Glossary of

chemistry terms

This glossary of chemistry terms is a list of terms and definitions relevant to chemistry,
including chemical laws, diagrams and formulae, laboratory tools, glassware, and equipment.
Chemistry is a physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of
matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions; it features an extensive
vocabulary and a significant amount of jargon.

Note: All periodic table references refer to the IUPAC Style of the Periodic Table.

absolute zero
A theoretical condition concerning a
system at the lowest limit of the
thermodynamic temperature scale, or
zero kelvins, at which the system does
not emit or absorb energy (i.e. all atoms
are at rest). By extrapolating the ideal
gas law, the internationally agreed-upon
value for absolute zero has been
determined as −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F;
0.00 K).

absorbance

absorption
1. The physical or chemical process by
which a substance in one state
becomes incorporated into and retained
by another substance of a different
state. Absorption differs from
adsorption in that the first substance
permeates the entire bulk of the second
substance, rather than just adhering to
the surface.
2. The process by which matter
(typically electrons bound in atoms)
takes up the energy of electromagnetic
radiation and transforms it into any of
various types of internal energy, such as
thermal energy. This type of absorption
is the principle on which
spectrophotometry is based.

abundance

accuracy
How close a measured value is to the
actual or true value. Compare precision.

acetyl

achiral
(of a molecule) Having the geometric
symmetry of being indistinguishable
from its own mirror image; lacking
chirality.

acid
1. (Brønsted–Lowry acid) Any chemical
species or molecular entity that acts as
a proton donor when reacting with
another species, because it loses at
+
least one proton (H ) which is then
transferred or 'donated' to the other
species, which by definition is a
Brønsted–Lowry base. When dissolved
in an aqueous solution, a proton donor
which increases the concentration of
+
hydronium ion (H3O ) by transferring
protons to water molecules may also be
called an Arrhenius acid. The term
"acid", when not otherwise qualified,
often refers implicitly to a Brønsted–
Lowry acid.[1]
2. (Lewis acid) Any chemical species or
molecular entity that acts as an electron
pair acceptor when reacting with
another species, forming a covalent
bond by accepting a lone pair of
electrons donated by the other species,
which is known as a Lewis base. This
definition was intended as a
generalization of the Brønsted–Lowry
definition by proposing that acid-base
reactions are best viewed as
reorganizations of electrons rather than
transfers of protons, with the acid being
a species that accepts electron pairs
from another species either directly or
+
by releasing protons (H ) into the
solution, which then accept electron
pairs from the other species. The Lewis
definition is inclusive of many
Brønsted–Lowry acids, though not all:
most Lewis acids are not Brønsted–
Lowry acids, and most Brønsted–Lowry
acids are not Lewis acids.[1]
3. Colloquially, any compound which,
when dissolved in water, yields a pH of
less than 7.0. The term "acid" is
commonly used to refer to the entire
aqueous solution, whereas stricter
definitions refer only to the acidic
solute.[2]

acid anhydride
Any chemical compound derived by the
removal of water molecules from an
acid. Contrast base anhydride.

acid dissociation constant (Ka)

A quantitative measure of the strength
of an acid in solution expressed as an
equilibrium constant for a chemical
dissociation reaction in the context of
acid-base reactions. It is often given as
its base-10 cologarithm, pKa.

acid–base extraction
A chemical reaction in which chemical
species are separated from other acids
and bases.

acid–base reaction

acidic

actinides
The periodic series of metallic elements
with atomic numbers 89 to 103, from
actinium through lawrencium.

activated complex
A structure that forms because of a
collision between molecules while new
bonds are formed.

activation energy
The minimum energy which must be
available to a chemical system with
potential reactants in order to result in a
particular chemical reaction.

activity series
See reactivity series.

actual yield
acyclic
Containing only linear structures of
atoms (particularly in hydrocarbons).

addition reaction
In organic chemistry, a type of chemical
reaction in which two or more molecules
combine to make a larger one.

adduct
A distinct chemical species that is the
sole product of an addition reaction
between two other distinct reactant
species, in which all of the atoms
comprising the reactants are retained in
the single product. Changes in
connectivity may occur, but there is no
loss of any of the original atoms and no
gain of atoms that are not present in the
reactant molecules. Stoichiometries
other than 1:1 are also possible, e.g. a
bis-adduct (2:1).[2]

adhesion
The tendency of dissimilar particles or
surfaces to cling to one another as a
result of intermolecular forces. Contrast
cohesion.

adsorption
The chemical adhesion of atoms, ions,
or molecules of one substance (either a
gas, liquid, or dissolved solid) to the
surface of another substance, resulting
in a film of the first substance being
weakly bonded to the interface between
the two substances. Adsorption differs
from absorption in that it is exclusively a
surface phenomenon, while absorption
involves entire volumes of materials.

aeration
The mixing of air into a liquid or a solid.

alcohol
Any organic compound consisting of at
least one hydroxyl group attached to a
saturated carbon atom. Alcohols have
the general formula R–OH.

aldehyde
A functional group and a class of
organic compounds consisting of a
carbonyl group attached to a hydrogen
atom and any other R-group. Aldehydes
have the general formula R–C(H)=O.

The
skeletal
formula for
a generic
aldehyde,
where R
denotes a
variable
carbon-
containing
substituen
t group

aliphatic

alkali metal
Any of the metallic elements belonging
to Group 1 of the periodic table: lithium
(Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and
francium (Fr).

alkaline

alkaline earth metal

Any of the metallic elements belonging
to Group 2 of the periodic table:
beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg),
calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium
(Ba), and radium (Ra).

alkane

Any fully saturated acyclic hydrocarbon,

i.e. one in which all carbon–carbon
bonds are single bonds.

alkene
Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing
at least one carbon–carbon double
bond.

alkoxy

alkyl
The substituent form of an alkane, i.e.
any alkane missing a hydrogen atom.
The term may be used to refer to many
different functional groups, e.g. a methyl
or ethyl group.

alkyne

Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing

at least one carbon–carbon triple bond.

allomer
A substance that differs in chemical
composition but has the same
crystalline structure as another
substance.

allotrope
Any of a variety of different structural
forms of the same element, as with
carbon, whose allotropes include
diamonds, graphite, and fullerene.

alloy
A mixture of metals or of a metal and
another element which in combination
exhibit a metallic bonding character.
Common examples include bronze,
brass, and pewter.
amalgam
Any alloy of mercury with another metal.

ambident
A molecule or functional group that has
two alternative and interacting reaction
sites, to either of which a bond may be
made during a reaction.

amide

ammoniacal
Describing a solution in which the
solvent is aqueous ammonia.[3]

amorphous solid

amount of substance
The number of discrete particles (such
as molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, or
any other atomic-scale entity) in a given
sample of matter, divided by the
Avogadro constant. The SI unit for
amount of substance is the mole (mol).

amphipathic
(of a molecule) Composed of both
hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups; e.g.
wetting agents and membrane lipids.[4]

amphoteric

(of a chemical species) Tending to

behave both as an acid and as a base,
depending upon the medium in which
the species is situated; e.g. sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) is a strong acid in water but
behaves more like a base in superacids.

amyl
A common non-systematic name for a
pentyl group.

analyte
The specific substance or chemical
constituent that is of interest in a
chemical analysis.

analytical chemistry
The branch of chemistry which studies
and makes use of instruments and
methods to separate, quantify, and
identify chemical substances, both by
classical wet chemistry techniques such
as precipitation, extraction, distillation,
and observational analysis, and by
modern instrumental techniques such
as chromatography, spectroscopy, and
electrochemistry.

ångström (Å)
A non-SI, metric unit of length equal to
10−10 metre, i.e. 1⁄10000000000 of a metre
or 0.1 nanometre. The angstrom is
commonly used in the natural sciences
to express microscopic or atomic-scale
distances, including the sizes of atomic
nuclei, wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation, and lengths of chemical
bonds (e.g. the covalent radius of a
chlorine atom averages about 1
angstrom).

anhydrous
Having or containing no water
molecules, referring especially to water
of hydration.[4] Because many processes
in chemistry are impeded in the
presence of water, it is often of critical
importance that water-free reagents and
techniques are used. Anhydrous
compounds tend to gradually absorb
water from the atmosphere. Contrast
hydrous.

anion
A negatively charged ion; i.e. an atom or
molecule with a net negative electric
charge caused by an excess of
electrons compared to protons.

anode
1. An electrode through which the
conventional electric current (the flow of
positive charges) enters into a polarized
electrical circuit.
2. The wire or plate of an
electrochemical cell having an excess
positive charge. Negatively charged
anions always move toward the anode.
Contrast cathode.

anomer
Either of a pair of cyclic hemiacetal or
hemiketal saccharides that are epimers
of each other, differing at only one
carbon stereocenter, specifically the
carbon that bears the aldehyde or
ketone functional group in the
compound's acyclic, open-chain
configuration, known as the anomeric
carbon.

aprotic

aqua regia
A liquid mixture of nitric acid (HNO3)
and hydrochloric acid (HCl), optimally in
a molar ratio of 1:3, so named by
historical alchemists because it is
capable of dissolving the noble metals
gold and platinum.

aquation
The process by which water molecules
solvate or form coordination complexes
with ions.[3]

aqueous solution
A solution in which the solvent is water.
It is denoted in chemical equations by
appending (aq) to a chemical formula.

aromatic

aromaticity
A chemical property of conjugated rings
of atoms, such as benzene, which
results in unusually high stability. Such
rings are said to be aromatic.

Arrhenius acid
Any substance that, when dissolved in
+
water, increases the concentration of H
ions, or, more correctly, of hydronium
+
ions (H3O ), in the resulting aqueous
solution.[1] The definition is similar to
that of a Brønsted–Lowry acid. Contrast
Arrhenius base.

Arrhenius base
Any substance that, when dissolved in
water, increases the concentration of
−
OH ions, or, alternatively, decreases the
+
concentration of hydronium ions (H3O ),
in the resulting aqueous solution.[1] The
definition is similar to that of a
Brønsted–Lowry base. Contrast
Arrhenius acid.

arrow pushing

aryl
Any functional group or substituent
derived from an aromatic ring, such as
phenyl or naphthyl. The symbol Ar is
often used as a placeholder for a
generic aryl group in structural
diagrams.

atmolysis
The separation of a mixture of gases by
exploiting their different rates of
diffusion, usually by allowing the gases
to diffuse through the walls of a porous
partition or membrane.[3]

atom
A chemical element in its smallest form,
made up of protons and neutrons within
the nucleus and electrons circling the
nucleus.

An atom
with
protons,
neutrons
, and
electron
s
labelled

atomic mass
The mass of an atom, typically
expressed in daltons and nearly
equivalent to the mass number
multiplied by one dalton.

atomic mass unit

See dalton.

atomic number (Z)

The number of protons found in the

nucleus of an atom of a given chemical
element. It is identical to the charge
number of the nucleus and is used in the
periodic table to uniquely identify each
chemical element.

atomic orbital
Any region in which one or more
electrons may be found in an individual
atom (as opposed to that within a
molecule).

atomic radius

atomic weight
See relative atomic mass.

atomicity
The total number of atoms present in a
single molecule of a given substance;
e.g. ozone (O3) has an atomicity of 3,
while benzene (C6H6) has an atomicity
of 12.[3]

autoignition temperature

The lowest temperature at which a given

substance will spontaneously ignite in a
normal atmosphere without an external
source of ignition such as a flame or
spark, i.e. when the ambient
temperature is sufficiently high to
provide the activation energy needed for
combustion. Substances which
spontaneously ignite at naturally
occurring temperatures are termed
pyrophoric. Compare ignition
temperature.

Avogadro constant (NA)

The ratio of the number of discrete
constituent particles (such as
molecules, atoms, or ions) to the
amount of a substance, defined as
exactly 6.022 140 76 × 1023 mol−1.

Avogadro number
The number of discrete constituent
particles in one mole of a substance,
defined as exactly 6.02214076 × 1023.
This dimensionless number differs from
the Avogadro constant in that it has no
unit.

