Wild Life Management Conservation

ALR 3319: WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
AND CONSERVATION
INSTRUCTOR: MR. ANTONY N. NJIRU
Department Land Resource

Management and Agricultural
Technology
What is wildlife
ü Wildlife means any vertebrate, creature other than human
beings and animals of usually domestic species or fish and
includes till eggs of birds and reptiles
Ø Example: Lion, deer,crocodiles, whales, trees etc
ü Wildlife refers to living organism (flora and fauna) in their
natural habitat
vBut cultivated plants and domestic animals are not

included in wildlife
What is wildlife
üWildlife means the native animals and plants
of a region
üWildlife includes any animal, insect, aquatic or
land vegetation that forms a part of any
habitat
üThus, this includes all varieties of flora and
fauna, what is popularly known as biological
diversity
What is wildlife management
üWildlife management is the guidance of decision-
making processes and implementation of practices
to purposefully influence interactions among and
between people, wildlife, and habitats to achieve
impacts valued by stakeholders
üSimply put, Wildlife management is the science of
managing wildlife and its habitat, including people
üIt is the sum of activities, policies, cultural practices,
and laws and rules of governments and private
citizens whereby a society provides for itself the
amount and kind of wildlife that meets its perceived
needs
What is wildlife management
üWildlife management is a general term for the
process of keeping wild species at desirable levels
which are determined by wildlife managers
üWildlife management is the art and science of
reaching goals by manipulating and/or maintaining
wildlife habitats and population
üThe process involves many components e.g.
- Your own knowledge and understanding of
wildlife population trends
- Factors that influence wildlife population
- The interaction of wildlife species
- The impact of humans
- How surrounding landscape affects wildlife
Kind of wildlife management
üWildlife management implies stewardship, that is
the looking after of a population
üA population is a group of coexisting individuals of
the same species
üWhen stewardship fails, conservation becomes
imperative
üUnder these circumstances, wildlife management
shifts to remedial or restoration activities
üWildlife management may be either manipulative
or custodial
Manipulative management
üManipulative management does something to a
population, either changing its numbers by direct
means or influencing numbers by the indirect
means of altering food supply, habitat, density of
predators, or prevalence of disease
üManipulative management is appropriate when a
population is to be harvested, or when it slides to
an unacceptably low density, or when it increases
to an unacceptably high level
Custodial management
üCustodial management on the other hand is
preventative or protective
üIt is aimed at minimizing external influences on the
population and its habitat
üIt is not aimed necessarily at stabilizing the system
but at allowing free rein to the ecological processes
that determine the dynamics of the system
üSuch management may be appropriate in a national
park where one of the stated goals is to protect
ecological processes and it may be appropriate for
conservation of a threatened species where the
threat is of external origin rather than being
intrinsic to the system
üRegardless of whether manipulative or
custodial management is called for, it is vital
that;
(i) The management problem is identified
correctly
(ii) The goals of management explicitly
address the solution to the problem
(iii) Criteria for assessing the success of the
management are clearly identified
üA wildlife population may be managed in one
of four ways:
1. Make it increase
2. Make it decrease
3. Harvest it for a continuing yield
4. Leave it alone but keep an eye on it
üThese are the only options available to the
manager in relation to wildlife population
management
üThree decisions are needed
(i) What is the desired goal
(ii) Which management option is therefore
appropriate
(iii) By what action is the management option
best achieved
üThe first decision requires a judgment of value, the
others technical judgments
üFurther readings Sinclair et al 2006: Wildlife Ecology,
Conservation, and Management, 2nd Edition)
Why wildlife management
üThe wildlife help us in maintaining balance of
nature
üIt can increase our foreign exchange if linked
with tourism
üThe preservation of wild life helps to make
their study easy
üThe wildlife is our cultural asset and deep
rooted effect on art,sculpture and religion
üTo preserve the genetic diversity of plants and
animals for better growth and breeding
üTo ensure sustainable development, using the
finite resources in a judicious manner
Concept of Sustainable Development
ü Sustainable development is development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland
commission, 1987)
ü Sustainability - The ability to maintain or support a
process continously over time (the possibility that human
and other forms of life on earth flourish forever)
ü Thus, sustainability requires managing the needs of
development in a way that ensures that the economy
and society continue to exist without destroying the
natural resources on which we depend
ü The main objective of sustainable development is to
protect the nature/environment and reduce inequality
and poverty
üTherefore, sustainable development is a strategy of
driving growth while using resources efficiently,
taking into consideration the immediate and long-
term well-being of our environment/nature and
people
üThe four concepts of sustainable development
which forms the pillars of national development
are;
- Humans
- Economic
- Social
- Environment
Importance of sustainable development
üEcological consideration is vital for development
üWorking on the nature of human existence while
living inside the conveying limit of supporting
environments/nature
üI m p ro v e m e n t i n l i g h t o f t h e r u l e b e t w e e n
generational {i.e. giving something similar or further
developed asset gift to the future that has been
acquired), between species, and between bunch
value
üImprovement that addresses the issues of the
present without compromising the capacity of
people in the future to address their own issues.
üAn ecological ‘handrail’ to direct the turn of
events
üAn adjustment of utilization designs towards
mo re ha r m l e s s i te m s , a n d a c h a n ge i n
speculation designs toward expanding
ecological capital
üAn interaction that looks to make manifest a
better quality of living (but deciphered) for
individuals that perceives this can’t be
accomplished to the detriment of natural
honesty
Importance of Sustainable Development
Goals of sustainable development
üTo limit the exhaustion of regular assets while
making new turns of events
üTo make an advancement that can be kept up
with and supported without really hurting the
nature and climate
üTo give techniques to retrofitting existing
advancements to make them harmless to the
ecosystem offices and ventures.
Components of Sustainable Development
üF o r ‘ S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t ’ t h e
government has to ensure that there are
institutional mechanisms in place to achieve
sustainable development in all three areas
(social, economic and environment)
ü T h e S u sta i n a b l e D e ve l o p m e n t c a n b e
achieved by a sustained, organized and
coordinated efforts at all levels to bring about
socio-economic development and
environmental sustainability
1. Economic Sustainability
ü Economic – This revolves around the efficient and
responsible use of resources results in long-term
profitability and viability of any venture
ü Economic sustainability involves creating economic value
out of whatever project or decision which are undertaken
ü Economic sustainability means that decisions are made in
the most equitable and fiscally sound way possible while
considering the other aspects of sustainability
ü In economic sustainability, all the decisions must be taken
with the long term benefits in mind rather than just the
short term benefits
üT h e G o v e r n m e n t c a n i m p r o v e e c o n o m i c
sustainability by prohibiting no-nonsense land use
and by planning, providing subsidies or tax breaks
for green development, reducing unnecessary
spending and cutting red tape
üStrong financial support for universities, education
programs, and research & development is an
important part of economic sustainability
üWhen good business practices are combined with
the social and environmental aspects of
sustainability, a positive result for the greater good
of humanity can be obtained
2. Social Sustainability
ü Social – A focus on initiatives like employee safety, wellness,
and diversity and inclusion supports the creation of
healthier communities that can sustain themselves
ü Social sustainability is based on the concept that a decision
or project promotes the betterment of society
ü The idea behind the social sustainability is that future
generations should have the same or greater quality of life
benefits as the current generation have
ü S o c i a l s u sta i n a b i l i t y e n co m p a s s e s h u m a n r i g ht s ,
environmental law, and public involvement & participation
üFor example, The Water (Prevention and Control)
Act, checks on water pollution and enforcing
procedures to set minimum water quality standards
for both surface and drinking water
üIt should prevent illegal discharge of pollutants,
trade effluents in adjacent rivers, lakes, and streams
üThus the health of members of society and animals
depending on the water are protected
üIf we fail to put emphasis on social sustainability
then it can result in the slow collapse of the spheres
of sustainability (and society as well)
3. Environmental Sustainability
ü Environmental – Reducing waste and carbon footprints
while maximizing energy efficiency helps to reverse
negative impacts on the environment such as pollution
and global warming
ü Sustainable Environment is an ecosystem which would
maintain its populations, biodiversity, and overall
functionality over an extended period of time
ü Environmental Sustainability promotes equilibrium within
natural systems and seeks to encourage positive growth
üTo m a i n t a i n E n v i r o n m e n t a l S u s t a i n a b i l i t y
unnecessary disturbances to the environment
should be avoided whenever possible
üIf there is no alternative but to disturb the
ecosystem then it should be mitigated to the
maximum practicable extent
üIt also involves proper management of our natural
resources. For every development decision,
importance must always be given to the
environmental impacts of the outcome of the
proposed development
Pillars of Sustainable Development
üM c G o l d r i c k i n h i s b o o k , S u s t a i n a b l e
Development, and Human Rights: An
Integrated Conception has depicted the
sustainable development as a three-pillar
structure of a temple
üA c c o r d i n g t o h i m , t h e C e n t r a l P i l l a r
representing International Environmental
Laws is giving maximum support to the
structure
Pillars of Sustainable Development
Measures of Sustainable Development
üThe efficiency of resource utilization by all
societies
üSocial equity through poverty reduction and
gender equity
üReduction of emission of greenhouse gases
üReduction in the use of ozone-depleting
substances
üReduction in air pollution
üReduction in use of chemical fertilizers
üStopping desertification
üStopping deforestation
Measures of Sustainable Development
üPreservation of biological diversity in terrestrial,
freshwater and marine systems
üSustainable use of resources and minimizing the
depletion of resources
üCaring for the environment and nature in general
üImproving the quality of life including social and
economic concerns
üConservation of natural capital both for renewable
and non- renewable resources
üConservation of natural and cultural diversity
üL i m i t s o n n a t u ra l re s o u rc e u t i l i za t i o n a n d
assimilation of wastes
Causes of Unsustainability
üIncreasing human population
üOver-exploitation of resources to meet human
needs like fuel, food, fodder, shelter etc
üActivities like fishing, agriculture, overuse of fresh
water, deforestation, and industrialization
üL a n d c l e a r i n g l e a d s t o p r o b l e m s l i ke s o i l
degradation, pollution, loss of biodiversity,
deforestation, desertification, climate change
üSocial degradation due to factors like increasing
unemployment, health crisis, armed conflict,
urbanization, poverty, income inequity
Causes of Unsustainability
List more causes of unsustainability
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Concepts on wildlife management
üWildlife management involves the conservation
and sustainable use of wildlife populations and
their habitats
üThe primary goal is to ensure the long-term
v i a b i l i t y o f s p e c i e s a n d e c o sy ste m s w h i l e
considering human needs and interests
üW i l d l i f e m a n a g e m e n t i s a c o m p l e x a n d
interdisciplinary field that involves the sustainable
conservation and utilization of wildlife populations
üH e r e a r e s o m e k e y c o n c e p t s i n w i l d l i f e
management
Limiting factors
üThis is the habitat requirement that is in
shortest supply
üThe limiting factor preventing the wildlife
population from growing (food, water and
cover) can usually be increased
üSpace usually cannot be increased
Carrying capacity
ü This is the number of a given species that a habitat can sustain
(the maximum population size that an environment can sustain
over the long term)
ü Wildlife managers aim to keep populations within sustainable
limits to prevent habitat degradation and resource depletion
ü The quality and quantity of food, cover, water and space
determines the carrying capacity
ü Biological carrying capacity varies from seasoon to season and
often from year to year
ü Highest when there is plenty of food - most young are born,
there is adequate nutrition and cover are available for growth
and survival, young wildlife and animals in poor health
experience the highest mortality rates
Fragmented landscape
Two consideration
üEdges - Habitat edges or acetones are the transition
zones between two or more plants
üCorridors
- Habitat connecting other isolated patches of
habitat
- Provides for movement of organism
- Larger corridors provide habitat for more species
Population monitoring
ü Census techniques - using various methods like camera
