GEOMETRY PAPERS

Prepared To Fulfill The Assignments Of Scientific English Courses

Supporting Lecturer :

Aulia Hanifah Qomar, M.Pd

Arrangged By :

1. Arin Syahamah (23310005)

2. Ela Puspitasari (23310008)
3. Rifan Kurniawan (23310016)

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION

MUHAMMADIYAH METRO UNIVERSITY

SEMESTER 1

2023
 INTRODUCTION

Praise and gratitude to the Almighty God for all His blessings and
grace, enabling us as the authors to complete this paper entitled
"GEOMETRY" within the agreed-upon timeframe, in fulfillment of the
assignment for the subject of Scientific English.
In this paper, we will discuss several aspects related to Geometry,
including Points, Lines, and Angles. We hope that this paper will be beneficial
and inspirational to the readers, especially those who are in the relevant field.
We are also aware that this paper is far from perfect due to our limited
knowledge and experience regarding the subject matter we have presented.
Therefore, as the authors, we wholeheartedly welcome constructive criticism
and suggestions if readers come across any errors in this paper.

Metro, 5 September 2023

Writer
Group 4

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 TABLE OF CONTENS

COVER................................................................................................................ i

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................. ii

TABLE OF CONTENS ....................................................................................... iii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION............................................................................. 1
A. Back Ground................................................................................................. 1
B. Problem Statement....................................................................................... 1
C. Objectives..................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER II DISCUSSION................................................................................. 2
A. Definition of Geometry.................................................................................. 2
B. Definition of Points ....................................................................................... 3
C. Definition of lines........................................................................................... 4
D. Definition of Angles ...................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER III CONCLUSION.............................................................................. 8
A. Conclusion.................................................................................................... 8
REFERENCES.................................................................................................... 9

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
The objects of geometry, including spatial geometry, are abstract entities of
thought, such as points, lines, angles, and so on. These mental e88ntities can be
derived from real-world objects through the processes of abstraction and
idealization. To facilitate discussions about geometric figures, diagrams or models of
these figures are often used. These geometric models can serve as teaching aids in
the learning and teaching process.

B. Problem Statement
1. What is the Meaning of Geometry?
2. What is the Definition of Points, Lines, and Angles?

C. Objectives
1. Understanding the Meaning of Geometry.
2. Understanding the Meaning of Points, Lines, and Angles.

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 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

A. Definition of Geometry
The word "Geometry" originates from the Greek word "Geometrein," where
"geo-" means earth and "metrein" means to measure. This implies measuring
everything on Earth. However, the subject of geometry existed in ancient Egypt and
among other ancient civilizations (Babylonians, Hindus, Chinese), who had a wealth
of information about geometry. Ancient geometry often began with practical
measurements needed for agriculture by the Babylonians and Egyptians. Later,
Egyptian and Babylonian geometry expanded to include calculations of lengths,
areas, and volumes. These results were often expressed as arithmetic series that
were empirically inaccurate.
There are several classifications of geometry, including based on the scope
or field of study, language used, axiomatic systems, transformations, and approach
methods. Based on the scope or field of study, there are plane geometry, spatial
geometry, dimensional geometry, and spherical geometry. Based on the language
used, there is analytical geometry (geometry using algebraic language), pure
geometry (geometry using visual language), and differential geometry (geometry
using derivative language). Based on axiomatic systems, there are Euclidean
geometry, non-Euclidean geometry, and projective geometry.
Geometry is the science that deals with the relationships between points,
lines, angles, planes, and three-dimensional figures. Studying geometry is important
because it has become a fundamental tool for teaching logical thinking. Over time,
geometry has evolved into a systematically organized and logical body of
knowledge. According to Budiarto (2000), the objectives of learning geometry are to
develop logical thinking skills, cultivate spatial intuition, establish foundational
knowledge to support other mathematical topics, and enable the reading and
interpretation of mathematical arguments.
 3

B. Difinition of Points
Points, lines, and planes are elements that are not defined. They are simple
concepts that are easy to understand but become complex when we attempt to
define them. Therefore, geometers classify the concepts of points, lines, and planes
into a category of undefined terms or what is called primitive notions.
In geometry, a point is an abstract concept that is formless, has no size,
weight, or dimensions, such as length, width, or height. A point is an abstract idea or
notion that exists only in the mind of those thinking about it. Bennett Jr, A. & Nelson
LT (2007:564) state: "One fundamental notion in geometry is that of a point, All
geometric figures are sets of points." This implies that a "point" is the most
fundamental concept in studying geometry. For the purpose of communication
related to "points," symbols or models are necessary. The symbol or model for a
point is usually a dot, as shown below.

A point is typically given a name. The name for a point is usually a capital
letter placed near the dot, for example, as shown below: point A, point K, and point
M.

Drawing or representing a point can be done using the tip of an object, such
as the tip of a pencil, pen, compass, or chalk, pressed onto a writing surface or
paper. When you press the tip of a pencil onto the paper, the black mark left on the
paper is a point. The drawing or model of a point can also be obtained by drawing
parts of an object. For example, drawing a part of a ruler by placing a ruler on a
board and drawing a point on the ruler's edge by pressing chalk onto the board, and
thenlift the ruler. We can see that on the chalkboard, there are dots resulting from
the chalk's tip making contact with the board, and those marks are points.
 4

Just like in Euclid's Elements, there is a concept referred to as "primitive."