Avogadro's law

azeotrope
A mixture of liquids whose chemical
composition is unchanged by
distillation.
B

balance

barometer
A device used to measure atmospheric
pressure.

base
A substance that accepts a proton and
has a pH above 7.0. A common example
is sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

base anhydride
An oxide of a group I or II metal element.

basic

basicity
battery

beaker
A cylindrical vessel or container with a
flat bottom, most commonly a type of
glassware, widely used in laboratories
for a variety of purposes, such as
preparing, holding, containing,
collecting, or volumetrically measuring
chemicals, samples, or solutions, or as a
chamber in which a chemical reaction
occurs. Beakers are distinguished from
flasks by having straight rather than
sloping sides; most beakers also have a
small spout in the rim to aid pouring.

Beer–Lambert law
biochemistry
The study of the chemistry of biological
systems and organisms.

Bohr model

A model of the general structure of the

atom proposed by Niels Bohr and Ernest
Rutherford in 1913, featuring a small,
dense nucleus of positively charged
particles surrounded by orbiting
electrons, which are attracted to the
nucleus by electrostatic forces. This
interpretation replaced several earlier
hypotheses and quickly became the
prevailing standard model for depicting
atomic structure.
boiling
See vaporization.

boiling flask

boiling point

The temperature at which a substance

changes state from a liquid to a gas (or
vapor). It depends on pressure and is
usually specified for a given substance
under standard conditions.

boiling-point elevation
The process by which a substance's
boiling point is elevated by adding
another substance.

bond
Any persistent attraction between
atoms, ions, or molecules that enables
the formation of chemical compounds.
Bonds are created as a result of a wide
variety of electrochemical forces, whose
strengths can vary considerably; they
are broken when these forces are
overcome by other forces. The types,
strengths, and quantities of bonds
holding together chemical substances
dictate the structure and bulk properties
of matter.

bond angle

Boyle's law
For a given mass of gas at constant
temperature, the volume varies inversely
with the pressure.

Bragg's law

Brønsted–Lowry acid
Any chemical species that readily
donates a proton.

Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction

Brønsted–Lowry base
Any chemical species that readily
accepts a proton.

Brownian motion

Büchner flask

buffered solution
An aqueous solution consisting of a
weak acid and its conjugate base or a
weak base and its conjugate acid that
resists changes in pH when strong acids
or bases are added.

bumping
A phenomenon in which a
homogeneous liquid raised to its boiling
point becomes superheated and, upon
nucleation, rapidly boils to the gas
phase, resulting in a violent expulsion of
the liquid from the container; in extreme
cases, the container itself may shatter.
Frequent stirring, the use of an
 appropriate container, and the use of
boiling chips can help prevent bumping.

bung

burette

Glassware used to dispense specific

amounts of liquid when precision is
necessary (e.g. during titrations and
resource-dependent reactions).

butyl

calorific value
A measure of the heat per unit mass
produced by complete combustion of a
given substance, usually expressed in
megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg) or in
kilojoules per gram (kJ/g).[3]

calorimeter
Any of various devices used to measure
thermal properties (i.e. heat), such as
calorific values or heats of chemical
reactions.[3]

calx
A metal oxide formed by heating an ore
in air.[3]

carbanion

carbide
A class of interstitial compounds
composed of carbon bonded to a
particular metal (usually a large-radius
transition metal) in a densely packed
crystal lattice, where the carbon atoms
occupy interstices between the metal
atoms; e.g. tungsten carbide (WC).

carbocation

carbon

carbonic acid

carbonyl
1. A functional group composed of a
carbon atom double-bonded to an
 {\dis
playst
yle
{\ce
{C=O}
oxygen atom, with the formula }} .
Carbonyl groups are common to many
classes of organic compounds and are
also a part of many larger functional
groups.
2. An inorganic or organometallic
coordination complex with carbon
monoxide as a ligand (e.g. a metal
carbonyl).

carboxyl
carboxylic acid
A class of organic acids and a
functional group consisting of a
carboxyl group attached to a substituent
group. Carboxylic acids have the general
{\displayst
yle {\ce {R-
formula COOH}}} (also written as
{
\
di
s
pl
a
y
st
yl
 yl
e
{\
c
e
{

{\displayst R

yle {\ce {R- }}

), where } can be an alkyl,
CO2H}}}
alkenyl, aryl, or any other carbon-
containing substituent.

The
skeletal
formula for
a generic
carboxylic
acid, with
R denoting
a variable
carbon-
containing
substituen
t group
CAS Registry Number (CAS RN)

A unique numerical identifier assigned

by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
to every chemical substance described
in the open scientific literature, including
more than 182 million organic and
inorganic compounds, minerals,
isotopes, alloys, polymers, and mixtures,
as well as so-called "UVCBs"
(substances of unknown or variable
composition, complex reaction
products, or biological origin). CAS
numbers are an internationally
recognized standard used by scientists,
industries, and regulatory bodies.[5]
catalyst
Any element or compound that
facilitates an increase in the speed of a
chemical reaction but which is not
consumed or destroyed during the
reaction. It is considered both a reactant
and a product of the reaction.

cathode
An electrode from which the
conventional electric current (the flow of
positive charges) exits a polarized
electrical circuit. Positively charged
cations always move toward the
cathode, though the cathode's polarity
can be positive or negative depending
on the type of electrical device and how
it is being operated. Contrast anode.

cation
A positively charged ion.

cell potential
The force in a galvanic cell that pulls
electrons through a reducing agent to an
oxidizing agent.

centrifugation
A laboratory technique which involves
the application of centrifugal force to
separate particles from a solution
according to their size, shape, and
density. Larger and/or denser
substances migrate away from the axis
of a centrifuge, while smaller and/or
less dense substances migrate towards
the axis.

centrifuge
A device used to separate substances
based on size, shape, and density by
centrifugation, or the rotation of vessels
containing the substances around a
centred axis at extremely high velocities.

chain reaction

charge number
A quantized value of electric charge
calculated as the electric charge in
coulombs divided by the elementary-
charge constant, or z = q/e. Charge
numbers for ions are denoted in
superscript (e.g. Na+ indicates a sodium
ion with a charge number of positive
one). Atomic numbers are charge
numbers of atomic nuclei.

Charles's law
When the pressure on a sample of a dry
gas is held constant, the Kelvin
temperature is directly proportional to
its volume.

chelating agent

chelation
A type of bonding involving the
formation of two separate coordinate
covalent bonds between a polydentate
ligand and a single central metal ion.
The ligand is usually an organic
compound called a chelant or chelating
agent.

chemical
See chemical species and chemical
compound.

chemical bond
See bond.

chemical composition
The identity and relative number of the
elements that make up a chemical
compound, which can often be
expressed with a chemical formula.

chemical compound
See compound.

chemical decomposition
The breakdown of a single particle or
entity (such as a molecule or reactive
intermediate) into two or more
fragments, or a chemical reaction in
which two or more products are formed
from a single reactant. Contrast
chemical synthesis.

chemical element
See element.

chemical formula
Any of various means of concisely
displaying information about the
chemical composition of a compound or
molecule using letters, numbers, and/or
typographical symbols. Chemical
formulas, such as empirical and
molecular formulas, can only indicate
the identities and numerical proportions
of the atoms in a compound and are
therefore more limited in descriptive
power than chemical names and
structural formulas.

chemical law
A law of nature relevant to chemistry,
such as the law of conservation of
mass.

chemical nomenclature

chemical physics
chemical process
1. Any method or means of changing
one or more chemicals or chemical
compounds in any way, either naturally
or artificially, spontaneously or by the
actions of external forces.
2. In chemical engineering, any method
used on an industrial scale (especially in
manufacturing) to change the
composition of one or more chemicals
or materials.

chemical reaction
The change of one or more substances
into one or more different substances.

chemical species
A chemical substance or ensemble of
substances composed of chemically
identical molecular entities which can
explore the same set of molecular
energy levels on a characteristic or
delineated time scale.

chemical substance

A form of matter that has constant

chemical composition and
characteristic properties and which
cannot be separated into simpler
components by purely physical methods
(i.e. without breaking chemical bonds).
It is often called a pure substance to
distinguish it from a mixture.
chemical synthesis
The artificial execution of one or more
chemical reactions in order to obtain
one or more products. In modern
laboratory contexts, specific chemical
syntheses are both reliable and
reproducible.

chemistry
The scientific discipline that studies
chemical substances, compounds, and
molecules composed of atoms of
various chemical elements, as well as
their compositions, structures,
properties, behaviors, and the changes
they undergo during reactions with other
substances.

chirality
A property of asymmetry in which a
molecule or ion is distinguishable from
its mirror image such that it cannot be
superposed upon it by any combination
of geometric rotations, translations, or
some conformational changes.[6][7] Such
a molecule or ion is said to be chiral, and
exists in two forms, known as
enantiomers, which are stereoisomers
of each other; these forms are
distinguished as either "right-handed" or
"left-handed" by their absolute
configuration or some other criterion.
Several different types of asymmetry
can give rise to chirality, most
commonly when molecules possess
stereogenic elements such as one or
more stereocenters (central chirality), a
stereogenic axis (axial chirality), or a
stereogenic plane (planar chirality);
additionally, the inherent curvature of a
molecule can cause it to possess
inherent chirality.
 Structural
diagrams of
two chiral
molecules,
the non-
superposabl
e mirror-
image
enantiomers
(S)-alanine
(left) and (R)-
alanine
(right).
Though they
have
identical
structural
formulas and
the same
physical
properties,
they are
nevertheless
different
chemicals,
and react
differently
with other
chiral
compounds.

chromatography

chromometer
See colorimeter.

cis–trans isomerism
closed system

cluster

cohesion
The tendency of similar particles or
surfaces to cling to one another as a
result of intermolecular forces. Contrast
adhesion.

colligative property
Any property of a solution that depends
upon the ratio of the number of solute
particles to the number of solvent
particles in the solution, and not on the
nature of the chemical species present.
Examples include osmotic pressure,
freezing-point depression, and boiling-
point elevation.

colloid
A mixture of evenly dispersed
substances, such as many milks.

color standard
A liquid solution of known chemical
composition and concentration, and
hence of known and standardized color,
used as a reference in the optical
analysis of samples of unknown
strength.[4]

color test
The quantitative analysis of a substance
by comparing the intensity of the color
produced when the substance is
exposed to a reagent with a standard
color produced similarly in a solution of
known strength.[4]

colorimeter

Any instrument used for color

measurement based on optical
comparison with standard colors,[2]
particularly a device used in colorimetry
that measures the absorbance of
specific wavelengths of light by a given
solution in order to determine the
concentration of a known solute in the
solution, by application of the principle
that solute concentration is directly
proportional to absorbance.

combustion
An exothermic reaction between an
oxidant and a fuel that produces large
amounts of heat and often light.

An example
of large-
scale, rapid
combustio
n

Commission on Isotopic Abundances

and Atomic Weights (CIAAW)

complex
A molecular entity formed by loose
association between two or more
component molecular entities (ionic or
uncharged), or the corresponding
chemical species. The bonding between
the components is normally weaker than
in a covalent bond.[2] See also
coordination complex.

compound
A substance that is made up of two or
more chemically bonded elements.