traps, satellites imagery and population modelling to
estimate wildlife numbers
ü Mark and recupture - Tagging or marking individuals and
then estimating population size based on recapture
Population Dynamics
ü Understanding the dynamics of wildlife populations is
crucial
ü This involves studying birth rates, death rates, migration
patterns, and overall population trends (understanding
factors influencing reproduction and mortality)
ü Popolation density - managing populations to avoid
overpopulation or extinction risks
Conservation genetics
ü Genetic diversity - maintaining a diverse gene pool
within populations to enhance resilience
ü Genetic monitoring - tracking genetic changes
within populations over time
Climate change adaptation
üMitigation - addressing factors contributing to
climate change
üAdaptation - helping wildlife population adjust to
changing climatic conditions
Endangered Species Management
üEndangered species are frequently the subject of
conservation efforts
ü To prevent/stop extinction, this entails keeping an
eye on populations, safeguarding /protecting
habitats, and implementing recovery programs
Invasive Species Control
üInvasive species can disrupt ecosystems and
threaten native wildlife
üWildlife managers develop strategies to control or
eradicate invasive species to protect biodiversity
Human-Wildlife Conflict Resolution
üThis looks at mitigation measures for human-wildlife
conflicts
üAs human populations expand, conflicts between
wildlife and humans increase
üWildlife managers work to find solutions to mitigate
conflicts, such as developing effective fencing,
educational programs, or translocating problem
animals
Succession
üSuccession is the replacement of one biological
community with another
Disease Management
üSurveillance - entails monitoring wildlife for
diseases that can have a big impacts on populations
üPrevention and control - Wildlife managers strive to
implement measures that monitor, prevent
outbreak and safeguard both domestic animals and
wildlife by keeping an eye on the development and
spread of diseases
Game Management
üGame species, such as those hunted for sport,
recreation or food, require specific management
strategies to ensure sustainable harvests
üThis involves setting hunting seasons, bag limits,
and implementing regulations
Hunting and harvesting
ü Sustainable harvest - regulating hunting and
fishing to ensure that it does not exceed the capacity
of population to reproduce
ü Quotas - setting limits on the number and type of
animals that can be harvested
Predator-Prey Dynamics
üT h i s r e v o l v e s a r o u n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e
relationships between predators and prey which is
key and critical in wildlife management
üTo preser ve a balanced ecosystem, wildlife
managers may need to control or suppress or
reintroduce specific species
Habitat Management
üProtecting and enhancing habitats is essential for
wildlife management
üThis includes maintaining biodiversity, ensuring
suitable food and water sources, and managing
landscapes to meet the needs of different species
Ecosystem Management
üHolistic approach - This is an approach which
considers the holistic health of an entire ecosystem
rat h e r t h a n fo c u s i n g o n i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s
(managing entire ecosystems to ensure the well-
being of multiple species)
üKeystone species - identifying and protecting
species that have a disproportionate impact on
their ecosystem
üE c o s y s t e m - b a s e d m a n a g e m e n t , w h i c h
acknowledges/recognizes the interdependence
(interconnectedness) of species and their habitats
(environment), seek to maintain and preserve
robust, health and functioning ecosystems
Monitoring, Research and Technology
üRegular monitoring and research provide essential
data for wildlife management decisions
üThis includes tracking population trends, studying
behavior, and assessing the effectiveness of
management strategies
üTechnological advances - Using innovations like
satellite tracking, DNA analysis, and remote sensing
for effective management
üScientific Research - Conducting studies to better
u n d e rsta n d w i l d l i fe b e h av i o r, e co l o g y, a n d
population dynamics
Education and outreach (Community Involvement)
üPublic awareness - educating the public about the
importance of wildlife conservation
üC o m m u n i t y i n v o l v e m e n t - E n g a g i n g l o c a l
c o m m u n i t i e s i n w i l d l i fe m a n a g e m e n t a n d
conservation effort is important
üC o l l a b o ra t i o n - C o l l a b o ra t i ve e f fo r t s w i t h
communities can lead to more effective
conservation strategies and better outcomes for
both wildlife and people
Legislation and Policy
üLegal frameworks and policies play a crucial role in
wildlife management
üT h e s e r e g u l a t i o n s h e l p s e t s t a n d a r d s f o r
conservation, hunting, and habitat protection
üProtected Areas - Establishing and managing
national parks, reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries.
üWildlife Acts and Regulations - Enforcing laws to
p reve nt i l l e ga l h u nt i n g , t ra d e , a n d h a b i tat
destruction
üThese concepts are often applied in a dynamic and
adaptive manner, considering the evolving needs of
wildlife populations and their habitats
üEffective wildlife management requires a balance
between conservation goals, sustainable use, and
the socio-economic needs of human communities
üEf fe c t i v e w i l d l i fe m a n a g e m e n t re q u i re s a
combination of science, community involvement,
and policy implementation to strike a balance
between human activities and the conservation of
biodiversity
Habitat requirements of wildlife
The four basic Habitat requirements of wildlife
ü Every wildlife species requires a general environment in
which to live
ü Therefore to properly manage land for the benefit of
wildlife, landowners must be aware of those things in the
environment that wildlife need to survive and reproduce
ü The environment or natural home where a wild animal
lives is called its habitat
ü Just like humans, wild animals have specific requirements
that they get at home; food, water, cover and space
Habitat requirements of wildlife includes;
üFood requirements
üWater requirements
üCover (shelter) requirements
üSpace requirements
üWildlife need a place to hide, rest, move about and
mate
üCover is any part of an animal’s environment that
provides protection and enhances the survival or
reproduction of the animal
üThings in their environment to hide under and also
to hide behind, or some types of obstruction
between tha animal and potential predator
üCover has two components;
- It provides shelter from adverse weather
conditions
- It provide protection from predators
üThese covers are different types and can be
classified as;
- Nesting cover
- Roosting cover
- Screening or escape cover
- Dusting cover
- Brood-rearing cover
- Loafing cover
- Thermal cover
üSome wildlife are not very selective about the cover
while others are very selective about the cover they
require
üTherefore if a landowner removes or changes the
amount or specific type of cover available to the
wildlife in that area the local wildlife population
may be affected
üGiven the interrelated cover needs of numerous
wildlife species it is probably impossible to manage
cover for one species without influencing others
üLandowners should consider what constitute a
proper breeding site
üSometimes it may appear that the habitat provides
everything wildlife need to survive and prosper, yet
the population never seem to increase
üThis failure to increase in numbers may be related
to a lack of breeding sites
üLandowner too need to understand the concept of
travel corridors
üThe travel corridors are areas of continous or
unbroken habitat that permit animals to travel
securely from one habitat to another
üA s e nv i ro n m e nt s b e co m e m o re b ro ke n u p
(fragmented) from road construction, urban sprawl,
agricultural clearing, or industrial development, it
is important to connect remaining wildlife habitats
üTravel corridors connect these islands, and should
be maintained or created, if possible because they
allow wildlife to find and use the islands of suitable
habitats
üAnimals requires water for several reasons;
digestion and metabolism, reducing body
temperature and removal of metabolic wastes
among others
üMost wildlife can survive for weeks without food
but only days without water
üTherefore wildlife need a constant supply of water
from; spring, rivers, wells, farm ponds, and other
water sources
üWater can also be obtained through a diet of green
plants, from dew on leaves, or as a byproducts of
the body breaking down fat and starches
üWater requirements varies from species to species
üThe availability of properly distributed standing
water usually enhances a wildlife population
üGrowth, size, reproduction and general body
condition usually benefit from optimum water
supplies
üWildlife animals will not inhabit areas too far from
water, even if food and cover are abundant
üLack of rainfall indirectly affects wildlife by reducing
the quantity and quality of available wildlife food
plants
üWildlife like any other animal needs food to survive
üAnimals having adequate food and proper nutrition
throughout their lives grow larger and remain
healthier than animals that experience poor
nutrition
üWildlife in good condition have higher reproduction
rates, are more resistant to diseases and can escape
predators better
üNutrition affects birth rates and death rates and is
important in the overall survival of any wild animal
population
üAVailability of food varies over time (season) and
space (geographical location)
üFood can be abundant in one area during one
season and in critically short supply in another area
during other seasons
üIn Kenya, wildlife generally experience nutritional
stress in dry season
üDuring this period many of the natural food sources
is depleted or the quality of available food has
deteriorated because of lignification (hardening of
plant cells) of plants making them less digestible
and less palatable
üCold weather forces animals to consume more food
to maintain body heat
üPlans should be put in place to ensure provision of
high quality food during the season of inadequate
ü Diet selection in wildlife is driven by the quantity and
quality of available food in concert with the nutritional
needs of the animal
ü Food availability to a predator means a prey availability
ü Predators generally do not experience problems with diet
quality because most animal matter is nutritionally
complete and easy to digest
ü Though carnivores expend a large amount of energy in
searching for, chasing, capturing and killing their food,
this extra expenditure of energy is offset by the higher
nutrient concentration in animal matter
ü Herbivores or plant eaters experience nutritional stress
due to lack or shortage of food (quantity) or by a lack of
highly nutritious food (quality)
ü Food are classifies as;
Ø Preferred - if they are more abundant in an animal’s diet
compared to its abundance in the field
Ø Staple - if they are eaten on a regular basis and meet the
nutritional needs of the animals
Ø Emergency - if they are eaten to fulfil short-term nutritional
needs
Ø Stuffers - if they are eaten because there is nothing else to eat
ü Herbivores dies from starvation from lack of enough food
to survive (food quantity)
ü Carnivores typically dies because they cannot catch
enough to eat
ü An animal die from malnutrition because they cannot
find food that meets their nutritional needs (lack of
quality food)
üA key to managing food for herbivores become one
of matching the animal’s food habitats and needs
with what the land can provide
üLandowners and managers need to be especially
aware of the problem of malnutrition
üHow landowners and managers plants communities
influences the likelihood of malnutrition for animals
in the area
üEliminating plants with high nutritional value can
have just as devastating an impact on an animal
population as shooting them with a gun
üTherefore it is critical for landowners and manager
to ensure certain types of plants and plant
communities flourish
üPlants of high quality vegetation for anaimals (food
plants), can improve the health, quality and
abundance of local wildlife populations
üSupplementing feeding of wildlife is not often
economically feasible, so management efforts
should concentrate on preventing nutritional
problems before they occur
üThe best way to prevent nutritional problems is to
provide high quality natural food
üThis is accomplished by managing the habitat
ü Space - Often referred to as home range, which is the area used
by animal for all its activities
ü Each wildlife species requires a certain amount of space to
move about, avoid or escape potential predators, locate a mate,
obtain sufficient food and water for survival and rest
ü Space requirements are behavioural and social responses that
taken hundreds of years to develop, ensuring an animal well-
being
ü Wildlife space requirements vary by species, but generally the
amount of space required is determined by the quantity and
quality of food, cover and water found in an areas
ü Other factors affecting space needs of wildlife includes;
Ø How large the animal is - larger animals require more space
Ø The animal’s dietary preferences - carnivores generally require
more space than herbivores
Ø How well the animal can withstand crowded conditions
ü Space requirements (as a function of habitat quantity and
quality) essentially determine the carrying capacity of the
site for wildlife
ü Often you can increase the carrying capacity of an area to
support wildlife by increasing the quantity and quality of
the habitat components
ü A Long-term increase in a population can only be
accomplished by increasing the habitat ’s carrying
capacity
üIn conclusion, wildlife requirements for food, cover,
space and water vary according to;
- Wildlife species
- Age and sex
- Physiological condition (gestation, lactation,
antler growth)
- Time of year (season of the year)
-Geographic location
Introduction to Conservation Philosophies
üI n w i l d l i fe m a n a ge m e nt , t h e re a re s e ve ra l
conservation philosophies that guide approaches to
the preservation, protection, and sustainable use of
wildlife
üT h e s e p h i l o s o p h i e s o f te n ref l e c t d i ffe re nt
perspectives on the relationship between humans
and nature (natural world)
üNumerous wildlife management strategies integrate