The term "primitive" is used for simple concepts that are easy to understand and
difficult to define precisely. Later on, by modern geometers, these concepts were
grouped into terms that are left undefined. In modern geometry structures, especially
in mathematics as a whole, there are agreed-upon terms that serve as guidelines for
everyone studying geometry, mathematics, or other branches of mathematics. These
terms include:
1. Undefined elements.
2. Defined elements.
3. Axioms/postulates.
4. Theorems/postulates/formulas.
Defined elements are concepts that have clear definitions or boundaries.
Therefore, with these definitions, the concepts become clear, unambiguous, and free
from double meanings. The requirement for a definition is that it should be concise,
precise, clear, and not contain ambiguous interpretations. Defined elements are
concepts developed from undefined elements. For example, concepts like rays, line
segments, triangles, and quadrilaterals are developed from the concept of a line as
an undefined element.

C. Definition of Lines
A line is a concept that cannot be explained using simple words or sentences.
That's why a line is also grouped into undefined elements. A line is an "idea" or
abstract notion with a straight shape, extending in two directions, unlimited or without
endpoint, and no thickness. A line is an idea or concept that exists only in the mind
of those who think about it. Drawing a model of a line can be done by making marks
with a writing tool on a writing surface, paper, or chalkboard in a straight shape.
Alternatively, a line model can be created by drawing a part of a straight-sided
object, such as one side of a wooden ruler. Figure 1.1 below is a model of a line
obtained by drawing one part of the ruler with arrowheads at both ends, indicating
that the line extends in both directions without an endpoint.
 5

Naming a line can be done in two ways: by giving it a lowercase letter in the
middle or by using a capital letter placed at both ends of the line drawing, further
denoted as follows:
A line is also referred to as a one-dimensional geometric element because it
is a concept that only has a length dimension (linear).
1. Line Segment
A line segment is a set of points consisting of two endpoints and all the points
in between them. A line segment can be modeled as a piece of string stretched out.
Naming a line segment is done using two capital letters placed at the endpoints of
the line segment. Figure 1.4 below shows points A and B as the endpoints of a line
segment, denoted as AB.

2. Line Rays
A ray, a line segment, and an angle are concepts developed from points and
lines. Rays, line segments, and angles are elements that have definitions derived
from undefined elements, namely points and lines.
If a point lies on a line, then that point divides the line into two sets of points
on either side of the point. Figure below illustrates two halves of a line intersected by
a poin P.

When point P is combined with the first half of the line, you obtain a ray,
denoted as AB. Figure below depicts a ray as a half-line..
 6

A beam of light from a source like a lighthouse or a flashlight is indeed a good

example of a ray of light.

D. Definition of angles
An angle is a set of points consisting of two rays that do not lie on the same
line but share a common endpoint. This common endpoint is called the vertex of the
angle, while the rays are called the sides of the angle. Angles are named based on
three letters from the points on the rays. The following diagram provides examples of
naming angles:

.
Measuring the size of an angle can be done using either non-standard or
standard units. Angle measurement with non-standard units can use terms like
"angles" or other references The standard units of angle measurement are known as
degrees and radians. One degree is defined as one three-hundred-sixtieth (1/360) of
a full rotation when a line segment's endpoint is rotated completely around, with the
other endpoint serving as the center of rotation. In other words, one full rotation is
equivalent to 360 degrees.
To determine the size of an angle, you can use a tool called a protractor. The
shape of a protractor is a half-circle divided into 180 equal parts. With the help of a
protractor, you can measure angles with higher accuracy.
 7

Degrees are the units used to express the measurement of angles. One full
rotation is divided into 360 equal parts. The measurement of one part is called one
degree and is written as 1°.
Other than degrees, another unit of angle measurement is radians. One
radian (1 rad) is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc
with a length of r (radius).

E. Geometry of flat shapes.

A flat shape is a two-dimensional figure with only a perimeter and area.
Examples include triangle, square, rectangle, kite, and circle.
1. Triangle
A triangle is a three-sided geometric shape with three corners or vertices. The
sum of the angles in a triangle is always 180 degrees.

2. Square
A square is a four-sided, two-dimensional shape with four equal sides and angles
of 90 degrees.
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3. Rectangle
A rectangle is a four-sided flat shape with four right angles and opposite sides
that are equal in length.

4. Kite
A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides that are equal in length
and whose diagonals intersect at right angles.

5. Circle
A circle is a closed shape made up of all the points that are equidistant from a
fixed point called the center. A circle has 360 degrees in total.
 CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION

A. Conclusion
In this paper, it can be concluded that geometry is the science that deals with
the relationships between points, lines, and angles. A point is a concept defined
solely by its location and has no size (it is said to be dimensionless). A line
(specifically a straight line) can be extended indefinitely. A flat shape is a two-
dimensional figure with only a perimeter and area.

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 REFERENCES

Fuat. 2020. Geometri Datar : Individual Textbook. Lembaga Akademik & Research
Institute. Pasuruan.

Nanang. Dkk. 2013. geometri bidang & ruang. PT Global Eksekutif Teknologi.
Padang.

Roebijanto, G. 2014. geometri.pengukuran dan statistik. Gunung Samudra. Malang.

Novianti, A. 2015. meningkatkan pemahaman konsep geometri menggunakan benda

manipulatif pada siswa kelas v sd muhammadiyah 4 batu. Jurnal Inovasi
Pendidikan dan Pembelajaran Matematika. 1 (1), hal. 73-84.

Wulandari, C. 2017. Jurnal Pengabdian Masyarakat Ipteks. 1 (1), hal. 3-5.

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