Compton rule
An empirical law of physical chemistry
which states that the heat of fusion of a
given element multiplied by its atomic
weight and then divided by its melting
point in kelvin is always equal to
approximately 2.[4]
concatemer

concentration
The quantity or abundance of a
constituent of a mixture per unit
quantity of the mixture; e.g. the amount
of a dissolved solute per unit volume of
the solution, a measure known as
molarity. Several different definitions of
concentration are widely used in
chemistry, including mass
concentration, volume concentration,
and molar concentration.

condensation
The phase transition of a substance
from a gas to a liquid.
condosity
A comparative measurement of the
electrical conductivity of a solution
defined as the molar concentration of a
sodium chloride (NaCl) solution that has
the same specific electrical
conductance as the solution under test.
It is typically expressed in units of moles
per litre (or per some other unit of
volume).

conduction

conductivity
See electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity.

conductor
Any object or material that allows the
flow of an electric current in one or more
directions. Contrast insulator.

conformation
The spatial arrangement of atoms
affording distinction between
stereoisomers which can be
interconverted by rotations about
formally single bonds.

conjugate acid

conjugate base

conjugated system
{{{content}}}

constitutional isomer
See structural isomer.

convection

cooling curve

coordinate chemistry

coordinate covalent bond

See dipolar bond.

coordination complex
A chemical compound consisting of a
central atom or ion, usually metallic and
known as the coordination center,
bonded to a surrounding array of other
groups of atoms, e.g. molecules or ions,
which are known as ligands or
complexing agents. Many metal-
containing compounds, especially those
of the transition metals, are coordination
complexes. See also complex.

corrosion
An irreversible interfacial chemical
reaction of a material, especially a
metal, with its environment, which
results in consumption of the material
or dissolution into the material of an
external component of the environment.

coulomb (C)
The SI unit of electric charge, defined as
the charge transported by a constant
current of one ampere in one second.

counterion
The ion that is the counterpart to an
oppositely charged ion in a dissociated
ionic species; the cation that pairs with
a given anion, or vice versa. For
+ −
example, Na is the counterion to Cl ,
and vice versa, in solutions of sodium
chloride (NaCl).

covalent bond

A bond that involves the sharing of

electron pairs between atoms. The
stable balance of attractive and
repulsive forces that occurs between
atoms when they share electrons is
known as covalent bonding.
 A
diatomic
hydrogen
molecule
, H2
(right), is
formed
by a
covalent
bond
when
two
single
hydrogen
atoms
share
two
electrons
between
them.

critical point
The end point of a phase equilibrium
curve or pressure-temperature curve at
which conditions are such that phase
boundaries vanish and a substance's
different phases, such as liquid and
vapor, can coexist. The critical point is
defined by the intersection of a critical
temperature, Tc, and a critical pressure,
pc; above this temperature and pressure,
all distinction between phases
disappears and the substance becomes
a supercritical fluid.

crucible
A ceramic or metal dish or other vessel
in which substances can be melted or
otherwise subjected to very high
temperatures.[3]

crystal
A solid whose constituent particles
(such as atoms, ions, or molecules) are
arranged in an orderly periodic
microscopic structure, forming a lattice
that extends in all directions. Such
materials are often described as
crystalline.

crystallization

crystallization point
See freezing point.

crystallography
The branch of chemistry concerned with
determining the arrangement of atoms
within crystalline solids.

cuvette
A type of glassware used in
spectroscopic experiments. It is usually
made of plastic, glass, or quartz and
 should be as clean and clear as
possible.

cyclic

dalton (Da)

A unit of mass defined as 1⁄12 of the

mass of a free unexcited atom of
carbon-12 at rest. It is approximately
equal to the mass of one nucleon.

Dalton's law of partial pressures

An empirical law which states that in a
mixture of non-reacting gases, the total
pressure exerted by all of the gases
combined is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures exerted by each gas
individually.

d-block

dative bond
See dipolar bond.

debye (D)
A non-SI unit of measurement of electric
dipole moment, defined as 10−18
statcoulomb-centimetres. See also
electric dipole moment.

deionization
The removal of ions from a solution by
any method. In the case of water, this
typically refers to mineral ions such as
sodium, iron, and calcium.

deliquescence
A substance's affinity for water, often
characterized as its tendency to absorb
moisture from the atmosphere to form
aqueous solutions. Most strongly
deliquescent substances are salts, such
as calcium chloride and potassium
carbonate.

delocalized electron
Any electron in a molecule, ion, or solid
metal that is not associated with an
individual atom or covalent bond. The
term may refer to electrons involved in
resonance in conjugated systems or
aromatic compounds; to free electrons
which facilitate electrical conductivity;
or to electrons within delocalized
molecular orbitals encompassing
several adjacent atoms.

density
An intensive property of a substance
defined as mass per unit volume and
expressed by the equation d = m/V.

denticity
The number of donor groups in a single
ligand that bind to a central atom in a
coordination complex.

dependent variable
deposition
The settling of particles within a
solution or mixture.

depression of freezing point

See freezing-point depression.

desiccant

A hygroscopic substance used to induce

or sustain a state of dryness or
desiccation (i.e. the absence of
moisture) in its vicinity by abstracting
water molecules from other substances.
Desiccants come in many different
forms and work by many different
principles, ranging from simple
absorption to the chemical bonding of
water molecules.

desiccation

deuterium

deuteron

Dewar flask
See vacuum flask.

diastereomer

diatomic
Composed of two atoms, of the same or
different elements. Contrast monatomic
and polyatomic.

diatomic molecule
Any molecule composed of only two
atoms, of the same or different
elements.

diffusion
The net movement of atoms or
molecules from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration. Diffusion is driven by a
gradient in chemical potential of the
diffusing species and depends on the
random walk of particles; hence it
results in mixing or mass transport
without required directed bulk motion.

dilatant
A substance with the ability to increase
in volume when its shape is changed.[4]

dilution

dimer
An oligomer consisting of two
monomers joined by chemical bonds
that may variably be strong or weak,
covalent or intermolecular. A homodimer
consists of two identical molecules; a
heterodimer consists of two different
molecules.

dipolar bond

A type of covalent bond formed by the

coordination of two or more electrically
neutral moieties, the combination of
which results in a charge-separated
molecule or coordination complex, in
which two electrons deriving from the
same atom are shared between the
donor atom and an acceptor atom,
creating an internal two-center
molecular dipole moment.[2]

dipole
The electric or magnetic separation of
electric charge into a pair of charges of
equal magnitude but opposite sign, one
positively charged and one negatively
charged, separated by some typically
small distance.

dipole moment
See electric dipole moment, magnetic
dipole moment, molecular dipole
moment, bond dipole moment, electron
electric dipole moment, electron
magnetic dipole moment, and nuclear
magnetic moment.

dispersion
A system in which particles of one
material are distributed within a
continuous phase of another material;
the two phases may be in the same or
different states of matter. Dispersions
of particles sufficiently large for
sedimentation are called suspensions,
while those of smaller particles are
called colloids or solutions.

dissociation
Any process by which a polyatomic
molecule or molecular entity (e.g. an
ionic compound or coordination
complex), or an aggregate of molecular
entities, separates or splits into two or
more molecules, atoms, ions, radicals,
or other constituents, usually in a
reversible manner. Examples include
unimolecular heterolysis and homolysis,
the dissolution of salts, and acid
dissociation. Contrast association.

dissolution
The interaction of a solvent with the
molecules or ions of a solute, involving
bond formation, hydrogen bonding, and
van der Waals forces.

A sodium
ion (Na+)
forms a
solvation
complex
with
water
molecule
s when
dissolved
in an
aqueous
solution.

distillation
The process of separating the
component substances of a liquid
mixture by exploiting differences in the
relative volatility of the mixture's
components through selective boiling
and subsequent condensation. The
apparatus used to distill a substance is
called a still, and the re-condensed
substance yielded by the process is
called the distillate.

double bond
A bond involving the covalent sharing of
two pairs of electrons.

double decomposition

double displacement

double salt
1. A salt composed of more than one
different cation or anion, or which upon
hydrolysis forms two different cations
and anions.
2. A salt that is a molecular
combination of two other salts.[4]

double-replacement reaction

dropping point
The temperature at which a grease
changes from a semi-solid to a liquid
state under standardized conditions,[4]
i.e. the upper limit at which the grease
retains its structure, though not
necessarily the maximum temperature
at which it can be used.

dry box
A chamber or container in which the
interior is maintained at very low
humidity, often by filling it with argon or
with air lacking carbon dioxide, in order
to provide an inert atmosphere in which
manipulation of very reactive chemicals
or moisture-sensitive procedures can be
carried out in the laboratory.[4]

drying agent
See desiccant.

ductility

A measure of a material's ability to

undergo significant plastic deformation
before rupturing, typically expressed as
percent elongation or percent area
reduction from a tensile test and
popularly characterized by the material's
ability to be stretched into a wire.
 dystectic mixture
A mixture of two or more substances
which has the highest melting point of
all possible mixtures of these
substances.[4] Contrast eutectic mixture.

earth metal
See alkaline earth metal.

effective molecular diameter

The physical extent of the electron cloud
surrounding a molecule of a particular
gas, as calculated in any of several ways
and usually expressed in nanometres or
ångströms.[4]
effervescence
The escape of gas from an aqueous
solution without the application of heat,
and the bubbling, foaming, or fizzing
that results; e.g. the release of carbon
dioxide from carbonated water.

electric charge
A measured property (coulombs) that
determines electromagnetic interaction.

electric dipole moment

A measure of the separation of positive
and negative electric charges within an
electrical system, i.e. a measure of the
system's overall electrical polarity. The
SI unit for measuring electric dipole
moment is the coulomb-metre (C⋅m), but
the debye (D), a non-SI unit, is also
widely used in chemistry and atomic
physics.

electrical conductivity

electrical resistivity

electricity

electride
An ionic compound for which the anion
is an electron.

electrochemical cell
A device capable of either generating
electrical energy from chemical
reactions, in which case it is known as a
galvanic or voltaic cell, or using
electrical energy to cause chemical
reactions, in which case it is known as
an electrolytic cell. For example, a
battery contains one or more galvanic
cells, each of which consists of two
electrodes arranged such that an
oxidation–reduction reaction produces
an electromotive force.

electrochemistry
A branch of physical chemistry
concerned with the relationship between
electrical potential difference and
identifiable chemical change, as
understood through either the chemical
reactions accompanying the passage of
an electric current or the potential
difference that results from a particular
chemical reaction.

electrolyte
A solution that conducts a certain
amount of electric current and can be
split categorically into weak and strong
electrolytes.

electromagnetic radiation
A type of wave that can go through
vacuums as well as material and is
classified as a self-propagating wave.

electromagnetic spectrum

electromagnetism
Fields with an electric charge and
electrical properties that change the way
that particles move and interact.

electromotive force (emf)

electron
A type of subatomic particle with a net
charge that is negative. Contrast
positron.

electron acceptor

electron capture
A type of nuclear transformation by
which the proton-rich nucleus of an
electrically neutral atom absorbs or
'captures' an electron from one of its
own inner shells, often those closest to
the nucleus, which provokes a reaction
that results in a nuclear proton changing
into a neutron accompanied by the
simultaneous emission of an electron
neutrino.[2]

electron configuration
The distribution of the electrons of an
atom or molecule within atomic or
molecular orbitals. An extensive system
of notation is used to concisely and
uniquely display information about the
electron configuration of each atomic
species. Knowledge of the specific
arrangements of electrons in different
atoms is useful for understanding
chemical bonds and the organization of
the periodic table of the elements.

electron deficiency

electron donor

electron electric dipole moment (de)

An intrinsic property of an electron such
that its potential energy is linearly
related to the strength of its electric
field; a measure of the distribution of an
electron's negative charge within the
electric field it creates. See also electric
dipole moment.

electron magnetic dipole moment

The magnetic moment of an electron,
caused by the intrinsic properties of its
spin and electric charge, equal to
approximately −9.284764 × 10−24 joules
per tesla.

electron neutrino

electron pair
Two electrons which occupy the same
molecular orbital but have opposite
spins. Electron pairs form chemical
bonds or occur as lone pairs of valence
electrons; it is also possible for
electrons to occur individually as
unpaired electrons.

electron shell
An orbital around the nucleus of an
atom which contains a fixed number of
electrons (usually two or eight).

electronegativity (χ)
A chemical property that describes the
tendency of an atom to attract a shared
pair of electrons (or electron density)
towards itself. An atom's
electronegativity is affected both by its
nuclear charge (which is proportional to
the number of protons in its nucleus)
and the number and location of the
electrons present in its atomic shells
(which influences the distance of the
nucleus from the valence electrons).
The higher an atom or substituent's
electronegativity, the more it attracts
electrons towards itself. As it is usually
calculated, electronegativity is not a
property of an atom alone but rather of
an atom within a molecule; it therefore
varies with an element's chemical
environment, though it is generally
considered a transferable property.

electron-volt (eV)

electrophile
Any atom or molecule which can accept
an electron pair. Most electrophiles
carry a net positive charge, include an
atom carrying a partial positive charge,
or include a neutral atom that does not
have a complete octet of electrons, and
therefore they attract electron-rich
regions of other species; an electrophile
with vacant orbitals can accept an
electron pair donated by a nucleophile,
creating a chemical bond between the
two species. Because they accept
electrons, electrophiles are Lewis acids
by definition.

electrosynthesis

element
A species of atoms having the same
number of protons in their atomic nuclei
and hence the same atomic number.
Chemical elements constitute all of the
ordinary matter in the universe; 118
elements have been identified and are
organized by their various chemical
properties in the periodic table of the
elements.

elementary reaction
Any chemical reaction in which one or
more chemical species react directly to
form products in a single reaction step
and with a single transition state, i.e.
without any intermediates. Contrast
stepwise reaction.

elution
The process of extracting one material
from another by washing with a solvent.
Elution works by running a solution
containing an analyte past an adsorbent
matrix designed to selectively bind the
analyte molecules, and subsequently
washing the adsorbent/analyte complex
with a solvent, known as an eluent. The
solvent molecules displace the analyte
by binding to the adsorbent in its place,
allowing the analyte, now part of the
eluate, to be carried out of the complex
and into a collector for analysis.

empirical formula
The simplest whole-number ratio of the
atoms of each element present in a
chemical compound.

emulsion
A type of colloid in which small particles
of one liquid are dispersed in another
liquid; e.g. a dispersion of water in an oil,
or of an oil in water. Emulsions are often
stabilized by the addition of a
substance, known as an emulsifier, that
has both lyophilic and lyophobic parts in
its molecules.[3]

enantiomer

enantiomorph

endothermic process
energy
A system's ability to do work.

enplethy
See amount of substance.

enthalpy
A measure of the total internal energy of
a thermodynamic system, usually
symbolized by H.

enthalpy of fusion

entropy
The amount of energy that is not
available for work in a closed
thermodynamic system, usually
symbolized by S.
environmental chemistry

enzyme
A biological protein catalyst that speeds
up a chemical reaction.

epimer

Eppendorf tube
A generalized and trademarked name
used to refer to a microcentrifuge tube.

equation of state

equilibrium
The condition of a system in which all
competing influences are balanced.
Chemical equilibrium is the state in
which the concentrations of the
reactants and products in a reacting
system have stopped changing in time.

equimolar
Having an equal number of moles, or
solutions of equal molar concentration.

