidmarks gives of an idea on the speed of the vehicle who left the
marks.

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 2. Estimates of speed based on skidmarks may lead to conviction, or help an innocent
person from being convicted.

❖ Other Tire Marks:

1. Centrifugal Skid Mark – A marking on a roadway left by a rotating wheel of a

speeding vehicle on a curve when the speed of the vehicle is above the critical
speed of the curve, and the centrifugal force entirely or partially overcomes the
friction between the mass of the vehicle and surface of the roadway.

2. Impending Skid Marks – These are marks caused by the forward rotation of the
wheels being slower than the forward movement of the vehicle.

3. Yawn Mark – A scuffmark mad while the vehicle is yawning the mark made on the
road by a rotating tire which is slipping in a direction parallel to the axle of the wheel.

4. Skip Mark – A braking skid mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals. The skid
mark is made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from turning.

5. Side Skid Mark (Scuff Mark) – It is a roadway marking left by the tire and wheel of
a vehicle sliding sideways as a result of force other than centrifugal force.

6. Gap Skid – A braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and reapplication of
brakes or which terminates by release of brakes before collision.

❖ Other Marks and Impression Left by a Motor Vehicle Either on the Road Surface or on
Another Motor Vehicle:

• Ruts – A sunken track worn by a wheel, as in road; a groove forming a path for
anything.

• Gouge – A groove made by a hard part of a motor vehicle to another vehicle after
sideswiping each other, or it may be left on a road surface by a motor vehicle which
overturned then slid on the surface.

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 • Paint Strips – When a vehicle collided with other objects, it sometimes transfers its
paint to the other object.

❖ Other Factors that Affect Skidding:

• Brake Pedal Pressure
• Weight of the Car
• Tire Thread
• Air Pressure
• Tire Material
• Road Surface
• Direction of Slides
• Temperature of the Air and Road Surfaces
• Against Head wind

Self Help

References:
1. Delizo, D.B. (2014). Traffic Management an Accident
Investigation. Second Edition. Quezon City: Wiseman's Books
Trading, Inc.

You can also access:

2. ProQuest Central: https://search.proquest.com/

a. Username: 33h3wsp28s

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 b. Password: welcome

3. ProQuest Ebook Central (formerly ebrary):

https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/auth/lib/uniofmindanao-ebooks
a. Username: umlic.dl2@gmail.com
b. Password: umebook2

4. Gale Reference: https://go.gale.com/ps

a. Password: Present
5. Oxford Reference: https://www.oxfordreference.com/

a. Username: minduniversity
b. Password: Oxford2018
6. Philippine E-Journals: https://www.ejournals.ph/

c. Username: adminum
d. Password: adminum

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