aspects from various views, demonstrating that
these conservation approaches/philosophies are
not mutually exclusive.
Introduction to Conservation Philosophies
üThe choice of philosophy often depends on the
specific goals, values, ecological contexts, cultural
contexts and socio-economic considerations of the
communities and organizations involved in wildlife
management efforts
üSuccessful wildlife management typically requires a

flexible and adaptive approach that considers the
complexities of ecosystems and human interactions
with the environment
ü Here are some key conservation philosophies

commonly applied in wildlife management
Utilitarianism (an ethical theory)
üIt state that interests of non-human animals should
be respected as equal to those of humans
üThe consequentialist ethical theory of utilitarianism
places a strong emphasis on maximizing well-being
or happiness for all
üA u t i l i ta r i a n p e rs p e c t i ve wo u l d e m p h a s i ze
maximizing the welfare or utility overall, which
might encompass both human and non-human
interests, in the context of wildlife management
üThis approach often involves assessing the costs and
benefits of different actions and making decisions
that lead to the greatest overall positive outcome
Utilitarianism
There are three principles of utilitarianism;
üPleasure or happiness is the only one thing that
really has intrinsic value
üActions are right insofar as they promote happiness

and wrong insofar as they produce unhappiness
üEveryone’s happiness counts equally

Utilitarianism
In the context of wildlife conservation, utilitarianism
might be applied as follows
üHuman-Centric Considerations
üEcosystem Services
üBalancing Costs and Benefits
üSustainable Use
üCost-Effective Conservation
üPopulation Management
üMitigating Human-Wildlife Conflict
üPublic Engagement
Utilitarianism
ü It's important to note that utilitarianism has its critics,
and ethical concerns can arise, especially when
considering the well-being of non-human species
ü Critics argue that utilitarian approaches may neglect the
intrinsic value of wildlife and ecosystems, reducing them
to mere instruments for human benefit
ü In summary, the utilitarian philosophy of conservation in
wildlife management focuses on maximizing overall well-
being, considering both human and non-human interests
ü Decisions are guided by an assessment of costs and
benefits, with the aim of achieving the greatest overall
positive outcome
Preservations approach
üReferred as Preservations or Preservationism
philosophy/approach
üPreservation means maintaining the present state
of something
üPreservation of natural resources is mainly focused
on resources that have not been touched by
humans
üPreservations philosophy advocates for protection
of natural areas and wildlife with minimal human
intervention (wildlife should be left alone)
Preservations approach
ü Preservationists favor the least amount of human
interference in the preservation of natural landscapes and
species
ü The focus is on maintaining pristine, untouched ecosystems
ü Wilderness areas are often designated where human
influence is limited to preserve biodiversity and natural
processes
ü Thus it tries to ensure that humans have no role in nature
ü Set up Sanctuaries, Preserves and National parks
ü No hunting, fishing, hiking or any form of alteration in
nature
Preservative Approach
üAccording to the preservative approach, man
should not disturb the natural system and should
adapt to it. But this is not possible because for all
types of developmental activities he will have to
use nature and its components, resulting in eco-
imbalance of varied intensity
üThe main concern for preserving some resources is
that mankind has been excessively utilizing them
for benefits such as; food, housing, farming,
industry, tourism and other human dvelopment
purposes, which has damaged their natural beauty
ü The philosophy behind the preservation of natural
resources is to keep them in a pristine state
üPreservationists want to keep things as they are, in
the belief that everything and everyone has the
right to live, thus allowing trees for example to
grow without being touched by humans
üTherefore the ultimate goal of preservation of
natural resources is to discourage the use of
resources in order to maintain their present state;
in other words, preservation does not allow the
usage of some resources
üIn summary, preservation prevents the damage of
resources by not allowing humans to interfere with
them; preservationists seek to maintain the current
condition of natural resources.
üSimply put, preservation seek protection of nature
from use.
Conservations or conservationism
ü The philososphy of conservationists emphasizes the
sustainable use of natural resources, including wildlife to
meet (suit) human needs
ü T h e go a l i s to m a n a ge w i l d l i fe p o p u l at i o n s a n d
ecosystems in a way that strikes a balance between
human activity and the environment's long-term health
ü According to conservationists wildlife is a source that can
be sustainably managed
ü So, must follow that “Take some today, but leave some
for tomorrow”
ü Thus, this philosophy often involves regulated hunting,
fishing, and forestry
Conservative Approach
üThe conservative approach is that there should not
be overexploitation of nature and conservation of
natural resources is essential for sustainable
development
üConservation promotes the wise utilization of
resurces such as wildlife, air, forests, water and
what we get from earth and allows their use in a
manner that ensure their continued availability
(sustainable use of natural resources)
üThe focus of natural resources conservation is on
the needs and interests of people; these needs
may fall under biological, cultural, recreational or
economic
üThe philosophy behind the conservation of natural
resources is that their use is a necessity for human
p r o g r e s s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s ; h o w e v e r,
conservationists stress that changes should not be
wasteful or result in the degradation of the
environment/nature
üConservationists try as much as possible to manage
the resources to make them more abundant and
allow people to benefit from them
üConservation is done to prevent the damage or
destruction before it causes more serious problems
üConservation is done to prevent the damage or
destruction before it causes more serious problems
üConservation is aimed repairing the damaged
üIn summary, conservation is geared toward
repairing the damage
üConservationists believe that natural resources
should be used in a sustainable manner that will
allow for their use by future generations
üSimply put conserevation seeks the proper use of
nature
Sustainable Development
üSustainable development seeks to integrate
conservation with human development goals
üIt emphasizes meeting the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
üThis philosophy recognizes the interconnectedness

of environmental, social, and economic factors
Eco-Centrism
üEcocentric ideologies consider ecosystems and all
living things to have inherent value (intrinsic value),
seeing them as valuable in and of themselves
üThis perspective prioritizes the well-being of the

entire ecosystem and its components, emphasizing
the interdependence of species
Anthropocentrism
üAnthropocentrism prioritizes human welfare over all
other concerns, placing humans at the center of
ethical issues
üW h i l e t h i s p h i l o s o p h y m a y r e c o g n i z e t h e
importance of nature, its primary concern is how
conservation efforts benefit human society,
whether through ecosystem services, recreational
opportunities, or aesthetic value
Deep Ecology
üBeyond anthropocentrism, deep ecology calls for a
profound (fundamental) transformation of human
values and consciousness.
üIt advocates for a more ecocentric viewpoint and

highlights the inherent worth of all living things,
urging a reevaluation of how humans interact with
the natural environment
Land Ethic
üAccording to the land ethic, people ought to
consider themselves as a part of a larger community
that encompasses soils, waters, plants, and animals.
üThis philosophy encourages responsible and ethical

behavior toward the land and its inhabitants
Restoration Ecology
üThe goal and focus of restoration ecology is to
strengthen and replenish ecosystems that have
suffered harm (damage) or degradation as a result
of human activities
üAccording to this philosophy, ecosystems can be

actively intervened upon to restore them to a more
functional and natural form.
Biosphere Reserves
üThe goal of biosphere reserves is to balance
sustainable development and conservation
üBy designating core regions for stringent protection

and permitting sustainable human activity in buffer
and transition zones, these designated areas foster
the coexistence of development and conservation
Community-Based Conservation
üThis philosophy emphasizes involving local
communities in conservation efforts
üThis way of thinking prioritizes including local

people in conservation initiatives
üIt acknowledges the significance of encouraging

locals to use natural resources sustainably and
incorporating traditional knowledge and practices
into conservation plans.
Wildlife Corridor Conservation
üThe focus of wildlife corridor conservation is to keep
fragmented habitats connected so that species can
migrate freely
üW i l d l i fe c o r r i d o r c o n s e r va t i o n fo c u s e s o n
maintaining connectivity between fragmented
habitats, allowing for the movement of wildlife
üThe goal is to prevent isolation of populations and

enhance genetic diversity
Wildlife Values
ü Wildlife values - The term "wildlife values" can be used to describe
the different ways that people view, value, and prioritize wildlife
(various ways in which people perceive, appreciate, and assign
importance to wildlife)
ü Numerous factors make wildlife valuable, and these factors are
essential to the health of ecosystems, biodiversity, and even
human cultures.
ü These values can take many different forms, encompassing aspects
related to the environment, economy, art, culture, recreation, and
science
ü Understanding and recognizing these various values can be crucial
for developing effective conservation strategies and sustainable
management practices to ensure the continued well-being of both
wildlife and human communities
Wildlife Values
In this section we will look at;
üThe uses of wildlife values
üThe intangible value of wildlife
üFactors promoting wildlife values (positive
wildlife values)
üFactors inhibiting wildlife values (negative
wildlife values)
Wildlife Values
üTourism and recreation - Wildlife attracts tourists

and nature enthusiasts, contributing to the
economy through activities such as wildlife safaris,
bird watching, and eco-tourism
üHunting, fishing are a few of the economic value
activities that might directly benefit from wildlife
üCommercial use e.g. Certain wildlife species are
valuable economically because of their fur, hides,
and therapeutic (medicinal) components
üAdditionally, a variety of sectors (industries) rely on
healthy ecosystems to provide resources including
water, fuel, timber, and non-timber forest products
Wildlife Values
ü This revolves use of wildlife for values related to
- Source of food
- source of fibre
- Source of draught power
3. Biodiversity conservation Value
ü The genetic diversity of the globe is enriched by the large
pool of genetic material found in wildlife. The resilience
and adaptation of species to shifting environmental
conditions depend on this variety.
ü Ecosystems depend on biodiversity to be resilient and
adaptable, which improves their capacity to endure and
withstand environmental changes
Wildlife Values
ü Predator-Prey Relationships: Through predator-prey
relationship, wildlife plays an important role in preserving
ecological equilibrium. Predators aid in maintaining
equilibrium in the populations of prey species, reducing
overgrazing and other environmental problems/imbalances.
ü The survival of wildlife is essential and play a crucial role in
maintaining and preserving ecological balance
ü Through their participation in nutrient cycling, pollination,
seed dissemination/dispersal, facilitation of energy flow
through communities and pest control, wildlife species
support the health of ecosystems
Wildlife Values
Ecosystem Service value
ü Numerous environmental (ecosystem)services, including
soil fertility, water purification, and climate management
and regulation, are provided by wildlife. These services are
critical for the well-being of both natural ecosystems and
human societies.
ü Pollination: Pollination is a vital ecosystem service that
facilitates plant reproduction and the creation of fruits and
seeds. A wide variety of wildlife species, particularly insects
and birds, contribute to this process.
ü Seed Dispersal: The movement/dispersal of seeds, the
regrowth (regeneration) of plant species, and the
preservation of thriving ecosystems are all aided by wildlife.
Wildlife Values
6. Aesthetic and Recreational Value
ü Aesthetics - The inherent beauty and aesthetic appeal of
wildlife give it intrinsic value. Seeing wildlife provides many
individuals with joy, pleasure, inspiration, and a feeling of
being connected to the natural world
ü Recreation - This covers (includes) pursuits like nature
tourism, animal photography, and bird watching, among
others
ü Other aspects of aesthetic values includes;
- National heritage
- Emblems
- Totems
Wildlife Values
7. Existence Value
üThis perspective argues that wildlife has intrinsic
value, irrespective of its utility to humans
üSome argue that species have a right to exist and that
preserving biodiversity is essential for its own sake
8. Climate Regulation:
üCarbon Sequestration: Forests and other ecosystems
i n h a b i t e d b y w i l d l i fe c o n t r i b u t e t o c a r b o n
sequestration, playing a role in mitigating climate
change
Wildlife Values
9. Therapeutic Value
ü Engaging with nature and wildlife has been shown to
have positive therapeutic impacts on people's health.
ü O bs e r v i n g w i l d l i fe o r s p e n d i n g t i m e i n n at u ra l
environments are two examples of activities that could
improve mental health and reduce stress.
10. Cultural and Spiritual Value
ü Cultural Significance - Many communities place cultural
value on wildlife because it is involved in their mythology,
customs, traditional practices and spiritual beliefs.
ü In many cultures, animals are valued as totems, emblems,
or spiritual beings
ü Customs and ceremonies may have a strong connection
to wildlife.
Wildlife Values
11. Scientific Research
üBiological Studies: By providing animals for
scientific study, wildlife helps us better understand
biology, behavior, evolution, , genetic, ecology, and
the general operation of ecosystems.
üMedical Research: Compounds present in wildlife
species have been the basis for the development of
numerous medications and medical procedures.
üStudying and observing wildlife can also be used as
a teaching tool to encourage (promote)
conservation and environmental awareness
Wildlife Values
11. Education and awareness value
üEnvironmental Education: Wildlife offers chances
for environmental education and awareness,
promoting a knowledge of ecosystem
interdependence (interconnectedness) and the
value of conservation.
üResearch and Conservation Programs: The study of
wildlife aids in the creation of conservation plans
and strategies that save and protect threatened and
endangered species and preserve biodiversity
Wildlife Values
In conclusion;
üPreserving wildlife and its value is crucial for
maintaining the health of the planet and ensuring a
sustainable future for both ecosystems and human
societies
üTherefore, conservation efforts, habitat protection,
and sustainable management practices are essential
to safeguard these values for future generations
The intangible values of wildlife
üT h e n o n - m a t e r i a l b e n e f i t s a n d
qualitiies/values that humans obtain from
wildlife's presence and well-being are referred
to as the intangible value of wildlife.
üWhile tangible values can be measured in
economic terms, intangible values are often
more difficult to quantify but are equally
important
1. Ecological and Environmental Value
Biodiversity
ü Ecosystems' total biodiversity is enhanced by wildlife.
ü Every species has a distinct function in preserving the
harmony (balance) and well-being of ecosystems, and the
extinction of one species can have a domino (cascading)
impact on the ecosystem as a whole.
Ecosystem Services
ü Many wildlife species provide essential ecosystem services,
such as pollination, seed dispersal, pest control, and
nutrient cycling
ü These services are crucial for the functioning of ecosystems
and, by extension, for human well-being
2. Recreational and Educational Value
Recreation and Tourism
üWildlife and natural habitats attract tourists and
nature enthusiasts, contributing to recreational
activities such as birdwatching, wildlife safaris, and
ecotourism. This, in turn, supports local economies
and conservation efforts
Educational Opportunities
üWildlife provides valuable educational opportunities
for people of all ages
üZoos, nature reserves, and educational programs
use wildlife to teach about biology, ecology, and the
importance of biodiversity
3. Intrinsic Value
Inherent Worth
üSome argue that wildlife has intrinsic value,
m e a n i n g i t h a s wo r t h i n a n d o f i t s e l f,
independent of its utility to humans
üThis perspective emphasizes the inherent
right of species to exist and flourish
4. Emotional and Psychological Well-being
Connection to Nature
üInteractions with wildlife and natural settings
have been linked to improved mental health
and well-being
üThe presence of wildlife can foster a sense of
connection to nature, reduce stress, and
enhance overall psychological well-being
5. Aesthetic and Cultural Value
Beauty and Inspiration
üMany people find joy, inspiration, and aesthetic
pleasure in observing wildlife in its natural habitat
üThe diversity of colors, shapes, and behaviors in the
animal kingdom contributes to the overall beauty of
the natural world
Cultural Significance
üW i l d l i fe o f te n h o l d s c u l t u ra l a n d s p i r i t u a l
significance for communities around the world
üCertain animals may be revered or considered
sacred, playing a crucial role in local myths, folklore,
and traditions
In conclusion;
üRecognizing and appreciating the intangible
value of wildlife is essential for developing
comprehensive conservation strategies that
go beyond economic considerations and
incorporate the broader benefits that wildlife
brings to individuals, communities, and the
planet as a whole
Factors Promoting Negative Wildlife Values
8. Human-Wildlife Conflict - Human populations'