Erlenmeyer flask

ester
A class of organic and inorganic
compounds derived from the reaction of
an acid with an alcohol, in which at least
one hydroxyl group (–OH) is replaced by
an alkoxy group (–O–). Esters have the
general formula RCO2R′, where R and R'
represent any alkyl or aryl group.
 The
skeletal
formula for
a generic
ester, with
R and R′
denoting
variable
carbon-
containing
substituen
t groups

ether
A class of organic compounds and a
functional group containing an oxygen
atom connected to two alkyl or aryl
groups, which may be the same or
different. Ethers have the general
formula R–O–R′, where R and R′
represent the alkyl or aryl groups.
 The
skeletal
formula for
a generic
ether, with
R and R′
denoting
variable
carbon-
containing
substituen
t groups

ethyl

eutectic mixture
A solid solution consisting of two or
more substances which collectively
have the lowest melting point of any
possible mixture of these
components.[3]

evaporation

exothermic process
extensive property
A physical quantity whose value is
proportional to the size of the system it
describes or to the quantity of matter in
the system. Examples include mass,
volume, enthalpy, and entropy. Contrast
intensive property.

extraction
1. A separation process in which a
component is separated from its
mixture by selective solubility.[3] See
also partition.
2. The separation of a component
analyte from a matrix.

extrinsic property
F

family
See group.

Faraday constant (F)

A unit of electric charge widely used in
electrochemistry equal to the negative
of the molar charge (electric charge per
mole) of electrons. It is equal to
approximately 96,500 coulombs per
mole (F = 96 485.332 12... C/mol).

Faraday's laws of electrolysis

A set of two laws pertaining to
electrolysis which hold that: a) the mass
of a substance altered at an electrode
during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity
transferred at that electrode; and b) the
mass of an elemental material altered at
an electrode is directly proportional to
the element's equivalent weight.

f-block

Fick's laws of diffusion

filtration
Any physical, biological, or chemical
operation that separates large particles
(often solid matter) from smaller
particles (often a fluid) by passing the
mixture through a complex lattice
structure through which only particles of
a sufficiently small size can pass, called
a filter. The fluid and small particles
which successfully pass through the
filter are called the filtrate.

fire point
The lowest temperature at which the
vapors above a volatile material will
continue to burn for at least five
seconds after ignition by an open flame
of standard dimension.[8] The fire point
should not be confused with the flash
point, a slightly lower temperature at
which a substance will ignite briefly but
at which vapor is not produced at a rate
sufficient for sustained combustion.
first-order reaction

flash point
The lowest temperature at which the
vapors above a volatile material will
ignite if given an ignition source. At the
flash point, the application of an open
flame causes only a momentary "flash"
rather than sustained combustion, for
which the ambient temperature is still
too low. The flash point should not be
confused with the fire point, which
occurs at a slightly higher temperature,
nor with the kindling point, which is
higher still.

flask
A vessel or container, most commonly a
type of glassware, widely used in
laboratories for a variety of purposes,
such as preparing, holding, containing,
collecting, or volumetrically measuring
chemicals, samples, or solutions, or as a
chamber in which a chemical reaction
occurs. Flasks come in a number of
shapes and sizes but are typically
characterized by a wider vessel "body"
and one or more narrower tubular
sections with an opening at the top.

flocculation
The process by which the dispersed
particles in a colloid come out of
suspension to aggregate into larger
clumps known as floc or flake, either
spontaneously or due to the addition of
a clarifying agent. The term is often
used to refer to a reversible aggregation
in which the forces holding the particles
together are weak and the colloid can be
re-dispersed by agitation.[3]

formal charge (FC)

The electric charge assigned to an atom
in a molecule, assuming that all
electrons in all bonds are shared equally
between atoms, regardless of each
atom's relative electronegativity. The
formal charge of any atom that is part of
a molecule can be calculated by the
{\displaystyle FC=V-
equation , where
N-{\frac {B}{2}}\ }
is the number of valence electrons of
{
\d
is
pl
ay
st
yl
e
the neutral atom in its ground state; N}
is the number of valence electrons of
the atom which are not participating in
 {
\
di
s
pl
a
y
st
yl
e
B
bonds in the molecule; and } is the
number of electrons shared in bonds
with other atoms in the molecule.

formula weight (FW)

A synonym for molar mass and
molecular weight, frequently used for
non-molecular compounds such as ionic
salts.

fraction

fractional distillation
The fractionation of a mixture of liquids
into its component parts, or fractions, by
the process of distillation, typically by
using a long vertical column attached to
the distillation vessel and filled with
glass beads. The mixture is heated to a
temperature at which one or more of the
component compounds will vaporize;
the vapor rises up the column until it
condenses and runs back into the
vessel, creating a temperature and
volatility gradient and permitting various
fractions to be drawn off at different
points along the length of the column.[3]
Common in industrial chemistry, the
technique is sensitive enough to
separate compounds which have boiling
points that differ by less than 25 °C
(45 °F) from each other at standard
pressure.

A diagram
of a
laboratory
apparatus
designed
for
fractional
distillatio
n
fractionation
A separation process in which a
particular quantity of a mixture is
divided during a phase transition into a
number of smaller quantities, known as
fractions, for which the chemical
composition varies according to a
gradient. Fractionation exploits subtle
differences in some specific property
(e.g. mass, boiling point, solubility, etc.)
between the mixture's component
compounds, making it possible to
isolate more than two components of a
mixture at the same time. There are
many varieties of fractionation
employed in many branches of science
and technology.

free radical
See radical.

freeze-drying
See lyophilization.

freezing
The phase transition of a substance
from a liquid to a solid.

freezing point

The temperature at which a substance

changes state from a liquid to a solid.
Because freezing is the reverse of
melting, the freezing point of a
 substance is identical to its melting
point, but by convention only the melting
point is referred to as a characteristic
property of a substance.

freezing-point depression

frequency
{{{content}}}

functional group

galvanic cell
A type of battery made up of
electrochemicals with two different
metals connected by a salt bridge.
gas
One of the four fundamental states of
matter, characterized by high-energy
particles which fill their container but
have no definite shape or volume.

gas chromatography
A type of chromatography commonly
used in analytical chemistry to isolate
and analyze chemical compounds that
can be vaporized without
decomposition. Gas chromatography is
often used to test the purity of
substances, to identify unknown
substances, and to measure the relative
amounts of the different components of
mixtures.

gauche
In alkane stereochemistry, a structural
conformation involving a torsion angle
of ± 60°, or a synclinal alignment of
functional groups attached to adjacent
atoms.[2]

Gay-Lussac's law
A chemical law used for each of the two
relationships derived by French chemist
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and which
concern the properties of gases, though
the name is more usually applied to his
law of combining volumes.
geochemistry
The study of the chemistry and
chemical composition of the Earth and
geological processes.

Gibbs energy
A value that indicates the spontaneity of
a reaction. Usually symbolized as G.

glass

glycol
Any of a class of aliphatic dihydric
alcohols in which the two hydroxy
groups are bonded to two different
carbon atoms, which are usually but not
necessarily adjacent to each other; e.g.
ethylene glycol (HOCH2CH2OH).[2]
gram (g)

gram-atom
A former term for a mole.

Grignard reaction

ground glass joint

An apparatus designed to quickly and
easily fit two pieces of leak-tight
glassware together, featuring ground
glass surfaces and typically a custom-
made conical taper.

ground state
The lowest possible energy state for a
given quantum mechanical system, at
which the Gibbs energy is actually or
theoretically minimized. Whatever
energy remains in the system in its
ground state is called the zero-point
energy.[2] Contrast excited state.

group

A vertical column of the periodic table of

the elements and the elements that
share it. Contrast period.

hadron
A subatomic particle of a type including
the baryons and mesons that can take
part in the strong interaction.

halogen
Any of the five non-metallic elements of
Group 17 of the periodic table: fluorine
(F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I),
and astatine (At).

hard acid
A Lewis acid with an electron-accepting
centre that is only weakly polarizable.
Hard acid species also tend to have high
charge states and relatively small
atomic nuclei, in contrast to soft
acids.[2]

hard water
Water that has very high mineral
content, generally formed when water
percolates through deposits rich in
calcium, magnesium, and certain other
metal cations.

heat
Energy transferred from one system to
another by thermal interaction.

heat of fusion
See enthalpy of fusion.

heat of vaporization
See enthalpy of vaporization.

heavy water

Henry's law

Hess' law of constant heat summation

A law of physical chemistry which

states that the total enthalpy change
during the course of a chemical reaction
is the same whether the reaction is
completed in one step or in multiple
steps.

Hund's rules

hydrate
Any substance that contains water or its
constituent elements, or any compound
formed by the addition of water or its
elements to another molecule.

hydration reaction

hydride

hydrocarbon

hydrogen
hydrogen bond
A form of electrostatic interaction
between an electronegative atom and a
hydrogen atom bound to a second
electronegative atom. Hydrogen
bonding is unique because the small
size of the hydrogen atoms permits
proximity of the interacting electrical
charges, and may occur as an
intermolecular or intramolecular force.

hydrogenation
Any chemical reaction between
molecular hydrogen (H2) and another
chemical species, typically resulting in
the reduction or saturation of the other
species by the addition of one or more
pairs of hydrogen atoms to a compound
or element. The presence of a catalyst is
usually required for hydrogenation
reactions to occur; non-catalytic
hydrogenation takes place only at
extreme temperatures.

hydrolysis
The cleavage of a chemical bond by the
addition of water.
+
hydron (H )

The cationic form of atomic hydrogen;

i.e. a positively charged hydrogen
nucleus of any isotopic composition.
Thus the term can refer to a proton (
1 + 2 + 3 +
1H ), deuteron (1H ), or triton (1H ).

hydrous
Having or containing water molecules,
referring especially to water of
hydration. Contrast anhydrous.

hydroxide
A diatomic anion consisting of a
hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an
oxygen atom, having an overall negative
−
charge, with the chemical formula OH ;
or any member of a class of organic and
inorganic compounds containing a
hydroxy group, e.g. sodium hydroxide
(NaOH).[4]
 hydroxy

hygroscopy

ideal gas
A hypothetical gas composed of many
randomly moving point particles that do
not participate in any interparticle
interactions, thereby making it
mathematically convenient to describe
and predict their behavior as state
variables change. The ideal gas concept
is useful because it obeys the ideal gas
law and can be analyzed within the
framework of statistical mechanics.
ideal gas constant

The proportionality constant in the ideal

gas law, defined as 0.08206
L·atm/(K·mol).

