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Effect On Mechanical Performance of Concrete
Effect On Mechanical Performance of Concrete
Performance of Concrete
Katherine G. Kuder1; Rishi Gupta2; Corinne Harris-Jones3; Richard Hawksworth4; Sean Henderson5; and
Jason Whitney6
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Abstract: Stay-in-place formwork is an attractive alternative to traditional formwork 共steel or wood兲 and is known to improve construc-
tability and produce a more durable final product. In the work presented, the effect of a patented polyvinyl chloride 共PVC兲 stay-in-place
forming system on the mechanical performance of concrete that it encases is examined. The compressive and flexural performance of the
system are investigated. The results indicate that the PVC encasement enhances both compressive and flexural performance. Compressive
strength is increased by the confining action of the PVC and flexural performance is improved due to the increased tensile capacity of the
sections under flexural loading.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0899-1561共2009兲21:7共309兲
CE Database subject headings: Formwork, construction; Concrete construction; Mechanic properties; Reinforced concrete.
Fig. 1. PVC 共a兲 cell assembly; 共b兲 isometric view of PVC-encased wall with steel reinforcement; and 共c兲 completed retaining wall with PVC
encasement 共reprinted with permission of Octaform Systems, Inc.兲
Experimental Program
Fig. 3. PVC configurations: 共a兲 Configuration 1, present in all Octaform walls; 共b兲 Configuration 2, stabilizes formwork during concrete pouring;
共c兲 Configuration 3, configuration with all components, used to resist additional lateral movement during erection and concrete pouring phases of
construction; and 共d兲 Configuration 4, insulated walls, custom insulation piece added to side of wall opposite 45° braces
Materials
The concrete mix design used is shown in Table 1. The mix de- form seating was achieved. Testing was run in piston displace-
sign was selected with a target strength of 25 MPa, which is in ment control at approximately 0.085 mm/ s and the load was
the range of concrete mixtures used on the job site 共typically recorded. The compressive strength was defined as the maximum
25– 30 MPa兲. Lafarge Type I cement was used. The coarse aggre- axial load sustained divided by the cross-sectional area of the
gate had a maximum particle diameter of 10 mm and the fine specimen. Six replications were made for each configuration as
aggregate was river sand. A polycarboxylate-based, high- well as for the control.
range water-reducing admixture 共superplasticizer兲, and MB-VR
Standard, an air-entraining admixture, both produced by BASF Flexural Behavior
Admixtures, Inc., were used. This concrete mix is typical of the
mixtures produced in the field for these types of stay-in-place The flexural performance of the PVC-encased systems was deter-
systems. mined by testing reinforced concrete beams with and without the
The reinforcing steel was a #3 deformed reinforcing bar, with PVC components. Beams were tested with the panels on the ten-
a tensile yield strength of 690 MPa and an elastic modulus of sion and compression faces. The dimensions of the reinforced
200 GPa. The extruded PVC has an inelastic response that is beams are shown in Fig. 4. To facilitate laboratory testing, the
characterized by an ultimate tensile strength of 43 MPa and an size of the beam was limited so that the beams could be easily
elastic modulus of 2.7 GPa 共Octaform Systems Inc. 2009兲. handled. Therefore, a total beam length of 609.6 mm was used.
The beam was longitudinally reinforced with a #3 steel reinforc-
ing bar 共9.5 mm diameter兲 with approximately 38.1 mm of clear
Mixing Procedure cover. The reinforcing bar contained hooked ends to provide a
The concrete was mixed in a Goldblatt rotary drum mixer. First, sufficient development length. In addition, transverse reinforce-
the dry ingredients 共cement, coarse aggregate, and fine aggregate兲 ment was provided at a spacing of 63.5 mm to avoid brittle shear
were placed in the drum and mixed for 5 min. Then the wet failure.
ingredients 共superplasticizer, air entrainer, and water兲 were added Fig. 5 presents the procedure used to prepare Configurations 1,
to the mixer and combined for 2 min more. The sides of the drum 2, and 4. The concrete was poured in two lifts through the con-
and the turning blades were scraped to prevent adhesion to the nectors. After each lift was placed, external vibration was applied
drum mixer and mixing was continued to achieve a more homo- to consolidate the concrete. To avoid consolidation issues in Con-
geneous mixture. figuration 3 due to the presence of the T-connector, the bottom
To help ensure mix consistency, a slump test was performed layer was first poured in from the side of the mold and then the
according to ASTM C-143 “Standard test method for slump of next layer poured through the connectors. Note that this consoli-
hydraulic cement concrete” 共ASTM 2003兲. Slump measure- dation issue would not exist in the field since the concrete would
ments ranged from 210 to 235 mm. This relatively high slump be poured as shown in Fig. 1共b兲.
was used to help achieve better compaction of the concrete and to After the beams were cast, they were covered with wet burlap
minimize any voids due to lack of consolidation. Use of high for 24 h. The specimens were then submerged in water. Due to
slump concrete is widely recommended by the manufacturer for
these reasons.
Compressive Behavior
Compression specimens were 152.4⫻ 152.4⫻ 152.4 mm in size.
The PVC configurations were assembled and then placed into
wood molds. The concrete could then be cast through the connec-
tors of the configured cell.
Specimens were cast by pouring the concrete through the
connectors in two lifts, consolidating each lift by rodding the
concrete. Specimens were covered with wet burlap for 24 h, after
which they were demolded and immersed in water. Specimens
were removed from the water at 48 days and then tested at
49 days.