expansion and encroachment on natural habitats
lead to increased conflicts with wildlife, causing
crop damage, livestock loss, and even threats to
human safety
Willdlife and man
In this section we cover the followings;
ü Man and wildlife management and conservation
ü Factors promoting negative and positive wildlife values
ü Conservation efforts
ü International conventions
ü History of wildlife management and conservation
ü Wildlife policy and administration in Kenya
ü Significance of wildlife conservation
ü Factor affecting survival of species
ü Wildlife/human/land use conflicts
ü The role of social sciences in wildlife management
Man and wildlife management and conservation
üScientists project that during this century, human
activities, especially those that cause habitat
destruction and climate change, will lead to the
premature extinction of one-fourth to one-half of
the world’s plant and animal species—an incredibly
rapid rate of extinction
üAnd there will be no way to restore what we have
lost, because species extinction is forever
üIf we keep impoverishing the earth’s biodiversity,
e v e n t u a l l y, o u r s p e c i e s w i l l a l s o b e c o m e
impoverished
üAccording to the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment and other studies, humans have
disturbed, to some extent, at least half and
probably about 83% of the earth’s land surface
(excluding Antarctica and Greenland)
üMost of this disturbance involves filling in wetlands
or converting grasslands and forests to crop fields
and urban areas
üSuch disturbances eliminate large numbers of
species by destroying or degrading their habitats
ü Scientists from around the world, who published the
2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, estimated that
the current annual rate of species extinction is at least
100 to 1,000 times the background rate of about
0.0001%, which existed before modern humans appeared
some 150,000 years ago
ü This amounts to an extinction rate of 0.01% to 0.1% a
year
ü Conservation biologists project that during this century
the extinction rate caused by habitat loss, climate change
mostly due to global warming, and other human
activities will increase to 10,000 times the background
rate
ü This will amount to an annual extinction rate of 1% per
year
Level of species extinction
ü Biologists distinguish among three levels of species extinction
1. Local extinction
ü Local extinction occurs when a species is no longer found in
an area it once inhabited but is still found elsewhere in the
world
ü Most local extinctions involve losses of one or more
populations of species
2. Ecological extinction
ü Ecological extinction occurs when so few members of a
species are left that it can no longer play its ecological roles in
the biological communities where it is found
3. Biological extinction
ü In biological extinction, a species, such as the passenger
pigeon is no longer found anywhere on the earth
ü Biological extinction is forever and represents an
irreversible loss of natural capital
What role do humans play in the premature extinction of
species?
ü We are degrading and destroying biodiversity in many
parts of the world, and these threats are increasing
ü Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster
than they were before modern humans arrived on the
earth (the background rate), and by the end of this
century, the extinction rate is expected to be 10,000
times the background rate
Why should we care about preventing premature
species extinction?
üWe should prevent the premature extinction of wild
species because of the economic and ecological
services they provide and because they have a right
to exist regardless of their usefulness to us
How do humans accelerate species extinction?
üThe greatest threats to any species are (in order)
loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful invasive
species, human population growth, pollution,
climate change, and overexploitation which are as a
result of human endeavors
Characteristics of species that are prone to ecological
and biological extinction
Characteristic Examples
Low reproductive rate (k – Giant Panda, Rhino, Elephant
strategists)
Specialised niche Giant Panda, Bongo,
Narrow distribution range Sokoke pipit, Elephant Shrew,
Taita thrush
Feed at high tropic levels Crown Eagle,
Fixed migratory patterns Sea turtle,
Rare Clarke’s weaver, Northern Sudan
rhino
Commercially viable Elephants, Rhino, Pancake tortoise,
leopard tortoise, Mountain Gorilla
source: G. Tyler Miller, Jr. Scott E. Poolman 2009. Essentials of Ecology
üNegative wildlife values, simply refers to the
negative consequences or negative effects on
ecosystems or populations of wildlife (detrimental
impacts or adverse effects on wildlife populations or
ecosystems)
üThese negative values may result from a variety of
human activities, modifications to the environment,
or other elements that are detrimental to the
welfare of wildlife.
üPollution, habitat degradation, climate change,
poaching, invasive species, overexploitation, and
fragmentation are a few frequent examples
1. Habitat Destruction
üClearing land for agriculture, urban development, or
other purposes can result in the loss of natural
habitats for wildlife
üThis destruction can lead to population declines,
loss of biodiversity, and increased vulnerability to
extinction
2. Pollution
üContamination of air, water, and soil with pollutants
such as chemicals, heavy metals, and plastics can
have harmful effects on wildlife
üPolluted environments can affect the health of
animals, disrupt ecosystems, and contribute to
declines in species populations
3. Climate Change
ü Temperature and precipitation patterns can change due to global
climate change, which is caused by human activities such as the
burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial operations.
ü These modifications may have an effect on wildlife's behavior and
range, which may have an effect on their capacity to endure and
procreate/reproduce
4. Overexploitation
ü Unsustainable hunting, fishing, and gathering of wildlife resources
can lead to population declines and, in some cases, endangerment or
extinction of species
ü Overexploitation is particularly problematic when it exceeds the
natural reproductive capacity of the population
5. Invasive Species
üIntroduction of non-native species to an ecosystem
can disrupt the balance and negatively impact
native wildlife
üInvasive species may outcompete native species for
resources, introduce diseases, or directly prey on
native species, leading to declines in population
6. Poaching
üIllegal hunting or capturing of wildlife for trade,
traditional medicine, or other purposes can severely
impact populations
üPoaching can drive species to the brink of extinction
and undermine conservation efforts
7. Fragmentation
üNatural ecosystems can become smaller, more
isolated regions as a result of infrastructure
development or other human activity
üThis can restrict wildlife mobility, lower genetic
diversity, and increase population susceptibility to
local extinctions
8. Human-Wildlife Conflict
üHuman populations' expansion and encroachment on
natural habitats lead to increased conflicts with
wildlife, causing crop damage, livestock loss, and even
threats to human safety
In conclusion;
üEfforts to address negative wildlife values
often involve conservation measures, habitat
restoration, sustainable resource
management, and policies aimed at mitigating
the impacts of human activities on the natural
environment
üConservation organizations, governments, and
individuals play crucial roles in promoting
practices that support the coexistence of
h u m a n s a n d w i l d l i fe w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g
negative impacts
Factors Promoting Positive Wildlife Values
ü The term "positive wildlife values" describes practices,
behaviors, actions, policies, and situations that support
the preservation and well-being of wildlife and their
ecosystems
ü These principles/values are connected to initiatives
aimed at preserving, promoting, and safeguarding the
sustainability and well-being of natural habitats.
ü Examples include community-based conservation,
education and awareness campaigns, climate change
mitigation, sustainable resource management, habitat
restoration, anti-poaching measures, research and
monitoring, and international cooperation, among other
things
1. Conservation Initiatives
ü Programs and projects focused on the conservation of
wildlife and their habitats
ü These efforts can include the establishment of protected
areas, wildlife reserves, and conservation corridors to
safeguard ecosystems and prevent habitat loss.
2. Sustainable Resource Management
ü Practices that ensure the responsible use of natural
resources, such as fisheries and forests, to prevent
overexploitation and maintain the ecological balance
ü This includes implementing fishing quotas, sustainable
logging practices, and ecosystem-based management
3. Habitat Restoration
üActivities aimed at restoring degraded or damaged
habitats to their natural state
üThis can involve replanting native vegetation,
removing invasive species, and restoring wetlands
or other critical ecosystems
4. Anti-Poaching Measures
üStrategies and actions to combat illegal hunting and
poaching
üThese may include increased law enforcement, the
use of technology for monitoring and tracking
wildlife, and community engagement to promote
conservation awareness
5. Research and Monitoring
üScientific studies and monitoring programs that
help gather information about wildlife populations,
behavior, and ecosystems
üThis knowledge is crucial for making informed
conservation decisions and developing effective
management strategies
6. Community-Based Conservation
üInvolving local communities in conservation efforts
by considering their needs, providing incentives for
sustainable practices, and promoting coexistence
with wildlife
üThis approach helps ensure the long-term success
of conservation initiatives
7. Education and Awareness
üPromoting public awareness about the importance
of wildlife conservation and the role individuals can
play
üEd u cat i o n p ro g ra m s h e l p fo ste r a s e n s e o f
responsibility and encourage people to make
choices that support the well-being of wildlife
8. Climate Change Mitigation
üImplementing measures to reduce the impact of
climate change on wildlife and their habitats
üThis includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
promoting sustainable energy practices, and
developing climate-resilient conservation strategies
9. Wildlife Rehabilitation and Rescue
üPrograms dedicated to the care and rehabilitation of
injured or orphaned wildlife
üThese efforts help reintroduce animals into their
natural habitats and contribute to the overall
conservation of species
10. International Collaboration
üGlobal cooperation and agreements to address
transboundary conservation issues
üCollaborative efforts between countries and
organizations can enhance the effectiveness of
wildlife conservation on a larger scale
In conclusion;
üM a i n t a i n i n g b i o d i v e r s i t y, p r o t e c t i n g
ecosystems, and guaranteeing the existence
of many species all depend on positive wildlife
values
üTo solve the complex issues affecting wildlife
and their habitats, a combination of scientific
investigation, community involvement, policy
formulation, and international cooperation is
needed.
Introduction to International Conventions
What is Biological Diversity
üBiological diversity (biodiversity) is the degree of
variation of life forms within a given ecosystem,
biome or an entire planet
üGenerally refers to the variety and variability within
species, between species and between ecosystem
üIt is measured by two parameters;
1. Apha diversity
2. Beta diversity
Apha diversity
üRepresents or refers to the number of species in a
specific area (diversity of species within a sigle
ecosystem or habitat)
ü Example - in of rainforest, is the number of variety
of species within a specific are such as a square
meter of a forest floor. if there are numerous plants
species, insects, birds, and other organisms in that
square meter, then it has high alpha diversity
Beta diversity
üMeasures the change in species composition
between different ecosystem or habitat, thus
representing the turnover of species across space
üEnvision a forest and a grassland, two nearby
habitats. The distinctions in species composition
between these two ecosystems are the focus of
beta diversity. There is a significant beta diversity
between the forest and the grassland if the two
have different species. In contrast, beta diversity is
minimal if the species mix is comparable.
In summary
üThe study of alpha diversity looks at diversity found
in a single habitat or ecosystem
üThe study of beta diversity looks at the variations in
species composition within various ecosystems or
habitats
üAlpha and beta diversity are essential for ecosystem
management and conservation efforts, and they
both advance our knowledge of biodiversity
patterns. While beta diversity emphasizes the
significance of preserving a variety of habitats
across landscapes, significant alpha diversity is
frequently desired for the resilience and health of a
given ecosystem.
Types/levels of biological diversity (biodiversity)
There are three types of biodiversity, namely;

- Genetic Diversity
- Species Diversity
- Ecosystem Diversity
1. Genetic Biodiversity
üE a c h i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s
posseses genes which are the
source of its own unique
features
üLoss of genetic diversity is

often associated with
inbreeding and reduction in
reproduction fitness
2. Species Diversity
üThe total number of different species in a space,
locally, in a region, in a country or in the world and
various types of ecosystem
üEach species has a role in the ecosystem, an
absence of one species will affect other species
3. Ecosystem Diversity
üThe combination of living things of communities
with the physical environment around them is
called an ecosystem
üThere are variety of types of ecosystem such as
deserts, savannah, mountains, oceans etc
üEach ecosystem is linked to the other by what we
call the earth cycle
Why were conventions on biodiversity created?