ideal gas law

The equation of state of a hypothetical

ideal gas, which states that the volume
of such a gas is proportional to the
amount of gas and its Kelvin
temperature, and inversely proportional
to its pressure. The ideal gas law
combines Boyle's law, Charles's law,
Gay-Lussac's law, and Avogadro's law
into a single equation, conventionally
 {
\
di
s
pl
a
y
st
yl
e
R
formulated as , where } is
the ideal gas constant. The relationships
between the state variables described in
this equation are a good approximation
of the behavior of many gases under a
wide range of conditions, though there
are some limitations.

ideal solution
A solution for which the gas phase
exhibits thermodynamic properties
analogous to those of a mixture of ideal
gases.

independent variable

indicator
A special compound added to a solution
that changes color depending on the
acidity of the solution. Different
indicators have different colors and are
effective within different pH ranges.

induced radioactivity
Radioactivity caused by bombarding a
stable isotope with elementary particles,
forming an unstable, radioactive
isotope.

inert

inorganic compound
Any chemical compound that does not
contain carbon, though there are
exceptions. Contrast organic compound.

inorganic chemistry
The branch of chemistry concerning the
chemical properties and reactions of
inorganic compounds. Contrast organic
chemistry.

insolubility
The inability of a substance (the solute)
to form a solution by being dissolved in
another substance (the solvent); the
opposite of solubility.

inspissation
The process of thickening a liquid by
any method of dehydration, especially
evaporation.[4]

insulator
Any material that resists the flow of an
electric current. Contrast conductor.

intensive property
A physical quantity whose value does
not depend on the size of the system or
the quantity of matter for which it is
measured. Examples include density,
temperature, and pressure. Contrast
extensive property.

interface
The boundary between two spatial
regions occupied by different matter,
especially by matter in different phases
or physical states. See also surface and
phase boundary.

intermetallic
A type of alloy that forms an ordered
solid-state compound between two or
more metallic elements. Intermetallics
are generally hard and brittle, and have
useful mechanical properties at high
temperatures.

intermolecular force
Any force that mediates interaction
between molecules, e.g.
electromagnetic forces of attraction or
repulsion, hydrogen bonding, and the
van der Waals force, all of which act
between the atoms of one molecule and
the atoms or ions of nearby molecules.
Intermolecular forces are weak
compared to intramolecular forces such
as covalent bonds, which hold individual
molecules together.

International System of Units (SI)

International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC)
An international federation of chemists
that is recognized as the world authority
in developing standards for chemical
nomenclature and other methodologies
in chemistry.

interstitial compound
A compound composed of a transition
metal bonded to either hydrogen, boron,
carbon, or nitrogen, whose crystal
structure consists of closely packed
metal ions with the non-metal atoms
located in the interstices.[4]

intramolecular force
intrinsic property

ion
A molecule that has gained or lost one
or more electrons from its neutral state
and therefore possesses a negative or
positive electric charge.

ionic bond
An electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions.
An ionic
bond
between a
sodium
atom (Na)
and a
fluorine
atom (F).
The
sodium
atom
loses its
sole
valence
electron
(leaving
the atom
with a
positive
electrical
charge),
and the
fluorine
atom
gains this
same
electron
via an
exothermi
c process
(giving the
atom a
negative
electrical
charge).
The
oppositely
charged
ions are
then
attracted
to each
other to
form a
new
compound
 called
sodium
fluoride.

ionic strength
A measure of the concentration of ions
in a solution, usually expressed in terms
of molarity (mol/L solution) or molality
(mol/kg solvent).[9]

ionization
The breaking up of a chemical
compound into separate ions.

isoelectronicity
The phenomenon of two or more
chemical species (atoms, molecules,
ions, etc.) being composed of different
elements but having the same number
of valence electrons and the same
structural arrangement (i.e. the same
number of atoms with the same
connectivity). Isoelectronic species
typically show useful consistency and
predictability in their chemical
properties.

isomerization

isomers
Ions or molecules with identical
chemical formulas but distinct
structures or spatial arrangements.
Isomers do not necessarily share similar
properties. The two main types of
isomers are structural isomers and
stereoisomers.
 isotope
A variant of a particular chemical
element which differs in the number of
neutrons present in the nucleus. All
isotopes of a given element have the
same number of protons in each atom.

joule (J)
The SI unit of energy (symbol: J). One
joule is defined as one newton-metre.

kelvin (K)
The SI unit of temperature (symbol: K).
The Kelvin scale is an absolute
thermodynamic temperature scale that
uses absolute zero as its null point.

keto acid

Any organic compound that can be

classified as both a ketone and a
carboxylic acid, by virtue of containing a
keto group and a carboxyl group.[4]

ketone
A class of organic compounds and a
functional group composed of a
carbonyl group between two carbon
atoms. Ketones have the general
formula R2C=O, where R can be any
carbon-containing substituent.

The
skeletal
formula for
a generic
ketone,
with R and
R′ denoting
variable
carbon-
containing
substituen
t groups

kindling point
See autoignition temperature.

kinetics
A subfield of chemistry specializing in
reaction rates.

kinetic energy
The energy of an object due to its
motion.
L

lability

lanthanides

The periodic series of metallic elements

with atomic numbers 57 through 71,
from lanthanum through lutetium.

lattice
The unique arrangement of atoms or
molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid.

lattice energy
The energy released upon the formation
of one mole of a crystalline ionic
compound from its constituent ions,
which are assumed to exist initially in
the gaseous state. Lattice energy can be
viewed as a measure of the cohesive
forces that bind ionic solids; it is
therefore directly related to many other
physical properties of the solid,
including solubility, hardness, and
volatility.

law of conservation of energy

law of conservation of mass

law of multiple proportions

laws of thermodynamics

leveling effect
The effect of a solvent on the chemical
properties of acids or bases which are
dissolved in the solvent. The strength of
a strong acid is limited or "leveled" by
the basicity of the solvent, and likewise
the strength of a strong base is limited
by the acidity of the solvent, such that
the effective pH of the solution is higher
or lower than might be suggested by the
acid's or base's dissociation constant.

Lewis acid

Lewis base

Lewis structure

ligand
An ion, functional group, or other
molecule that binds to a central metal
atom to form a coordination complex.
Such bonding can range from covalent
to ionic, but generally involves formal
donation of one or more of the ligand's
electron pairs to the metal.

light

The portion of the electromagnetic

spectrum which is visible to the unaided
human eye.

liquefaction
Any process that generates a liquid from
a solid or a gas, or that generates a non-
liquid phase that behaves as a fluid.
liquefaction point
See melting point.

liquid
One of the four fundamental states of
matter, characterized by nearly
incompressible fluid particles that retain
a definite volume but no fixed shape.

liquid–liquid extraction (LLE)

locant

London dispersion forces

A type of weak intermolecular force.

macromolecule
A very large molecule comprising many
atoms and bonds, or any molecule with
a high relative molecular mass,
especially one whose structure is
formed by the multiple repetition of
discrete subunits derived, actually or
conceptually, from molecules with low
relative molecular mass (e.g.
monomers, substituents, and functional
groups). The term is often used
interchangeably with polymer.[2]

magnetic quantum number

malleability
See ductility.

manometer
An instrument used to measure
pressure invented by Evangelista
Torricelli in 1643.

masking agent
A reagent used in a chemical analysis
which reacts with one or more other
chemical species that may interfere in
the analysis.

mass
A property of physical matter that is a
measure of its resistance to
acceleration when a net force is applied.
The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg).

mass concentration

mass fraction
mass number (A)

The total number of protons and

neutrons (together known as nucleons)
within the nucleus of an atom. It
determines the atomic mass of the
atom. Mass number varies between
different isotopes of the same chemical
element, and is often included either
after the element's name (as in carbon-
12) or as a superscript to the left of the
element's symbol (as in 12C) to identify a
specific isotope.

mass spectrometry (MS)

An analytical technique that measures
the mass-to-charge ratio of ions in a
chemical sample by bombarding the
sample with electrons to the point of
ionization and then separating the
charged fragments by subjecting them
to an electric or magnetic field, typically
in order to determine the elemental or
isotopic signatures of an unknown
substance, the masses of its constituent
particles, and/or the identities or
structures of the molecules within it.
The results are presented as a mass
spectrum, a plot of the intensity of ion
signals as a function of the mass-to-
charge ratio.

matter
Any substance that has mass and takes
up space by having volume.

metal
Any chemical element which is a good
conductor of both electricity and heat
and which readily forms cations and
ionic bonds with non-metals.

melting
The phase transition of a substance
from a solid to a liquid.

melting point

The temperature at which a substance

changes state from a solid to a liquid. It
depends on pressure and is usually
specified for a given substance under
standard conditions. The melting point
of a substance is identical to its freezing
point.

mercaptan
See thiol.

mercapto
See thiol.

metalloid
A chemical element or substance
possessing properties of both metals
and non-metals.

metamer
See isomer.

metathesis
A chemical reaction involving the
exchange of elements or functional
groups between two or more
compounds, as described by the general
{\textstyle \mathrm
{{AX}+{BY}} \rightarrow
equation \mathrm {{AY}+{BX}} } .[4]
See:
Alkane metathesis
Alkyne metathesis
Olefin metathesis
Salt metathesis reaction
See also double displacement.

methyl
The alkyl group derived from methane,
consisting of one carbon atom bonded
to three hydrogen atoms, with the
chemical formula CH3. It is the simplest
hydrocarbon functional group and
occurs as a substituent in numerous
organic compounds, though it may also
exist independently as an ion or radical.
The presence of a methyl substituent
may be indicated with the prefix methyl
in the name of the compound, or with
the abbreviation Me in chemical
formulae; e.g. methyl alcohol
(methanol), which is often written with
the formula CH3OH or MeOH.
 Various
ways of
depicting
a methyl
group in
structura
l
formulae

methylene blue
A heterocyclic aromatic compound with
the molecular formula C16H18N3SCl.

microcentrifuge tube
A small plastic, sealable container that
is used to store small volumes of liquid,
generally less than 2 milliliters.

A 1.7-milliliter
microcentrifug
e tube or
Eppendorf tube
containing
Coomassie
Blue solution
mineral
A solid chemical compound with a fairly
well-defined chemical composition and
a specific crystal structure that occurs
naturally in pure form.[10]

miscibility
The tendency or capability of two or
more substances (most commonly
liquids, but also applicable to solids and
gases) to blend uniformly when
combined, i.e. to dissolve in each other,
forming a homogeneous mixture that
exists in a single phase, without
separation of phases, regardless of the
proportions of each substance.
Substances that do not mix uniformly in
all proportions are said to be
immiscible.[4][2]

mixture
A material made up of two or more
different substances which are mixed
physically but are not combined
chemically (i.e. a chemical reaction has
not taken place which has changed the
molecules of the substances into new
substances).

moiety
Any named characteristic group, branch,
or other part of a large molecule that
may be identified within other kinds of
molecules as well. Functional groups
are typically smaller and more generic
than moieties, whereas substituents and
side chains may often be classified as
moieties and vice versa.

molality

A measure of the concentration of a

solute in a solution in terms of the
amount of the solute per unit mass of
the solvent. Molality is typically
expressed in units of moles per kilogram
(mol/kg); a solution with a concentration
of exactly 1 mol/kg is sometimes said
to be 1 molal. Contrast molarity.

molar attenuation coefficient

molar concentration

A measure of the concentration of a

chemical species, especially of a solute
in a solution, in terms of the amount of
the species per unit volume of solution.
Molarity is typically expressed in units of
moles per litre (mol/L); a solution with a
concentration of exactly 1 mol/L is
commonly said to be 1 molar,
abbreviated 1 M. Contrast molality.

molar fraction

molar mass

For a given chemical compound, the

mass of a sample of that compound
divided by the amount of compound in
the sample, usually expressed in grams
per mole (g/mol). As a bulk property,
molar mass is an average of the masses
of many instances of the compound,
each of which may vary slightly due to
the presence of isotopes of the
compound's constituent atoms; it is
commonly derived from the compound's
molecular weight, which itself is a sum
of the standard atomic weights of the
constituent atoms, and is therefore a
function of the relative abundance of the
isotopes as they occur naturally on
Earth. Molar mass allows easy
conversion between mass and number
of moles when considering bulk
quantities of a substance.

mole (mol)
A unit (symbol: mol) used to measure
the amount of a substance in terms of
the absolute number of particles or
entities composing the substance. By
definition, one mole of any substance
contains exactly the Avogadro number
(i.e. 6.022 × 1023) of particles or entities.

molecular formula

molecular orbital (MO)

Any region in which one or more
electrons may be found in a molecule
(as opposed to that within an individual
atom).