Compression testing was performed using a Riehle hydraulic
testing machine with a 1,334 kN load cell. The load was applied
through a spherical ball bearing steel plate to help ensure a uni- Fig. 5. Concrete poured through standard connector
LVDT
LVDT
Fig. 7. Compression cubes during loading: 共a兲 control; 共b兲 PVC-
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10
2 77.9 7.2 422.6 13.4 60 52
0 3 80.7 3.0 444.5 15.5 66 60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 78.0 9.9 411.5 10.4 60 48
Deflection (mm)
50
six replications, the following conclusions can be drawn. Con-
40 Control figuration 1 has the smallest increase in load capacity and tough-
30
ness, 39 and 41%, respectively. Configuration 3 shows the
greatest increase in load capacity and toughness compared to the
20
control, 60 and 66%, respectively. Configurations 2 and 4 have
10 similar performances that fall between the two.
0
During the test, the control specimens began to lose concrete
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 at higher loads, while the PVC encasement contained the con-
Deflection (mm) crete. This containment of concrete is advantageous in the event
of impact, seismic, or blast loading. Fig. 11 shows a PVC-encased
Fig. 10. Representative load versus center-point-deflection curves for specimen loaded beyond 7 mm center-point deflection after the
control and PVC-encased reinforced concrete beams
connector has failed at the weakest cross section.
Fig. 11. PVC-encased specimen loaded past 7 mm center-point-deflection: 共a兲 with concrete still contained; 共b兲 failure of connector at weakest
point
Fig. 12. General PVC-encased cross section with strain distribution and assumed stress
Analytical Model the depth to the neutral axis is c 共mm兲; the strain in the concrete
The flexural data suggest that PVC encasement can be used to is c 共mm/mm兲; the strain in the polymer is p 共mm/mm兲;
improve the flexural performance of concrete systems and that the the depth of the Whitney stress block is a 共mm兲; the compres-
extent of the improvement depends on the PVC configuration. To sive strength of the concrete is f ⬘c 共MPa兲; the tensile strength of
examine this more closely, an analytical model based on limit- the polymer is f pu 共MPa兲; the compressive force in the concrete is
state analysis was used to predict the moment capacity of each of C 共kN兲; the tensile force in the PVC panel is T p 共kN兲; and the
the configurations. Chahrour and colleagues 共Chahrour et al. tensile force in the steel is Ts 共kN兲. The tensile force in the con-
2005兲 recently investigated and modeled the flexural performance nector is Tc 共kN兲 and the centroid of the connector measured from
of reinforced concrete encased by a similar PVC system using the bottom panel is y c 共mm兲. The values for Tc and y c vary for
this approach and found good agreement between experimental each configuration.
results and analytical predictions. However, they did not examine The forces acting in the cross section are as follows:
the influence of different PVC configurations. Similar approaches
have also been taken to model the flexural performance of rein- C = 0.85f ⬘c abc 共1兲
forced concrete with externally bonded FRP.
Since the beams investigated in this study were relatively
deep, a nonlinear analysis would be required 共Nawy 2003兲. Ts = As f y 共2兲
Therefore, analytical results are not compared directly with the
experimental results, but rather are used to help describe the in- Tc = Ac f pu 共3兲
fluence of the PVC encasement on the flexural performance of the
composite system.
The moment capacity of the configurations is modeled using T p = A p f pu 共4兲
limit-state analysis. The following assumptions are made: where As = area of the steel 共mm2兲; and f y = yield strength of the
1. Euler–Bernoulli beam theory applies; steel 共MPa兲.
2. Perfect composite action is assumed, meaning that no slip By equilibrium, the depth of the concrete stress block is
occurs between the PVC and the concrete or between the
steel and the concrete; 共Ac + A p兲f pu + As f y
3. Tensile forces carried by the cracked concrete 共below the a= 共5兲
neutral axis兲 and compressive forces carried by the PVC are 0.85f ⬘c abc
neglected; where Ac = area of the concrete in compression 共mm2兲.
4. The confining action of the PVC in the compression zone is The moment capacity is then calculated by
neglected and the compressive forces are modeled using the
Whitney stress block 共Nawy 2003兲;
5. The critical section occurs where the PVC connectors have
the least amount of PVC 关at the location of the openings— Table 4. Limit-State Analysis of Flexural Behavior
Fig. 11共b兲兴; and Increase M n
6. The contribution of the PVC component between the top Ac Ap yc a Mn over control
ellipse and the large center opening is neglected in the 共mm2兲 共mm2兲 共mm兲 共mm兲 共kN mm兲 共%兲
moment capacity, as the strain in this section is relatively Control — — — 13.7 5,249.9 —
small. Panel only — 181.9 — 16.2 6,325.8 20.5
Fig. 12 presents a general cross section of the beams, with the Conf. 1 83.4 181.9 31.5 17.2 6,706.3 27.7
strain distribution and the assumed stresses. The width of the
Conf. 2 146.5 181.9 28.2 17.9 7,002.1 33.4
cross section is b 共mm兲; the width of the concrete section is
Conf. 3 181.9 181.9 29.7 18.4 7,180.4 36.8
bc 共mm兲; the thickness of the standard connector is tc 共mm兲;
Conf. 4 146.5 181.9 28.2 17.9 7,002.1 33.4
the height is h 共mm兲; the depth to the reinforcing bar is d 共mm兲;