üBiological diversity has become a global asset of
tremendous value to present and future
generations
üSo, for conservation of biological diversity and

sustainable use of its components conventions were
created
Conventions in chronological order
ü1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
ü1 9 7 3 C o nve nt i o n o n I nte r n at i o n a l Tra d e i n
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
ü1979 Bonn Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
ü1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
ü2001 International Treaty on Plant Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
Definition of a wetland
üWetlands are defined under the Ramsar convention
as areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water whether
natural or artificial, permanent, or temporary, with
water that is static or flowing, fresh, blackish or
salty, including areas of marine water, the depth of
which at low tide does not exceed six metres
üA wetland is also loosely defined as a vegetation
area, which is flooded either permanently or
seasonally
Background/Brief History
üThe Ramsar convention is an intergovernmental
treaty that provides the framework for national
action and international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their
resources
üThe convention covers all aspects of wetland
conservation and wise use, recognizing wetlands as
ecosystems that are extremely important for
biodiversity conservation in general and for the
well-being of human communities
üIn the Iranian city of Ramsar, the Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance, also known
as the Ramsar Convention, was ratified on February
2, 1971
üIt is among the most ancient and the only global

(international) environmental treaties dealing with
wetland ecosystem
üThe agreement was created in response to the

realization of wetlands' vital ecological functions
and significance on a global scale
The increasing concern over the rapidity with which large
stretches of marshland and wetlands in Europe were being
reclaimed or otherwise destroyed with resulting decline in
number of waterfowl in 1962 led to formation of Ramsar
convention under the guidance of prof. G.V.T. Mathewa in 2nd
February at Ramsar of Iran
ü It came to force in 1975 upon receipt by UNESCO, the

convention depositary
Mission
üThe convention’s mission is the conservation and

wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and
national actions and international cooperation, as a
co nt r i b u t i o n to wa rd a c h i ev i n g s u sta i n a b l e
development throughout the world
üAt the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the “wise

use” concept which is defined as the maintainance
of their ecological character, achieved through the
implementation of ecosystem approaches, within
the context of sustainable development
Why wetlands?
ü Wetlands provides fundamental ecological services and

are re gulators o f wate r re g i m e s a n d s o u rc e s o f
biodiversity at all levels
ü Wetlands constitute a resource of great economic,
scientific, cultural and recreational value for the
community
ü Wetlands play a vital role in climate change adaptation
and mitigation
ü Progressive encroachment on, and loss of wetlands
causes serious irreparable environmental damage to the
provision of ecosystem services
Convention bodies
üThe conference of contracting parties (COP) - is the
policy making body of the convention
üThe standing committee - it covers implementation
between meetings of the COP
üScientific and Technical Review Panel - conventions
scientific advisory body
üRamsar secretariat - carries day to day work of the
convention and its in Switzerland
Contracting parties or member states of ramsar

convention
Members have to:-
üEnsure the conservation and wise use of wetlands is
has designated as wetlands of international
omportance
üIncluding as far as possible the wise use of all
wetlands in national environmental planning
üConsulting with the parties about implementation
of the convention
Membership
üThe Ramsar convention has 160 members
üThe conference of the parties (COP) adopts a core

budget and administered by the Ramsar convention
üWorld wetland day is celebrated on 2nd of February

Ramsar sites
ü More than 1700 wetlands are in Ramsar list
ü United Kingdom has the largest no. 175, followed by
Mexico 142
ü Bolivia has the largest area with 148,000 square KM
under the Ramsar convention protection
ü Globally, wetlands occupy about 6% of the earth’s surface
ü Wetlands in Kenya covers about 3% to 4% of the land
surface, which is approximately 14000 km2 in area and
fluctuates upto 6% in rain season
ü 80% of wetlands are outside protected areas
Objectives/Mandate
The primary objectives of the Ramsar Convention are:
ü Conservation and Wise Use - The preservation/conservation of wetlands
and their resources in order to protect their natural qualities (ensure their
ecological character is maintained)
ü Sustainable Use of Wetlands - Encouraging and promoting the prudent use
of wetlands while acknowledging their importance in recreational, scientific,
the economic, and cultural values
ü International Cooperation - promoting and facilitating global collaboration
for wetland management, protection and conservation
ü List of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites) - Encouraging
the designation of wetlands that meet the criteria for international
importance as Ramsar Sites, subject to a commitment to their sustainable
use.
Challenges in implementation
ü Climate Change - Wetland ecosystems may be impacted by modifications to
climate patterns, such as increased temperatures and modified
precipitation
ü Habitat Loss and Degradation - Wetlands are threatened by habitat loss
and degradation brought on by infrastructure development, agriculture, and
urbanization
ü Pollution - Wetlands can be impacted by various forms of pollution,
including water pollution from industrial discharges and agricultural runoff
ü Invasive Species - The equilibrium of wetland ecosystems can be upset by
the introduction of non-native species, which can cause the local flora and
fauna to deteriorate
ü Lack of Awareness - There are certain areas where people are unaware of
the value of wetlands and the necessity of protecting them
ü Implementation of older conventions to CBD - The shift from
implementing older conventions such as Bonn, CITES, RAMSAR etc. to
CBD and other treaties creates excessive workload for national
institutions
ü Lack of “template” on wise use of wetlands - The root cause for
most of the wetland loss are varied and may not be well understood
ü Increased land use - Increase in land use change in the recent past
and may not be directly on wetland but has negative impacts on
wetland especially upstream-downstream continuum
ü Financial constraints - Lack of financial capital to effectively manage
wetlands
ü Political will - Lack of cross-sectoral political will to ensure that such
landscape collaborative implementation is undertaken (Forestry,
agriculture, environment nexus)
Opportunities of Implementation:
ü Biodiversity Conservation - Because wetlands are essential habitats for a broad
variety of plant and animal species, the proper implementation of the Ramsar
Convention contributes to the conservation of biodiversity
ü Ecosystem Services - A few of the ecosystem services that wetlands offer are flood
control, climate management/regulation, and water filtration and purification.
Recognizing and valuing these services can lead to sustainable use and
management
ü International Collaboration - The convention provides a platform for international
collaboration and knowledge-sharing on wetland conservation and management
ü Local Community Involvement - Engaging local communities in wetland
conservation initiatives can improve implementation success by fostering
sustainable practices and guaranteeing the welfare of communities who depend on
wetland resources
ü Scientific Research - The convention's implementation promotes scientific study
and research to enhance conservation tactics and gain a deeper understanding of
wetland ecosystems
Some of the Ramsar sites in Kenya, includes;
üThe Tana River Delta (wetland of international
significance in Kenya)
üLake Nakuru
üLake Bogoria
üLake Naivasha
üLake Baringo
üLake Elementaita
üAmong others
Convention on Biological Diversity
History of the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD)
ü The Earth’s biological recources are vital to humanity’s
economic and social development, the threat to species
and ecosystem has never been so great as it is today
ü The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) started

to take this problem into consideration since 1988
The (UNEP) conevened the Ad Hoc

working group of experts on biological
diversity
üTo explore the need for an international convention

on biological diversity
The Ad Hoc group of technical and legal

expert
üPrepare an international legal instrument for the
conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity
üThe main objective for the technical and legal
experts were;
- Find a way to share costs and benefits between
developed and developing countries
- Ways and means to support innovation by local
people
ü CBD, is a multi-lateral treaty which was signed on 5th
June 1992 at Rio De Janeiro, Brazil
ü The treaty (convention) becomes effective on 29
December 1993 having been ratified (signed) by 168
countries and states
ü Since then, many countries have been working toward
saving the biodiversity based on the convention on
biological diversity (CBD)
ü Currently, the CBD has 196 parties, which include 195
member countries and the European Union
ü The United Nations has proclaimed May 22 The
International Day for Biological Diversity (IDB) to increase
understanding and awareness of biodiversity issues
üTwo protocols have been established to support
and help the convention to reach its objectives
1. The Cartagena protocol on biosafe

- Entered into force on the 11th September 2003
2. The Nagoya protocol on access and benefits sharing

- Entered into force in 2011
The Cartagena protocol on biosafety
üIs an international treaty that addresses the safety
transfer, handling and use of living modified
organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern
biotechnology that may have adverse effects on
biodiversity, taking into account human health
particularly focusing on transboundary movements
üThe Cartagena protocol was adopted on January 29,
2000, in Cartegena, Colombia as a supplementary
agreement to CBD
üThe protocol came to force on September 11, 2003
üThe main objectives of the Cartagena protocol are:
1. Conservation of biodiversity - to ensure the safe
transport/transfer, handling and use of living
modified organisms in order to support the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity
2. Protection of human health - with an emphasis on
transboundary movement of live modified
organisms to safeguard human health
3. Information exchange - To encourage public
participation and understanding of live modified
organisms and to ease the shharing of information
ü Living modified organism (LMOs) are organisms whose
genetic materials has been altered in a way that does not
occur naturally through mating or natural recombination.
Some of the LMOs are;
Ø Genetically modified crops e.g. Bt cotton which has been
modified to express a toxin from the bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis resistance to certain pests
Ø Genetically modified micro-organisms - genetically
e n g i n e e re e b a c te r i a u s e d i n t h e p ro d u c t i o n o f
pharmaceuticals or industrial enzymes
Ø Transgenic fish - Aquadvantage salmon, genetically
modified salmon designed to grow faster than the
conventional salmon
Ø Genetically modified trees - poplar trees modified for
enhanced resistance to pests or improved wood quality
ØVirus-resistant plants - Papaya varieties engineered
for resistance to papaya ringspot virus
ØHerbicide-resistant crops - Round up ready soybean,
engineered to tolerate the herbicide glyphosate
allowing for more effective weed control
ØInsect-resistant crops - Bt maize genetically
modified to produce a toxin lethat to certain pests
ØDisease-resistant crops - genetically modified potato
with resistance to late bright, devastating disease
ØGenetically modified algae - for enhanced biofuel
production or other industrial applications
üIt’s important to note that the Cartagena protocol
distinguishes between living modified organisms
that may have adverse effects on biodiversity
(referred to as living modified organisms intended
for direct use as food or feed or for processing) and
those that are pharmaceuticals for humans (not
covered by the protocol
The Nagoya protocol
üThe Nagoya protocol on access to genetic resources
and the fair sharing of benefits arising from the
utilization of genetic resources
üTo the CBD is an international agreement which
aims at sharing the benefits arising from the
utilization of genetic resources in a fair and
equitable way and contributing to the conservation
of biological diversity and sustainable use of its
components
üAdopted by CBD at its tenth meeting on 29th
October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan
CBD Objectives
üThe convention on biological diversity (CBD) has
three main objectives;
1. The conservation on biological diversity
2. The sustainable use of the components of

biodiversity
3. The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising

out of the utilization of genetic resources
Conservation of Biological Diversity
üTo conserve biological diversity, defined as the
variability among living organisms from all sources,
including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic
ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which
they are part
üBiodiversity conservation can be achieved through

ex-situ and in-situ conservation
In-Situ Ex-Situ
Natural Artificial
Wildlife Seed Bank
Sanctuary Gene Bank
Zoloological
National Park
Gardens
Aquariam
Biosphere
Reserve
The sustainable use of the components of
biodivesity
ü To promote the sustainable use of components of

biological diversity
ü Integrate consideration of conservation and sustainable

use of biological resources into national decision making
ü E n co u ra ge co o p e rat i o n b e t we e n go ve r n m e nta l
authorities and its private sector in developing methods
for sustainable use of biological resources
Fair and equitable sharing of benefits
üTo ensure the fair and equitable sharing of the

benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources
üAn appropriate access to genetic resources
üAn appropriate transfer of relevant technologies
ü An appropriate funding, thereby contributing to the

conservation of biological diversity
The three pillars of CBD
üThe CBD is organized around three main thematic
areas, often referred to as the three pillars:
- Conservation of Biological Diversity
- Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity
- Access and Benefit-Sharing