molecular orbital diagram

molecular weight

molecule
A number of atoms that are chemically
bonded together and collectively
electrically neutral.

monatomic
Having only one atom, as opposed to a
molecule composed of more than one.
Virtually all elements are monatomic in
the gas phase at sufficiently high
temperatures. Contrast diatomic and
polyatomic.
N

natural abundance

neat
Conditions with a liquid reagent or gas
performed with no added solvent or
cosolvent.

neutron
A type of subatomic particle that is
electrically neutral, having no net
charge.

nitrogen

noble gas
Any of the six non-metallic elements of
Group 18 of the periodic table: helium
(He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn). All of the
noble gases have outer electron shells
that are completely filled in their
naturally occurring states, giving them
very low chemical reactivity.

non-metal
Any chemical element which is not a
metal.

nonpolar compound
A compound consisting of covalent
molecules with no permanent dipole
moment.[3]
normality

nuclear
Of or pertaining to the atomic nucleus.

nuclear chemistry
The branch of chemistry that studies the
various processes and properties
relevant to atomic nuclei, including
radioactivity.

nuclear magnetic resonance

spectroscopy
A technique that exploits the magnetic
properties of certain atomic nuclei,
useful for identifying unknown
compounds. Nuclear magnetic
resonance is often abbreviated NMR.
nuclear transmutation

nucleon
Either a proton or a neutron, considered
in its role as a component of an atomic
nucleus.

nucleophile
Any atom or molecule which can donate
an electron pair to another atom or
molecule. All molecules or ions with a
free pair of electrons or at least one pi
bond can act as nucleophiles, by which
they are attracted to electron-deficient
regions of other species; a chemical
reaction involving a nucleophile
donating an electron pair to an
electrophile may be referred to as
nucleophilic attack. Because they donate
electrons, nucleophiles are Lewis bases
by definition.

nucleus
The centre of an atom, made up of
neutrons and protons and possessing a
net positive electric charge.

nuclide
A species of atom characterized by its
mass number, atomic number, and
nuclear energy state, provided that the
mean life in that state is long enough to
be observable.

number density
 A measure of the concentration of
countable objects (atoms, molecules,
etc.) in space, expressed as the number
per unit volume.

octet rule

A classical rule for describing the

electron configuration of atoms in
certain molecules: the maximum
number of electron pairs that can be
accommodated in the valence shell of
an element in the first row of the
periodic table is four (or eight total
electrons). For elements in the second
and subsequent rows, there are many
exceptions to this rule.

olefin
A trivial (non-IUPAC) name for any
alkene.

optical activity

orbital
Any region of an atom or molecule in
which one or more electrons can be
found. The term may refer to either an
atomic orbital or a molecular orbital.

orbital hybridisation

order of reaction

organic acid
Any organic compound with acidic
properties. Contrast organic base.

organic base
Any organic compound with basic
properties. Contrast organic acid.

organic chemistry
The branch of chemistry concerned with
the chemical properties and reactions of
organic compounds. Contrast inorganic
chemistry.

organic compound
Any chemical compound that contains
one or more carbon atoms. Contrast
inorganic compound.

organic redox reaction

organosulfur compound
Any chemical compound which contains
both carbon and sulfur atoms.[4]

osmole

osmosis
The spontaneous net movement or
diffusion of molecules of a solvent (e.g.
water) through a selectively permeable
membrane separating two solutions
with different concentrations of
dissolved solutes, in the direction that
tends to equalize the solute
concentrations on the two sides, i.e.
from the more dilute solution to the
more concentrated solution, or,
equivalently, from a region of high water
potential to a region of low water
potential. Because the solute is unable
to cross the membrane, the tendency
towards equilibration compels the
solvent to cross the membrane instead.
This continues until an equilibrium is
reached, where neither side of the
membrane is more or less concentrated
than the other.
 During
osmosis, the
transfer of
solvent
molecules out
of the more
dilute solution
(in the left
beaker, on the
left side of the
membrane)
increases that
solution's
solute
concentration,
while the
simultaneous
addition of
solvent to the
more
concentrated
solution on the
other side of
the membrane
decreases its
own
concentration.
The eventual
result is an
equilibrium of
the solute
concentration
s on both
sides of the
membrane,
though the
volumes on
each side are
no longer
equal (right
beaker).

osmotic concentration
osmotic pressure

other metal
Any of the metallic elements in the p-
block, which are characterized by having
a combination of relatively low melting
points (all less than 950 K) and relatively
high electronegativity values (all more
than 1.6, revised Pauling).

oxidation
The increase in the oxidation state of a
chemical species in a redox reaction,
generally by losing electrons. Contrast
reduction.

oxidation state
1. The degree of oxidation of an
individual atom in a chemical
compound, measured as the decrease in
the number of electrons relative to the
atom's naturally occurring elemental
state.
2. The hypothetical electric charge
(positive, negative, or zero) that an atom
would have if all bonds to atoms of
different elements were 100% ionic, with
no covalent component.

oxidizing agent

1. A chemical species that gains or

accepts one or more electrons from
another species, called the reducing
agent, in a redox reaction, thereby
causing the oxidation of the other
species and in turn being itself reduced.
The oxidizing agent's oxidation state
decreases, while the reducing agent's
increases.[3]
2. A chemical species that transfers
strongly electronegative atoms, usually
oxygen, to a substrate.

oxoacid

1. Any acid having oxygen in the acidic

group.
2. Any compound which contains
oxygen, at least one other element, and
at least one hydrogen atom bound to
 oxygen, and which produces a conjugate
base by the loss of positive hydrogen
ions.

oxygen

p-block

paired electron
One of two electrons that together form
a valence bond between two atoms.[4]
Contrast unpaired electron.

paraffin
1. A trivial (non-IUPAC) name for any
alkane.
2. Another name for kerosene.

partial pressure

partition coefficient

pascal (Pa)

passivation
The process of coating a substance with
a thin layer of a protective material,
often a metal oxide, to create a shield
against corrosion or other chemical
reactions with the environment, thereby
rendering the coated substance
"passive" or less susceptible to
undesirable reactions.

passivity
A state of chemical inactivity, especially
of a metal that is relatively resistant to
corrosion due to natural or induced loss
of chemical reactivity (as with
passivation).[4]

pentabasic
(of a chemical compound) Having five
hydrogen atoms which may be replaced
by metals or bases.[4]

pentoxide
Any binary compound containing five
atoms of oxygen, e.g. iodine pentoxide
(I2O5).[4]

pentyl
An alkyl functional group containing five
carbon atoms, with the chemical
formula –C5H11. It is the substituent
form of the alkane pentane.

per-
A prefix in IUPAC chemical
nomenclature meaning complete,
exhaustive, or extreme, as in a
completely substituted hydrocarbon; or
indicating the presence of a peroxy
group.[4]

peracid
An acid containing an acidic peroxy
group (–O–O–); e.g. periodic acid.[4]

period
A horizontal row of the periodic table of
the elements and the elements that
share it. Contrast group.

periodic table of the elements

A tabular arrangement of the chemical

elements organized by their atomic
number, electron configuration, and
other chemical properties, whose
adopted structure shows periodic trends
and is used by chemists to derive
relationships between various elements
as well as predict the properties and
behaviors of undiscovered or newly
synthesized elements. The first periodic
table of the elements was published by
Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in
1869.

The
modern
periodic
table of
the
elements
. The
horizonta
l rows are
called
periods
and the
vertical
columns
are called
groups or
families.

peroxide
1. A class of compounds which contain
a peroxy group, having the generic
structural formula R–O–O–R, where R is
any element or functional group; e.g.
hydrogen peroxide (empirically H2O2,
structurally H–O–O–H).[4]
2. Another name for the peroxy group
itself.
3. A salt of the anion O2−
2 .[2]

peroxy

A functional group consisting of two

oxygen atoms directly connected to
each other by a single bond and each
also connected to one other atom.
Peroxides have the general structural
formula –O–O–.

pH
A logarithmic scale used to specify the
acidity or basicity of an aqueous
solution. The pH scale approximates the
negative of the base-10 logarithm of the
molar concentration of hydrogen ions in
a solution. At room temperature, pure
water is neutral (pH = 7); solutions with
a pH less than 7 are acidic and those
with a pH greater than 7 are basic.

phase
A region of space throughout which all
physical properties of a substance are
essentially uniform, or a region of
material that is chemically uniform,
physically distinct, and often
mechanically separable. The term phase
may have several different uses in
chemistry contexts; colloquially, it is
often used interchangeably with state of
matter, but many distinct phases may
exist within a single state of matter.

phase diagram
A graphical representation of the
equilibrium relationships between
thermodynamically distinct phases of a
chemical compound, mixture, or
solution, indicating the physical
conditions (e.g. temperature and
pressure) under which various phases
(e.g. solid, liquid, and vapor) occur or
coexist.[4]

phase transition
1. A transformation of a chemical
substance between solid, liquid, and
gaseous states of matter and, in rare
cases, plasma.
2. The measurable values of the
external conditions at which such a
transformation occurs.

This diagram
shows the
nomenclatur
e commonly
used for each
of the
different
phase
transitions.

phenyl
A functional group consisting of a cyclic
ring of six carbon atoms with the
chemical formula –C6H5. It is the
substituent form of the cycloalkane
benzene.

phi bond

photon
A carrier of electromagnetic radiation of
all wavelengths (such as gamma rays
and radio waves).

physical chemistry
The branch of chemistry that studies
chemical systems in terms of the
principles, practices, and concepts of
physics, such as motion, energy, force,
time, thermodynamics, chemical
equilibrium, and statistical mechanics,
among others. In contrast to chemical
physics, physical chemistry is
predominantly (though not entirely) a
macroscopic science that studies the
physical and chemical interactions of
bulk quantities of matter.

pi bond

pipette

A laboratory tool commonly used in

chemistry, biology, and medicine to
transfer and dispense a precisely
measured volume of liquid.

plasma
One of the four fundamental states of
matter, in which very high-energy
particles are partially or fully ionized to
the point that they display unique
properties and behaviors unlike those of
the other three states. Plasma does not
exist freely on the Earth's surface under
natural conditions.

pnictogen
Any of the chemical elements belonging
to Group (V) of the periodic table:
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic
(As), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), and
moscovium (Ms). These elements are
united by their common pentavalency;
i.e. in their non-ionized states, atoms of
these elements all have exactly five
valence electrons in their outermost
electron shell, three short of a complete
octet.

polarity

polyatomic
Composed of two or more atoms, of the
same or different elements. Contrast
monatomic and diatomic.

polyatomic ion
A molecule composed of two or more
covalently bonded atoms which
collectively bear a net electric charge
and therefore act as an ion.

polymerization
The chemical bonding of two or more
individual monomer molecules to form a
polymer chain or network; or any
reaction that produces such a
bonding.[4]

potential energy
The stored energy in a body or in a
system due to its position in a force field
or due to its configuration.

precipitant
A chemical compound or reagent that
causes a chemical reaction resulting in
the formation of a solid precipitate when
added to a solution.[4]

precipitate
1. (n.) A solid substance that separates
from a liquid solution or diffuses out of
a solid alloy during the process of
precipitation.[4]
2. (v.) To separate from another
substance by forming a distinct,
condensed solid phase.

precipitation
The process of producing a separable
solid phase within a liquid medium, e.g.
by transforming the dissolved solute of
a supersaturated solution into an
insoluble solid; or the diffusion of a
distinct solid phase out of a solid alloy.
A reagent that causes such a reaction is
called the precipitant, and the separable
solid itself is the precipitate.[4] More
generally, the term may refer to the
formation of any new condensed phase
by changing the physical properties of a
system (e.g. water vapor condensing
into liquid water droplets).

precision
How close the results of multiple
experimental trials or observations are
to each other. Compare accuracy.

pressure
The force applied perpendicular to the
surface of an object per unit area. The SI
unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa),
though many other units of pressure are
also commonly used in chemistry.
primary
The simplest, most commonly known, or
canonical form of a chemical compound
with multiple similar or isomeric forms.
For example, in a primary alcohol, the
carbon is bonded to a single substituent
group (R1CH2OH), whereas a secondary
alcohol is doubly substituted
(R1R2CHOH) and a tertiary alcohol is
triply substituted (R1R2R3COH).[4]

protective group

proton
A subatomic particle with a positive
electric charge that is found in the
 nucleus of an atom. Often denoted with
the symbol H+.

protonation
The addition of a proton (H+) to an atom,
molecule, or ion.

pure substance
See chemical substance.

pyrolysis
The thermal decomposition of materials
at elevated temperatures in an inert
atmosphere such as a vacuum gas.

quantum
 quantum mechanics
The study of how atoms, molecules,
subatomic particles, etc. behave and are
structured.

quark
An elementary particle and a
fundamental constituent of matter.

racemate
An equimolar mixture of a pair of
enantiomers which does not exhibit
optical activity. The chemical name or
formula of a racemate is distinguished
from those of the enantiomers by the
prefix (±)- or by the symbols RS and SR.

radiation
Energy released in the form of waves or
subatomic particles when there is a
change from high-energy to low-energy
states.

radical

Any atom, molecule, or ion that has at

least one unpaired valence electron.
With few exceptions, such unpaired
electrons make radicals highly
chemically reactive, and therefore
organic radicals are usually short-lived.

radioactive decay
The process by which an unstable
atomic nucleus loses excess nuclear
energy by emitting radiation in any of
several forms, including as gamma
radiation, as alpha or beta particles, or
by ejecting electrons from its atomic
orbitals.

radiochemistry
The branch of chemistry involving the
study of radioactive substances and
radioactivity, including the use of
radioactive isotopes to study non-
radioactive isotopes and ordinary
chemical reactions.

radionuclide
A radioactive nuclide of a specified
element, especially a particular isotope
of that element which characteristically
undergoes spontaneous decay into one
or more stable nuclides by emitting
excess energy from the nucleus.[2]

Raoult's law
A law of thermodynamics which states
that the partial pressure of each
gaseous component of an ideal mixture
of liquids is equal to the vapor pressure
of the pure component multiplied by its
molar fraction in the mixture.

rare-earth element
Any of the 17 nearly indistinguishable,
silvery-white, soft, heavy metallic
elements belonging to a set including
the lanthanide series (atomic numbers
57 through 71) as well as scandium and
yttrium.

rate equation

rate-determining step

The slowest step in a chemical reaction

that involves more than one step. The
rate of this step determines the overall
reaction rate.[3]

reactant
Any substance that is consumed in the
course of a chemical reaction.

reaction barrier
The energy deficit that must be
overcome in order for a particular
chemical reaction to proceed. In
transition state theory, the reaction
barrier is interpreted as the difference
between the zero-point energy of the
activated complex formed in the
reaction and that of the initial
reactants.[2] See also activation energy.

reaction mechanism
The step-by-step sequence of
elementary reactions by which a larger
chemical reaction or overall change
occurs. A complete mechanism must
describe and explain which bonds are
broken and which are formed (and in
what order), as well as all reactants,
products, and catalysts involved; the
amounts of each; all intermediates,
activated complexes, and transition
states; and the stereochemistry of each
chemical species. Because the detailed
processes of a complex reaction are not
observable in most cases, a reaction
mechanism is often a theoretical
conjecture based on thermodynamic
feasibility and what little support can be
gained from experiment.
reaction rate
The speed at which reactants are
converted into products in a chemical
reaction.

reaction rate constant

reactive bond
A chemical bond between atoms which,
in a particular context, is relatively
unstable and therefore easily broken or
invaded by other chemical species or
radicals; e.g. the double bond in
ethylene (CH2=CH2) is highly reactive in
the presence of other ethylene
molecules, leading to a polymerization
reaction that forms polyethylene.[4]
reactive intermediate

reactivity
The tendency of a particular chemical
substance to undergo a chemical
reaction, either by itself or with other
substances, generally referring to either
or both of two distinct observations:
whether or not a substance reacts under
a specific set of circumstances, and
how quickly it reacts (i.e. the reaction
rate). Thermodynamically, a chemical
reaction occurs because the products
(taken as a group) exist at a lower free
energy than the reactants, and hence are
more energetically "stable", but the
concept of reactivity may also embody
kinetic factors, depending on the usage.
Chemical stability and chemical
compatibility are related but distinct
concepts.

reactivity series

An empirical, calculated, and structurally

analytical progression of a series of
metals, arranged by their general
reactivity from highest to lowest and
used to summarize information about
their reactions with acids and water and
the methods used to extract them from
ores.

reagent
1. Another name for a reactant.
2. A test substance that is added to a
system in order to bring about a
chemical reaction, or to see whether a
reaction occurs.

redox

reducing agent

A chemical species that loses or

donates one or more electrons to
another species, called the oxidizing
agent, in a redox reaction, thereby
causing the reduction of the other
species and in turn being itself oxidized.
The reducing agent's oxidation state
increases, while the oxidizing agent's
decreases.[3]

reduction
The decrease in the oxidation state of a
chemical species in a redox reaction,
generally by gaining electrons. Contrast
oxidation.

reduction potential

refractory
1. Having a high melting point.[3]
2. A material that is resistant to
decomposition by heat, pressure, or
chemical attack, and retains its strength
and form at high temperatures, making
it suitable for applications in
environments exposed to such
conditions. Refractories are usually
polycrystalline, polyphase, inorganic,
non-metallic, porous, and
heterogeneous compounds.

resonance

retort
A laboratory apparatus used for the
distillation or dry distillation of chemical
substances, traditionally consisting of a
spherical vessel with a long, downward-
pointing neck that conducts the
condensed vapors produced by
distillation into a separate collection
vessel.
 reversible reaction
A chemical reaction that can proceed in
either direction depending on the
reaction conditions, i.e. from reactants
to products or from products to
reactants, especially implying one in
which both conversions occur
simultaneously. Contrast irreversible
reaction.

rotamer

round-bottom flask

rust

S
s-block
The collective name for the elements in
Groups 1 and 2 of the periodic table (the
alkali and alkaline metals), as well as
hydrogen and helium.

saline solution
A common term for a solution of
sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolved in
water (H2O).

salt
Any ionic compound composed of one
or more anions and one or more
cations.

salt bridge
A device used to connect reduction with
oxidation half-cells in an
electrochemical cell.

saturation

Schrödinger equation
A quantum state equation which
represents the behaviour of an electron
around an atom.

second-order reaction

semiconductor
An electrically conductive solid whose
degree of conductivity lies somewhere
between that of a conductor and that of
an insulator.
serial dilution

side chain
A chemical substituent group that is
attached to the core part or "backbone"
of a larger molecule, especially an
oligomeric or polymeric hydrocarbon
chain that branches off of the longer
primary chain of a macromolecule. The
term is most commonly encountered in
biochemistry and organic chemistry.

single bond
A bond that involves the sharing of one
pair of electrons.

skeletal formula

sol
A suspension of solid particles in a
liquid. Artificial examples include sol-
gels.

solid
One of the four fundamental states of
matter, characterized by relatively low-
energy particles packed closely together
in rigid structures with definite shape
and volume. See Young's modulus.

solid-phase extraction (SPE)

solubility
The property of a solid, liquid, or
gaseous solute to dissolve in a solid,
liquid, or gaseous solvent. It is typically
expressed as the proportion of solute
dissolved in the solvent in a fully
saturated solution.

{\
tex
tst {\t
yle exts
K_{ tyle
{\c K_{{
e \ce
{s}} {sp}
solubility product (}} or )
}}}
A measure of the solubility of an ionic
solute, expressed as the arithmetic
product of the concentrations of its ions
in a fully saturated solution, with respect
to the solute's particular dissociation
equilibria and the particular ions
present. For a dissociation equilibrium
{\textstyle \mathrm {{A_{x}}
{B_{y}}_{(s)}} \leftrightharpoons
\mathrm {xA_{(aq)}^{+}}
, the
+\mathrm {yB_{(aq)}^{-}} }
solubility product of the ionic solute
{\text
style
\math
rm
{A_{x}}
\math
rm {\textstyle K_{{\ce
{B_{y}} {s}}}=[{\ce {A+}}]^{x}
is given by [{\ce {B-}}]^{y}} ,
}
 {\te {\te
xtstyl xtsty
e le
[{\ce [{\ce
{A+}} {B-}}]
where ]} and } are the
concentrations of the solute's ionic
constituents in a saturated solution. The
solubility product is derived from and
functions like the equilibrium constant
of dissociation, though unlike an
equilibrium constant it is not
dimensionless. If the product of ionic
concentrations in a solution exceeds the
solubility product, then precipitation
occurs.[3]
solute
The part of a solution that is dissolved
into the solvent. For example, sodium
chloride (NaCl) is the solute in a solution
of saline water.

solution
A homogeneous mixture made up of
multiple substances generally referred
to as solutes and solvents.

solvated electron

solvation
Any stabilizing interaction of a solute
with a solvent, or a similar interaction
between a solvent and groups of an
insoluble material (e.g. the ionic groups
of an ion-exchange resin). Such
interactions generally involve
electrostatic forces and van der Waals
forces, as well as compound-specific
effects such as hydrogen bonding.[2]
See also dissolution.

solvation shell

solvent
The part of a solution that dissolves the
solute. For example, water (H2O) is the
solvent in a solution of saline water.

sonication

The process of irradiating a substance

with sound energy, usually at ultrasound
(>20 kHz) frequencies, in order to
agitate the particles in a sample for
various purposes, such as increasing
the rate of a chemical reaction or
preparing vesicles in mixtures of
surfactants and water.[2]

spatial isomer
See stereoisomer.

specific heat capacity (cp)

The heat capacity of a sample of a

substance divided by the mass of the
sample. Informally, it is the amount of
heat that must be added to one unit of
mass of the substance in order to cause
an increase of one unit in temperature.
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is
joule per kelvin per kilogram (J/K/kg).
Specific heat capacity often varies with
temperature and with each state of
matter.

spectrochemistry

spectrometry
See mass spectrometry.

spectroscopy
The study of radiation and matter, such
as X-ray absorption and emission
spectroscopy.

standard solution

standard conditions of temperature and

pressure (STP)
A standardisation of ambient
temperature and pressure used in order
to easily compare experimental results.
Standard temperature is 25 degrees
Celsius (°C) and standard pressure is
100.000 kilopascals (kPa). Standard
conditions are often denoted with the
abbreviation STP or SATP.

state of matter
The condition of matter existing in a
distinct, homogeneous, macroscopic
form. Solid, liquid, gas, and plasma are
the four traditional states of matter and
the most well-known. See also phase.

stepwise reaction
stereochemistry

stereogenic center

stereoisomer

An isomer which possesses an identical

chemical composition but which differs
in the spatial arrangement of its atoms.

stoichiometry
The calculation of quantities of
reactants and products in chemical
reactions. Stoichiometry is based on the
law of conservation of mass and the
observation that quantities of reactants
and products typically exist in ratios of
positive integers, implying that if the
amounts of the separate reactants are
known, then the amounts of the
products can be calculated, and vice
versa.

strong acid
An acid that completely dissociates in
solution according to the reaction
{\displaystyle {\ce {HA + S
<=> SH+ + A-}}} , or to such
an extent that the concentration of the
{\d
ispl
ays
tyle
{\ce
{HA
undissociated species }}} is too low to
be measured. Any acid with a pKa of
less than approximately -2 is generally
considered a strong acid; an example is
hydrochloric acid (HCl). Contrast weak
acid.

strong base

structural formula
A graphical representation of the
molecular structure and geometry of a
particular chemical compound, showing
how the atoms are arranged in real,
three-dimensional space. Chemical
bonding within the molecule is also
shown, either implicitly or explicitly.
When known with certainty, structural
formulas are very useful because they
allow chemists to visualize the
molecules and the structural changes
that occur in them during chemical
reactions.

structural isomer

subatomic particle
Any particle that is smaller than an
atom. Examples include protons,
neutrons, and electrons.

sublimation
The phase transition of a substance
from a solid to a limewater fuel or gas
without an apparent intervening
transition to a liquid in the process.
substance
See chemical substance.

substituent
An atom or a group of atoms which
replaces another atom or group of
atoms within a larger molecule as the
product of a chemical reaction, thereby
becoming a moiety of the newly formed
compound, generally without causing
any significant change to other parts of
the same molecule. For example, a
hydroxyl group may be substituted for
any of the hydrogen atoms in benzene
to form phenol. See also side chain and
functional group.
substitution reaction
A type of chemical reaction in which one
functional group within a larger
compound replaces or is substituted for
another functional group.

superheavy elements
See transactinides.

surface science

surface tension

surfactant
A substance which lowers the surface
tension of the medium in which it is
dissolved, and/or the interfacial tension
with other phases, and, accordingly, is
 positively adsorbed at the liquid–vapor
and/or other interfaces.[2]

suspension
A heterogeneous mixture that contains
solid particles which are sufficiently
large for sedimentation to occur, by
which such particles separate from and
settle out of the fluid over time if left
undisturbed. In a suspension, the solute
does not dissolve but remains dispersed
or suspended throughout the fluid
solvent only transiently and with
mechanical agitation. Contrast colloid
and solution.