Implementation mechanisms for the convention
on biodiversity
üThe convention on general measures states that
each contracting party shall, in accordance with its
particular conditions and capabilities do the
following
ØDevelop a national strategies, plans or programs for
the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity
ØIntegrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the
conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral
plans, programs and policies
Conservation Strategy
The strategies developed by the convention on
biological diversity (CBD) are as follows;
üAll efforts to be made to conserve threatened
species
üAll endangered species should be protected
üThe wildlife must be protected both in natural
habitat and artificial habitats by establishing
zoological and botanical gardens and parks
üVarieties of useful food crops, plants, animals and
microbes should be preserved for national and
international breeding programs
üThe wild plants and animals should be conserved as
a gene bank for the later
üThe habitats of animals should be guarded and well
protected
üA protected area to be established to preserve the
habitat or migratory or wide ranging animal species
üUnique ecosystem should be conserved on top
priority basis
üEcosystem to be determined for exploited species
during productive periods
üInternational trade and commerce to be prohibited
in the areas of wild animals and plants
Goals to achieve by 2020
ü Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by
mainstreaming biodiversity across government and
society
ü Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote
sustainable use
ü Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding
ecosystems, species and genetic diversity
ü Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and
ecosystem services
ü Enhance implementation through participatory planning,
knowledge management and capacity building
Challenges
ü Implementation Gaps (low priority and limited
commitment on biodiversity in many government) - The
complete national implementation of the CBD's
requirements presents difficulties for certain nations.
Inadequate political will, resources, or capacity can cause
implementation gaps.
ü Resource Constraints (Inadequate human and financial
capacity) - Developing nations might not have the
financial or technological means to fully engage in
initiatives to conserve biodiversity and promote
sustainable use.
ü Loss of Biodiversity - Global biodiversity loss is a serious
problem that is driven by over-exploitation of resources,
pollution, habitat degradation, and climate change
ü Low priority - Low priority and limited commitment on
biodiversity in many governments
ü Ec o sy ste m d e g ra d a t i o n - Re v e rs i n g e c o sy ste m
degradation while at the same time increasing demand
for their services poses a challenge
ü Biopiracy and privatization - Biopiracy and privatization
of biodiversity, genetic resources and indigenous
knowledge is a big challenge in the implementation of
CBD
ü Translating policy into action - This requires measureable
actions with real targets which is difficult
üLimited environmetal data - Lack of quality
environmental data and information necessary for
identifying impacts of development activities
Opportunities
ü Economic Benefits: Biodiversity provides numerous range of
ecosystem/ecological services, such as crop pollination of crops,
water purification, and climate regulation and management.
Therefore preserving/conserving biodiversity can yield favorable
economic consequences/impacts.
üIndigenous and Local Knowledge: The CBD
acknowledges/recognizes the value of the traditional knowledge
that local and indigenous cultures possess. This can be used to
manage resources sustainably
ü Global Collaboration: By offering a framework for international
cooperation on biodiversity conservation, the CBD enables
nations to cooperate in addressing global issues
Other opportunities as a result of CBD includes;
üAllows ex-situ conservation of biodiversity
üInvolves conservation of genetic resources
üDraws from diverse body of techniques and facilities
to conserve biodiversity
üCBD provides opportunity for transboundary
conservation areas
üEncourages sustainable use and equitable sharing of
genetic resources
üP r o m o t e s c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d s u s t a i n a b l e
management of ecosystems
Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
Brief History and membership
ü The increasing global commerce in wildlife and its
effects on the survival of species prompted the treaty
ü CITES, was created to protect (regulate) and make sure
that international trade in wild plants and animals did
not endanger or threaten these species' ability to
survive
ü Adopted on March 3, 1973, the Conve ntion on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES) came into effect on July 1, 1975
ü The member countries of CITES are referred to as
"Parties"
ü By 2022 there were 183 Parties to CITES including the
United states
ü The Convention accords varying degrees of protection to more than
30,000 plant and animal species, through its three appendices
Ø Appendix I – Species are threatened with extinction due primarily to
trade, and trade in Appendix I species is prohibited for commercial
purposes
Ø Appendix II - contains species that are not necessarily threatened
with extinction but require controlled trade to prevent population
declines
Ø Appendix III - contained species because at least one country has
requested other countries to assist it in regulating trade of that
species
ü Many believe that CITES has been a success, noting that no species
listed under CITES has gone extinct in the last 30 years
CITES Objectives/Mandate
The primary objectives of CITES are:
ü Regulation of International Trade: To avoid/prevent overexploitation, CITES
controls and regulate the worldwide trade in wild animals and plants.
ü Conservation of Biodiversity: CITES works to protect species from being
harmed by international trade so that they can continue to exist in the wild,
hence this helps to conserve biodiversity
ü Sustainable Use: Sustainable usage and the financial/economic gains
(benefits) made from wildlife are valued by CITES, provided that they do not
jeopardize/compromise the survival of any particular species
ü Enforcement of Regulations: The treaty creates/establishes procedures
(mechanisms) for enforcing its rules/regulations and promotes international
collaboration in the fight against illicit commerce (trade)
Challenges
ü Capacity and Resources: Certain member nations
encounter difficulties in executing/implementing and
upholding CITES requirements as a result of inadequate
(limited) financial and technical resources
ü Illegal Trade: The illegal trade in endangered species
continues and presents a serious threat despite CITES'
best efforts. This illegal trade includes the smuggling,
trafficking, and poaching of wildlife and its by-products
ü Demand for Exotic Species: CITES does not explicitly
address market demands therefore, due to the high
demand for beautiful/ornamental plants, traditional
medicines, and exotic pets among others, it is challenging
to stop the illegal trade
ü Less focus on habitat loss - It focuses more on trade and
does not address habitat loss which is the main threat to
wildlife
ü Control of sanctions of illegal trade – Any conservation
treaty is highly suspicious of the other state ambitions
over their own natural resources and therefore
enforcement become a challenge. For example, in Kenya,
sale of sandalwood is illegal yet is legal in Tanzania.
Imposing standardised sanctions/punishment on all
parties would be to risk alienating local populations
ü Burden of proof: CITES place a very high burden of proof
on the proponent of the listing of the species by
requiring two-third approval by conference of parties.
ü Provision of ground enforcement - CITES does not
provide for increased ground enforcement
Opportunities
ü Incentives for Conservation: By offering incentives for the
conservation of biodiversity, CITES pushes nations to enact
conservation measures and sustainable use practices
ü Public Awareness: The convention helps spread awareness
of the value of protecting biodiversity and the harm that
international trade causes to threatened species.
ü International Cooperation: CITES offers a platform for
global cooperation/collaboration, empowering nations to
cooperate in the fight against illicit trade and preservation
of threatened/endangered species
ü Research and Monitoring: In order to evaluate the status of
species and the effects/impact of commerce (trade) on their
populations, the convention encourages scientific research
and monitoring initiatives
ü Capacity building programs - CITES allows access to capacity
building programs
ü Employment - Creates job opportunities
ü Internship - Provide internships to young scientists
ü Transboundary conservation engagement - Helpful in
transboundary conservation engagement by bringing
to get h e r gove r n m e nt s, sh a r i n g o f i nfo r m at i o n a n d
intelligence reports, trade and participation at triennial
conference of the parties
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for
Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)
Brief History and membership
üOn June 29, 2004, the United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) ratified and the
Food and Agriculture went into effect.
üThere are over 140 contracting parties, including

countries and the European Union
Objectives/Mandate
The main objectives of ITPGRFA (plant treaty) are;
ü To ensure the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic
resources for food and agriculture
ü To promote fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their
use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for
sustainable agriculture and food security
Ø Therefore the treaty addresses issues related to access to genetic
resources, benefit-sharing, farmers' rights, and the establishment of
a Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-Sharing
Ø The Treaty aims to strike a balance between the interests of the
providers and users of genetic resources, with the ultimate goal of
promoting global food security
Challenges
ü Biopiracy - The goals and objectives of the Treaty may be
jeopardized by the unlawful or unauthorized use and
commercial exploitation of genetic resources without
just, fair and equitable benefit-sharing
ü Re s o u rc e C o n st ra i nt s - I t ' s p o s s i b l e t h at m a ny
poor/developing nations lack the financial and
technological means to effectively contribute to the
preservation/conservation and sustainable use of plant
genetic resources
ü Implementation Challenges - Some nations encounter
difficulties putting the Treaty's provisions into practice,
particularly setting up domestic systems for benefit-
sharing and access
üFear that the corporate financial interest may
prevent safeguard of livelihood and promotion of
food security
üProtest by farmers and communities as they do not
freely exchange, sell, breed the seeds
ü-Enforcement procedures to ensure farmers’ rights
are upheld.
ØThe treaty facilitates plant germplasm exchange
and benefit sharing through Standard Material
Transfer Agreement (SMTA) among member
countries
Opportunities
ü Biodiversity Conservation - The Treaty contributes to the
preservation and maintainance of agricultural biodiversity by
offering a framework for the conservation of plant genetic
resources
ü Research and Development - Having access to a variety (wide
range) of plant genetic resources helps promote research and
development efforts, which could result in the creation of more
robust/resilient and productive crops
ü Global Collaboration - Because of the Treaty's worldwide scope,
nations are encouraged to work together and share resources
and information in order to promote global food security
International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN)
Brief History
üFounded on October 5, 1948, the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is a global
organization dedicated to environmental
conservation
üI t f u n c t i o n s a s a u n i o n , b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r
governments, NGOs, scientists, and specialists to
address conservation concerns
üIt is the oldest and largest global environmental
organization in the world
(IUCN)
Objectives/Mandate
The broad mandate of the IUCN is focused on biodiversity conservation and
sustainable usage. Among its primary objectives are:
ü Promoting Sustainable Development - It seeks to ensure that all uses of
natural resources are fair and ecologically sustainable, as well as to impact,
encourage, and support society worldwide in their efforts to preserve the
environment/nature
ü Conservation of Biodiversity - IUCN strives to support biodiversity,
ecosystems, and natural resource protection and sustainable use
ü Providing Knowledge and Expertise - IUCN acts as a knowledge center,
offering policy suggestions, professional advice, and scientific evaluations
on a range of environmental challenges
ü Building Partnerships - To accomplish conservation goals, IUCN promotes
cooperation between governments, non-governmental organizations,
indigenous peoples, and other stakeholders
(IUCN)
Challenges
ü Loss of Biodiversity - One of the main issues that IUCN tackles is the
continuous loss of biodiversity worldwide. This covers pollution,
overuse of natural resources, habitat degradation, and climate
change
ü Limited Resources - IUCN, like many other organizations, struggles to

solve the many and complicated issues associated to global
conservation because of a lack of funding and human resources
ü Balancing Conservation and Development - A recurring difficulty is

striking the correct balance between the demands of human growth
and conservation objectives. It entails combating poverty,
guaranteeing food security, and advancing sustainable growth
(IUCN)
Opportunities
ü International Collaboration - Countries and organizations can collaborate
on global conservation concerns using the platform that IUCN offers for
international collaboration
ü Policy Influence - IUCN has a significant influence on national and
international policy pertaining to sustainable development and
conservation through its evaluations and recommendations
ü Capacity Building - One of IUCN's projects is capacity-building, which aids
nations and communities in acquiring the know-how required for efficient
conservation
ü Advocacy and Awareness - IUCN advocates for conservation at various
levels and raises awareness about the importance of biodiversity,
ecosystems, and sustainable development.
(IUCN)
In conclusion;
üIUCN's work is organized through commissions,
each focusing on specific thematic areas such as
species survival, protected areas, and
environmental law
üIt also publishes the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species, a comprehensive assessment of the global
extinction risk status of animal, fungus, and plant
species
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory
Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
Background
üThe CMS, or the Bonn Convention aims to conserve
terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species
throughout their range
üParties to the CMS work together to conserve
migratory species and their habitats by providing
strict protection for the most endangered migratory
species
üThis is done by concluding regional multilateral
agreements for the conservation and management
of specific species or categories of species, and by
undertaking co-operative research and conservation
activities
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory
Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
Challenges associated with implementation of CMS
ü Threats from human activities such as use of chemicals in
farming which may have negative impacts on birds
ü Oil spillage in oceans also affects marine birds and CMS
has no control
ü Lack or limited international cooperation - migratory
birds spend their life cycle in ranges across national
boundaries
ü The convention addresses a limited number of migratory
birds species in a limited number of countries
ü Migratory animals in general are facing monumental risk
due to habitat destructions, exploitation, diseases and
global climate change some of which beyond control of
any one country
World Heritage Convention (WHC)
ü The primary mission of the WHC is to identify and
conserve the world's cultural and natural heritage, by
drawing up a list of sites whose outstanding values
should be preserved for all humanity and to ensure their
protection through a closer co-operation among nations.
Challenges associated with WHC implementation
ü WHC relies on the goodwill of the proponent to conserve
the listed sites
ü Has a weak monitoring system
ü Lack of financial muscles especially in developing
countries to effectively implement the provisions of the
convention.
International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)
ü The IPPC aims to protect world plant resources, including
cultivated and wild plants by preventing the introduction
and spread of plant pests and promoting the appropriate
measures for their control
ü The convention provides the mechanisms to develop the
International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures
(ISPMs), and to help countries to implement the ISPMs
and the other obligations under the IPPC, by facilitating
the national capacity development, national reporting
and dispute settlement.
ü The Secretariat of the IPPC is hosted by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
International Whaling Commission (IWC)
üThe purpose of the IWC is to provide for the proper
conservation of whale stocks and thus make
possible the orderly development of the whaling
industry
The United Nation Convention on Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS)
ü The convention is also called The Law of the Sea Convention, is
an international agreement that resulted from the third United
Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, which took place
between 1973 and 1982.
ü The law defines rights and responsibilities of nations with
respect to their use of the world oceans, environment and
management of the marine natural resources.
Challenges of UNCLOS implementation
ü Issues of continued proliferation of excessive maritime claims
ü Terrorisms and piracy activities at the sea that find protection
under a false failed states
ü Lack of governance structure in some areas which if not deal
with properly could cause over-fishing
History of wildlife management and conservation
üKenya has a rich history of wildlife management and
conservation, marked by the establishment of
protected areas, the development of conservation
policies, and efforts to address human-wildlife
conflicts
Pre-Colonial Era
üBefore colonialism, many indigenous communities
in Kenya practiced traditional forms of wildlife
management
üThese practices were often based on cultural beliefs
and customary laws that sought to maintain a
balance between human activities and wildlife
Colonial Period (late 19th to mid-20th century)
üDuring the colonial era, wildlife in Kenya faced
significant threats, including hunting for sport and
trade
üThe British colonial administration established game
reserves and national parks primarily for the benefit
of European settlers and as areas for recreational
hunting
Establishment of National Parks and Reserves:
üIn the mid-20th century, the Kenyan government
took steps to protect its wildlife and natural
heritage
üNotably, the establishment of Nairobi National Park
in 1946 marked the first official national park in
Kenya
üThe government also created other protected areas,
such as Amboseli National Park and Tsavo National
Park.
Independence and New Conservation Policies (1963
onward)
üAfter gaining independence in 1963, Kenya
continued to prioritize wildlife conservation
üThe government recognized the economic and
ecological importance of its wildlife and began
implementing policies to safeguard these resources
Community-Based Conservation
üIn the 1980s and 1990s, Kenya adopted a more
inclusive approach to conservation by involving
local communities
üCommunity-based conservation initiatives aimed to
address poverty, promote sustainable land use, and
reduce human-wildlife conflicts. Examples include
the establishment of wildlife conservancies and the
formation of community wildlife associations
International Conservation Efforts
üKenya has been actively involved in international
efforts to conserve wildlife
üThe country has been a signatory to various
c o nv e n t i o n s a n d a g r e e m e n t s , s u c h a s t h e
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Anti-Poaching Measures
üKenya has implemented strict anti-poaching
measures to combat illegal hunting and trade in
wildlife products
üThe country has been a leader in the global fight
against ivory trafficking, with initiatives like burning
confiscated ivory stockpiles to raise awareness
about the illegal wildlife trade
Wildlife Tourism
üTourism, particularly wildlife tourism, has become a
significant contributor to Kenya's economy
üThe country's iconic national parks and wildlife
reserves, including the Maasai Mara, Amboseli, and
Tsavo, attract tourists from around the world,
generating revenue for conservation efforts
Conservation Challenges and Innovations
üKenya has faced ongoing challenges, including
human-wildlife conflicts, habitat loss, and climate
change
üConservation organizations and government
agencies have implemented innovative approaches,
s u c h a s t h e u s e o f t e c h n o l o g y fo r w i l d l i fe
monitoring and community engagement programs,
to address these challenges
Conservation Success Stories
üKenya has witnessed notable conservation success
stories, including the recovery of endangered
species such as the black rhinoceros and Grevy's
zebra
üConservation organizations and government
agencies have worked together to protect these
species and their habitats
üToday, Kenya continues to play a pivotal role in
global conservation efforts
üThe country's commitment to wildlife conservation
is exemplified by its efforts to protect endangered
species, engage local communities in conservation
initiatives, and promote sustainable development
practices that balance the needs of people and
wildlife
Wildlife policy and administration in Kenya
A. Wildlife Policy in Kenya
1. Legislation
üKenya has a comprehensive legal framework for
wildlife conservation
üThe Wildlife Conservation and Management Act

(WCMA) is a key piece of legislation that governs
wildlife conservation and management in the
country
üThis law provides for the protection, conservation,

and sustainable management of wildlife resources
2. Conservation Strategy
üKenya has developed and implemented various
conservation strategies and policies to address the
challenges facing its diverse wildlife
üThese strategies often involve collaboration

between government agencies, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), local communities, and
international partners
3. Community Involvement
üKenya recognizes the importance of involving local
communities in wildlife conservation
üCommunity-based conservation initiatives aim to

empower local people, provide incentives for
conservation, and address human-wildlife conflict
issues
4. Anti-Poaching Efforts
üCombatting wildlife poaching is a significant focus of
Kenya's wildlife policy
üThe country has implemented anti-poaching

measures, including the deployment of specialized
units, such as the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), to
protect wildlife from illegal activities
1. Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS)

üT h e Ke ny a W i l d l i fe S e r v i c e i s t h e p r i m a r y
government agency responsible for the
conservation and management of wildlife in Kenya
üKWS plays a crucial role in enforcing wildlife laws,

managing national parks and reser ves, and
implementing conservation programs.
2. Tourism Management
üTourism is a vital component of Kenya's wildlife
conservation strategy
üEffective management of tourist activities in

national parks and reserves is essential for both
generating revenue and minimizing the ecological
impact of human activities
ü Various research institutions and organizations in Kenya
are involved in wildlife research, conse r vation,
management, and monitoring. They include;
- Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS)
- Kenya Wildlife Trust
- African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) - Kenya Office
- International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
- National Museums of Kenya (NMK)
- Mpala Research Centre
- Bio-Ken Snake Farm
- Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) - Kenya Program
- Save the Elephants
üThese organizations contribute significantly to
wildlife research, conservation, and management in
Kenya
üThis includes studying animal behavior, population
dynamics, and the impact of environmental changes
on wildlife
üThe landscape of conservation organizations is
dynamic, and new initiatives may emerge now and
then hence need for continous research and
monitoring
üIt's recommended to check the latest information
from official websites or contact these organizations
directly for the most current details
4. International Collaboration
üKenya collaborates with international organizations
and governments to address global wildlife
conservation issues
üThis includes initiatives to combat illegal wildlife
trade, promote sustainable management practices,
and protect endangered species. These
organizations includes;
ØWorld Wildlife Fund (WWF)
ØUnited Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
ØWildlife Conservation Society (WCS)
ØAfrican Wildlife Foundation (AWF)
ØInternational Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN)
ØConvention on International Trade in Endangered
ØUnited States Agency for International Development
(USAID)
ØThe Nature Conservancy (TNC)
ØInternational Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW)
üThese collaborations are essential for addressing
the complex and interconnected challenges of
wildlife conservation on a global scale
üThey often involve a combination of financial
support, technical expertise, and on-the-ground
initiatives to achieve lasting positive impacts
üIt's important to note that the landscape of
international collaborations may evolve, and new
partnerships may emerge over time
Significance of wildlife conservation
üWildlife conservation is very important because
wildlife play an important role in maintaining the
ecological balance and conserve wild animal
populations and protection of public lands
üIt helps to maintain balance of nature
üIt can increase foreign exchange if linked with eco-
tourism
üTo prevent the genetic diversity of fauna in order to
increase the populations of heterogeneous wildlife
species
The importance of wildlife can be categorized as;
1. Ecological importance
üWildlife helps in maintaining the ecological balance
of nature
üAnimals are great predators of each other which is
the major reason for ecological development
üTherefore, once the equilibrium and stability is
disturbed it leads to many problems
2. Economical importance
üThe wildlife can be used to earn money
üWild plant products like food, medicine, timber,
fiber, firewood etc. and wild animal products such
as meat, medicine, hide, ivory, lac, silk etc. are of
tremendous economic value
üWild life provides us the raw and basic material to
start any industry or factory for our earning
3. Investigatory importance
üSome wild organisms are used for scientific
experiments such as to test effect of medicine
üGenerally monkey, chimpanzee, among others, are
used for scientific experiments
üAlso rats and guinea pig are first used to do
experiments and test before trying them on humans
üNo doubt wildlife supports scientific research a lot
4. Conservation of biological diversities
üBy conserving wildlife, diversity in the environment
can be conserved
üAccording to some scientist, an ecosystem with
more diversity is more stable
üIt means that complexity of an ecosystem directly
influence on its stability
5. Importance in agriculture
üWild organisms are key in modern agriculture.
üImportance of wildlife in agriculture include the
following:-
i. Production of hybrid variety of animals used for
agriculture, by using wild animals
ii. New species of plants and animals produced by
them
iii. Provide draught power such as buffaloes in Asia
iv. Macro and micro fauna help in increasing the
fertility of soil and providing a good base for
agricultural activities
üIn conclusion, the main concern is to preserve the
habitats so that the future generations of wildlife
and humans can enjoy this beauty
Factor affecting survival of species
Introduction
üA complex interaction of factors, including biological,
ecological, environmental, and human-induced
aspects, affects the survival of wildlife species
üTherefore from a wildlife management it is

important understand how these factors come into
interplay to influence survival of wildlife species
üThere are several key factors that can affect the

survival of wildlife species. They includes;
1. Climate change
ü Climate change phenomena is of global concern posing a
great threat to wildlife
ü The distribution of habitats and food sources can be
impacted by altered weather patterns, temperature
variations, and fluctuations in precipitation, which can
have an effect on animal species' ability to survive and
procreate
2. Overexploitation and Poaching

ü Depleting populations by unsustainable hunting, fishing,
and harvesting of wildlife for traditional medicine, trade,
or food can cause declines or even extinction
3. Pollution
üPollutants (such as chemicals, heavy metals, and
plastics) contaminating the air, water, or soil can
damage wildlife health, disturb ecosystems, and
cause population decreases
4. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

üThere may be fewer acceptable and suitable places
for wildlife to live if natural habitats are destroyed
o r f ra g m e nte d a s a re s u l t o f u r b a n i zat i o n ,
agriculture, and deforestation, thus limiting their
survivability
5. Disease Outbreaks
üDiseases, whether naturally occurring or brought in,
ca n h ave a cata st ro p h i c i m p a c t o n w i l d l i fe
populations. This is especially true for newly
discovered illnesses to which wildlife is not immune
6. Genetic Issues
üReduced ability to adapt and be resilient to
environmental changes can result from reduced
genetic variety within populations, which is
frequently brought about by habitat fragmentation
or small population sizes
7. Human Disturbance
üTourism, recreational pursuits, and other human
disruptions of natural ecosystems can stress animals,
interfere with their feeding and breeding habits,
and cause population decreases
8. Invasive Species
üEcological balance can be upset and native wildlife
populations can collapse as a result of non-native
species being introduced into habitats and
outcompeting or preying on native species.
9. Habitat Degradation
ü The availability of resources required for wildlife survival,
such as food and shelter, can be lowered by the
deterioration (degradation) of ecosystems caused by
practices like soil erosion, pollution, and invasive species
10. Human-Wildlife Conflict

ü The survival of animals can be negatively impacted by
human-wildlife conflicts such as crop raiding, livestock
predation, and threats to human safety that result in
retaliatory deaths and habitat disturbance
11. Climate Extremes and Natural Disasters
üHurricanes, droughts, floods, and wildfires are
examples of extreme weather events that can have
both short-term and long-term effects on wildlife
due to habitat destruction, altered food supply, and
direct injury
12. Legal and Illegal Trade

üBoth legal and illicit commerce in wildlife and its
byproducts, such as skins, exotic pets, and
traditional medicines, can endanger the survival of
some species and cause population decreases
13. Lack of Conservation Measures
üWildlife can become vulnerable to a variety of
challenges if conservation measures, such as
protected areas, wildlife management plans, and
sustainable resource use practices, are absent or
insufficient
14. Lack of Awareness and Education