T
tarnish
A thin layer of corrosion that forms on
the surface of copper, brass, aluminum,
magnesium, and other soft metals or
alloys as their outermost layer
undergoes a chemical reaction with the
surrounding air, often but not
necessarily involving atmospheric
oxygen. Tarnish usually appears as a
dull grey, black, or sometimes iridescent
film or coating on the metal. It is a self-
limiting surface phenomenon, as the
tarnished top layers of the metal protect
underlying layers from reacting.

temperature
A proportional measure of the average
kinetic energy of the random motions of
the constituent microscopic particles of
a system. The SI unit for temperature is
the kelvin.

ternary compound
A chemical compound containing three
different elements.[3]

terpene
A class of naturally occurring
unsaturated hydrocarbons with carbon
skeletons derived from one or more
units of isoprene (C5H8). Terpenes are
often subclassified according to the
total number of carbon atoms they
contain, e.g. the C5 hemiterpenes, C10
monoterpenes, C20 diterpenes, etc.

theoretical yield
See yield.

thermal conductivity
The property of a material that allows it
to conduct thermal energy or heat (a
 {
\
d
i
s
p
l
a
y
s
t
y
l
e
k
quantity often denoted by } ).
thermochemistry
The study of the absorption or release
of heat during a chemical reaction.

thermodynamic stability
The condition of a system being in its
lowest energy state with its environment
(equilibrium).

thermodynamics
The study of the effects of changing
temperature, volume or pressure (or
work, heat, and energy) on a
macroscopic scale.

thermometer
An instrument used to measure
temperature.
thiol
1. Any of a class of organosulfur
compounds consisting of a sulfur atom
attached to a hydrogen atom and any
other organic substituent, with the
general formula R–SH. Thiols are the
sulfur analogues of alcohols. Also thiol
derivative and mercaptan.
2. The –SH functional group itself. Also
sulfhydryl, sulfanyl, and mercapto.

The
skeletal
formula for
a generic
thiol,
where R
denotes a
variable
carbon-
containing
substituen
t group
titration

A laboratory method of quantitative

chemical analysis that is used to
determine the concentration of an
identified analyte. The procedure
involves preparing a particular reagent
as a standard solution of known
concentration and volume (called the
titrant or titrator) and allowing it to react
with a solution of the analyte (called the
titrand) to determine the latter's
concentration.

torr
A unit for measuring pressure,
equivalent to 133.322 Pa or
1.3158 × 10−3 atm.

trace element
An element in a sample which has an
average concentration of less than 100
parts per million atoms or less than 100
micrograms per gram.[4]

transactinides

In the periodic table, the set of chemical

elements with an atomic number greater
than 103, i.e. those heavier than the
actinides. The transactinides are a
subset of the transuranic elements.

transition metal
An element whose atoms naturally
occur with incompletely filled "d" sub-
shells. These elements are grouped as
the so-called d-block elements in the
periodic table.

transuranic elements

The set of chemical elements with an

atomic number greater than 92, i.e.
occurring after uranium in the periodic
table. None of the transuranic elements
are stable in natural conditions.

triple bond
A bond that involves the covalent
sharing of three pairs of electrons (for
example, the diatomic nitrogen
molecule, N2, is composed of two
nitrogen atoms linked by a triple bond).
 triple point
The place where temperature and
pressure of three phases are the same.
Water has a special phase diagram.

A phase
diagram
showing
the triple
point and
critical
point of a
substanc
e

Tyndall effect
The effect of light scattering by colloidal
or suspended particles.

UN number
A four-digit code used to note
hazardous and flammable substances.

uncertainty
The notion that any measurement that
involves estimation of any amount
cannot be exactly reproducible.

uncertainty principle
Knowing the location of a particle
makes the momentum uncertain, while
knowing the momentum of a particle
makes the location uncertain.

unit cell
The smallest repeating unit of a
crystalline lattice.

unit factor
 Statements used in converting between
units.

unpaired electron

vacuum flask

A storage vessel consisting of two

flasks or other containers, placed one
within the other and joined at the neck,
and a space in between that is partially
evacuated of air, creating a near-vacuum
that significantly reduces the transfer of
heat between the vessel's interior and its
ambient environment. Vacuum flasks
can greatly lengthen the time over which
their contents remain warmer or cooler
than the ambient environment.

valence electron
Any of the outermost electrons of an
atom, which are located in electron
shells.

valence bond theory

A theory explaining the chemical
bonding within molecules by discussing
valencies, the number of chemical
bonds formed by an atom.

valency
The combining capacity of an element.

van der Waals force

One of the forces (attraction/repulsion)
between molecules.

van 't Hoff factor

The ratio of moles of particles in
solution to moles of solute dissolved.

vapor
When a substance is below the critical
temperature while in the gas phase.

vapor pressure

The pressure exerted by a vapor which

is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its
condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a
given temperature in a closed system. It
is commonly described as the tendency
of particles to spontaneously escape
from the liquid or solid state into the
gaseous state and is used as an
indication of a liquid's evaporation rate.

vaporization

The phase transition of a substance

from a liquid to a gas.

vaporization point
See boiling point.

viscosity
A measure of the resistance of a liquid
to flow.

volatility
A material quality which describes how
readily a substance vaporizes. At a given
temperature and pressure, a substance
with high volatility is more likely to exist
as a gas, while a substance with low
volatility is more likely to exist as a liquid
or solid; equivalently, less volatile
substances will more readily condense
from a gaseous state than highly volatile
ones.

volt (V)
A derived unit of electric potential,
electric potential difference, and
electromotive force, defined as one joule
of work per coulomb.

voltmeter
An instrument that measures electrical
cell potential.

volume
The quantity of three-dimensional space
enclosed by a closed surface, or the
space that a substance (solid, liquid,
gas, or plasma) or shape occupies or
contains. The SI unit for volume is the
cubic metre (m3).

volumetric analysis
See titration.

volumetric flask

W
watch glass
A circular, concave piece of glass
commonly used in chemistry
laboratories as a working surface for
various purposes, such as evaporating
liquids, holding solids while they are
being weighed, heating small amounts
of a substance, or as a cover for a
beaker.

water
A polar inorganic compound with the
chemical formula H2O that is a
tasteless, odorless, and generally
colorless liquid at standard temperature
and pressure, though it also occurs
naturally as a solid and a gas at the
Earth's surface. It is the most abundant
substance on Earth and therefore an
integral component of virtually all
chemical and biological systems. Water
is often described as the "universal
solvent" for its inherent ability to
dissolve many substances.

water of crystallization

Water molecules that are present inside

crystals. Upon crystallization from water
or aqueous solutions, many compounds
incorporate water in their crystalline
frameworks; the water molecules are
typically present in a stoichiometric ratio
and may interact to varying degrees with
the atoms of the crystal.

wave function
A mathematical function describing the
position of an electron in a three-
dimensional space.

weak acid
An acid that only partially dissociates
when dissolved in a solvent because,
according to the reaction
{\displaystyle {\ce
{HA <=> H+ + A-}}} , equilibrium is
reached while the concentration of the
 {\d
ispl
ays
tyle
{\ce
{HA
undissociated species }}} is still
significant; an example is acetic acid
(CH3COOH). Contrast strong acid.

weak base

wet chemistry

A form of analytical chemistry which

uses classical laboratory methods such
as simple observation and elementary
chemical tests to study chemicals and
 chemical reactions, i.e. without the use
of sophisticated instruments or
automated or computerized analysis. It
is often used in schools to teach the
principles of chemistry to students.

wetting agent

work

work-up
The series of manipulations required to
isolate and purify the desired product or
products of a chemical reaction.

X-ray
 A form of ionizing, electromagnetic
radiation between gamma and UV rays
in the electromagnetic spectrum.

X-ray diffraction
a method for establishing structures of
crystalline solids using single
wavelength X-rays and looking at
diffraction pattern.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

A spectroscopic technique used to
measure the chemical composition of a
material.

yield
 The quantifiable amount of product
produced during a chemical reaction.

zero-point energy (ZPE)

zone melting
Any of several methods of purifying
crystalline solids which involve applying
heat to a small region of a larger solid
(particularly a metal ingot) until
localized melting occurs, creating a
molten zone which is then slowly moved
along the surface to other parts of the
solid by moving the target of the heating
element. As it moves, the forward edge
of the molten zone continuously melts
new areas of impure solid, while leaving
a path of purer solid behind it as
previously melted areas are cooled and
resolidified; because the molten liquid
phase can hold a higher concentration
of impurities than the solid phase, the
impurities of melted areas tend to
concentrate in the molten zone and be
carried along as it moves, leaving behind
regions with fewer impurities. The
process is commonly used in the
refinement of high-purity metalloids for
use in semiconductors.

zinc
 A metallic chemical element with atomic
number 30 and symbol Zn.

zwitterion

Any molecule that contains an internal

polarity by virtue of having an equal
number of positively charged and
negatively charged functional groups.

See also

Outline of chemistry
Index of chemistry articles
List of chemical elements
Glossary of areas of mathematics
Glossary of biology
 Glossary of engineering
Glossary of physics

References

1. Otoxby, D. W.; Gillis, H. P.; Butler, L. J.

(2015). Principles of Modern Chemistry
(8th ed.). Brooks Cole. p. 617. ISBN 978-
1305079113.
2. IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical
Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book").
Compiled by A. D. McNaught and A.
Wilkinson. Blackwell Scientific Publications,
Oxford (1997). Online version (2019-)
created by S. J. Chalk. ISBN 0-9678550-9-8.
https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook .
3. Daintith, John, ed. (2004). A Dictionary of
Chemistry (https://openlibrary.org/works/O
L18318889W/A_dictionary_of_chemistry?e
dition=ia%3Adictionaryofchem0000unse_r
3p4) (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-860918-3.
4. Dictionary of Chemistry (https://openlibrary.
org/works/OL14995635W/Dictionary_of_C
hemistry?edition=ia%3Adictionaryofchem0
0mcgr_1) (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-
Hill. 2003. ISBN 0-07-141046-5.
5. American Chemical Society. "CAS Registry
and CASRNs" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20080725010848/http://www.cas.org/ex
pertise/cascontent/registry/regsys.html#q
2#q2) . Archived from the original (http://w
ww.cas.org/expertise/cascontent/registry/r
 egsys.html#q2) on 25 July 2008. Retrieved
25 July 2009.
. Organic Chemistry (3rd Edition) Marye
Anne Fox, James K. Whitesell Jones &
Bartlett Publishers (2004)
ISBN 0763721972
7. IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical
Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book")
(1997). Online corrected version: (2006–)
"Chirality (https://goldbook.iupac.org/C010
58.html) ". doi:10.1351/goldbook.C01058
(https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.C01
058)
. Steven A., Treese; Peter R., Pujado; David S.
J., Jones (2015). Handbook of Petroleum
Processing (2 ed.). Springer. p. 1736.
ISBN 978-3-319-14528-0.
 9. Solomon, Theodros (2001). "The definition
and unit of ionic strength". Journal of
Chemical Education. 78 (12): 1691.
Bibcode:2001JChEd..78.1691S (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JChEd..78.16
91S) . doi:10.1021/ed078p1691 (https://do
i.org/10.1021%2Fed078p1691) .
10. John P. Rafferty, ed. (2011): Minerals (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=ervUafk8
6MIC) ; p. 1. In the series Geology:
Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks. Rosen
Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1615304899

External links

IUPAC Compendium of Chemical

Terminology (https://web.archive.org/w
 eb/20100124150119/http://goldbook.iu
pac.org/index.html)
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of:
Chemistry
Wikiquote has quotations related to
English_chemistry_mnemonics.

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Glossary_of_chemistry_terms&oldid=1209715
733"

This page was last edited on 23 February 2024, at

06:57 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless
otherwise noted.