üUnknowingly harming wildlife can result from
actions that are supported by a lack of knowledge
a n d c o m p re h e n s i o n o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
sustainable practices and animal conservation
In conclusion,
üBiologists, ecologists, social scientists, and policy

developers must use interdisciplinary approaches to
a d d re s s t h e s e i s s u e s a n d p u t i nto p ra c t i c e
successful conservation initiatives
üC o n s e r v a t i o n e f f o r t s m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e
interconnected (interrelated) nature of these
factors and work to mitigate their negative impact
(effects) on wildlife species
Wildlife-human-land use conflicts
Introduction
ü Conflicts between wildlife, humans, and land use arise
due to competition or disagreement between the needs
and activities of wildlife conservation, humans activities,
and various land uses
ü These disputes frequently arise from competing interests
over the utilization of space and natural resources
ü These conflicts are complex and can have significant
implications for both biodiversity conservation and
human livelihoods
ü In this lesson we discuss some common aspects (factors)
contributing to these conflicts and strategies for their
mitigation
Wildlife-human-land use conflicts aspects
1. Agricultural Expansion
üConflict - Human population growth increases
agricultural land demand, potentially leading to
habitat loss, fragmentation, limiting the available
wildlife space and thus affecting wildlife populations
and increased likelihood of human-wildlife conflicts.
üImpact - Reduced habitat can lead to increased
human-wildlife encounters, as wildlife may enter
human settlements in search of food and water
2. Livestock Grazing (Overgrazing and Resource
Competition)
üConflict - Competition for resources such as water
and grazing land between wildlife and livestock.
Livestock grazing can compete with wildlife for
available forage, particularly in areas where
traditional grazing practices overlap with natural
habitats
üImpact - Overgrazing can degrade ecosystems,
leading to a decline in both wildlife and livestock
productivity
3. Urbanization and Infrastructure Development
üConflict - Urban expansion and infrastructure
development often lead to habitat destruction,
wildlife displacement, and increased human-wildlife
conflicts, particularly in urban areas near natural
habitats. Urbanization can bring humans and
wildlife into close proximity, leading to conflicts in
cities and suburban areas
üImpact: Increased risk of road accidents involving
wildlife, property damage, and potential threats to
human safety
4. Disease Transmission
ü Conflict - Disease transmission between wildlife and
domestic animals can occur, posing risks to both wildlife
health and livestock.
ü Impact - Outbreaks of diseases can have cascading
effects on ecosystems and agricultural practices
5. Conservation-Induced Displacement
ü Conflict - Conservation projects may lead to the
displacement of local communities, disrupting traditional
land use and livelihoods
ü Impact - Loss of access to resources, increased poverty,
and potential resentment toward conservation efforts
6. Climate Change Effects
ü Conflict - Climate change can alter wildlife habitats and
migration patterns, bringing wildlife into new areas
ü Impact - Changes in wildlife behavior and distribution
may increase interactions with human populations
7. Illegal Hunting and Poaching

ü Conflict - Illegal hunting and poaching driven by demand
for wildlife products or conflict mitigation
ü Impact - Loss of wildlife populations, including
endangered species, and disruption of ecosystem
dynamics
8. Mining and Extractive Industries
ü Conflict - Extractive industries can cause habitat destruction,
water pollution, and other environmental impacts
ü Impact - Wildlife populations may be displaced or negatively
affected by these activities, leading to conflicts with human
interests
9. Tourism and Recreation

ü Conflict - While wildlife tourism and recreational activities can
contribute to local economies, they can also disturb natural
habitats and stress wildlife.
ü Impact - In some cases, increased human presence can lead to
habituation or alter the behavior of wildlife
7. Crop Damage (raiding)
ü Conflict - Wildlife, such as elephants, deer, or primates,
may damage crops, leading to economic losses for
farmers
ü Impact - Farmers may resort to retaliatory measures,
including killing or injuring wildlife, to protect their crops
8. Livestock Predation
Conflict - Predators, like big cats or wolves, may prey on
domestic livestock, causing economic losses for farmers e.g.
pastoralists.
Impact - Retaliatory killings of predators may occur,
threatening the survival of endangered species and
disrupting ecosystems
9 . Water Use and Allocation
üConflict - Competition for water resources between
human communities and wildlife can intensify
during periods of drought
üImpact - Changes in water availability can affect
both the distribution and behavior of wildlife
10. Logging and Deforestation

üConflict - Deforestation and logging activities can
lead to the loss of critical habitats for wildlife
üImpact - This can disrupt migration routes, reduce
available food sources, and contribute to the
decline of vulnerable
11. Human Safety Concerns
ü Conflict - Encounters between wildlife and humans,
especially in urban or peri-urban areas, can pose safety
risks
ü Impact - Large mammals, such as bears or big cats, may
enter human settlements, leading to concerns about
human safety
12. Invasive Species

ü Conflict - The introduction of invasive species by human
activities can disrupt ecosystems and lead to competition
with native wildlife for resources
ü Impact - This can result in declines in native species and
changes to ecosystem dynamics
13. Human Displacement by Wildlife
üConflict - Wildlife may encroach on human
settlements, leading to displacement and loss of
property.
üImpact - Human populations may experience
increased vulnerability, especially in areas prone to
wildlife-related hazards
14. Cultural and Social Conflicts
üConflict - Cultural and social values may clash
b et we e n co n s e r vat i o n i n i t i at i ve s a n d l o ca l
communities.
üImpact - Resistance to conservation efforts, lack of
community support, and challenges in achieving
conservation goals.
15. Inadequate Compensation Mechanisms
üConflict - Insufficient compensation for losses
incurred by local communities due to wildlife
activities
üImpact - Diminished support for conservation
efforts, leading to increased hostility and conflict.
16. Lack of Stakeholder Engagement
üConflict - Limited involvement of local communities
in decision-making processes related to wildlife
conservation.
üImpact - Reduced sense of ownership and support
for conservation initiatives.
17. Inadequate Infrastructure Planning
üC o n f l i c t - P o o r l y p l a n n e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
development may lead to increased human-wildlife
conflicts.
üImpact - Habitat fragmentation, disruption of
migration routes, and increased risks for wildlife and
humans
18. Legal and Regulatory Gaps
üConflict - Weak or inadequate legal frameworks for
managing wildlife-human-land use conflicts
üImpact - Challenges in enforcing regulations and
addressing conflicts effectively.
List more aspects contributing to wildlife-human-land use
conflicts
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Strategies for mitigation
1. Integrated Land-Use Planning
üDevelop land-use plans that consider both wildlife
conservation and human needs
2. Early Warning Systems
üImplement systems to provide early warnings about
wildlife movements to reduce potential conflicts
üInvolve local communities in conservation planning
and decision-making processes
4. Crop Protection Measures
üImplement measures to protect crops, such as
fencing or deterrents, to minimize wildlife damage
5. Livestock Management Practices
üPromote sustainable livestock management
practices that minimize conflicts with predators
6. Compensation Schemes
üEstablish fair compensation mechanisms for losses
incurred by local communities due to wildlife
üConduct educational programs to raise awareness
about coexisting with wildlife and the importance of
conservation
8. Improved Infrastructure Planning
üI n c o r p o ra te w i l d l i fe c o r r i d o rs a n d h a b i ta t
connectivity into infrastructure planning
9. Community-Based Tourism
üDevelop community-based tourism initiatives that
generate income for local communities while
promoting wildlife conservation
üConduct research to understand wildlife behavior
and movements, informing better management
strategies
Wildlife-human-land use conflicts
In conclusion,
ü To address wildlife-human-land use conflicts, a

combination of conservation strategies, sustainable land
management practices, community engagement, and
policy development is needed
ü Collaborative approaches that consider the perspectives
of various stakeholders are crucial for finding solutions
that promote coexistence and sustainable resource use
ü Managing wildlife-human-land use conflicts requires a
holistic and adaptive approach that considers ecological,
social, and economic factors.
The role of social sciences in wildlife management
ü The role of social sciences in wildlife management is
crucial for developing effective and sustainable
conservation strategies
ü Social science in the context of wildlife management and
conservation refers to the application of social scientific
methods and theories to understand human behavior,
attitudes, and interactions in the context of wildlife and
conservation efforts
ü Therefore, wildlife management is not only about
understanding the biology and ecology of animal
populations but also about recognizing and addressing
the human (social) dimensions of wildlife conservation
ü In this section we look at some key aspects of the
relationship between social science and wildlife
management conservation
1. Stakeholder Engagement
üSocial sciences contribute to the identification and
analysis of stakeholders involved in wildlife
management, including local communities,
government agencies, NGOs, and businesses
üStakeholder analysis helps wildlife managers

understand diverse perspectives, interests, and
power dynamics, facilitating the development of
inclusive and participatory conservation plans
2. Community-Based Conservation (Community Involvement)
ü Local communities are frequently involved in conservation activities
ü Social science promotes cooperation and raises the likelihood that
conservation programs will succeed by assisting in identifying the
needs, concerns, and values of these people
ü Enganging local communities helps in understanding local cultures,
traditions and social structures essential for successful wildlife
conservation projects
ü Participating in conservation decision-making with local people can
result in more environmentally friendly and culturally appropriate
solutions
ü Thus, through social research, wildlife managers can assess the
impact of conservation initiatives on local livelihoods and work
collaboratively with communities to develop sustainable and
mutually beneficial conservation practices
3. Human-wildlife interaction/conflict management
ü Social sciences help identify and understand interaction and
conflicts between humans and wildlife whether it's through
hunting, tourism, or conflicts arising from crop damage,
livestock predation, or threats to human safety extra
ü Designing successful management methods that take into

account human behaviors and motives need this insight.
ü Research in social sciences provides insights into the attitudes,

perceptions, and behaviors of local communities toward wildlife,
facilitating the development of conflict mitigation strategies that
consider human needs and concerns
4. Education and Outreach (Awareness)
ü Developing and assessing educational and awareness
initiatives involves the application of social science
ü Social science, assists in determining the best means of
spreading conservation messages, increasing awareness,
and encouraging alteration in behavior among various
target populations/audiences
ü By considering the social and cultural contexts of
different communities, wildlife managers can tailor
educational initiatives to increase awareness and support
for conservation actions
5. Cultural and Traditional Ecological Knowledge
ü Social science recognizes the role that indigenous and
cultural knowledge plays in conservation strategies
ü It play a role in recognizing and integrating traditional
ecological knowledge held by indigenous and local
communities
ü This knowledge can provide valuable insights into wildlife
behavior, habitat use, and ecosystem dynamics
ü Thus, integrating traditional knowledge systems into
conservation planning can enhance the resilience and
effectiveness of conservation efforts
6. Tourism and Recreation Management
üSocial sciences inform the sustainable management
of wildlife tourism and recreation
üThis involves studying visitor behavior, preferences,
and the social and economic impacts of ecotourism
on local communities
üRe s p o n s i b l e w i l d l i fe to u r i s m p ra c t i c e s a re
developed by integrating social science research
findings to ensure that tourism benefits
conservation efforts and minimizes negative
impacts
7. Policy Development and Advocacy (Policy & Governance)
ü Social science provides insights into the socio-political context
of wildlife conservation
ü This includes understanding the role of political, economic, and
cultural factors in shaping policy decisions
ü It helps identify policy barriers and opportunities, assess the
effectiveness of governance structures, and inform the
development of policies that are socially acceptable and
sustainable
ü Social scientists contribute to advocacy efforts by providing
evidence-based arguments, demonstrating the social and
economic benefits of wildlife conservation, and highlighting the
importance of biodiversity for human well-being
8. Economic Considerations
üSocial science research can assess and evaluate the
financial implications of wildlife management and
conservation activities
ü This entails assessing the financial benefit of

c o n s e r va t i o n i n i t i a t i v e s , a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e
contribution of wildlife to regional/local economies,
and exploring (investigating) substitute/alternative
livelihoods for the communities dependent/reliant
on natural resources
9. Attitudes and Perceptions
üPublic attitudes and opinions (perceptions) towards

wildlife and conservation are investigated via social
science research
üGaining public support for policies development,

education initiatives, and communication tactics
(strategies) can be aided by an understanding of
how people feel, view and value wildlife
10. Monitoring and Evaluation
üThe social effects of conservation initiatives are

t ra c ke d a n d a s s e s s e d u s i n g s o c i a l s c i e n c e
methodologies
üThis involves evaluating how conservation initiatives

have affected community well-being, attitudes, and
actions
üThis information (data) is important for adaptive

management and ongoing conservation strategy
improvement.
In summary,
ü Social sciences contribute to a more holistic and
interdisciplinary approach to wildlife management and
conservation by providing insights into the human
dimensions of conservation
ü By understanding the social, economic, and cultural
aspects of wildlife interactions, managers can develop
more holistic and effective strategies that benefit both
wildlife and human communities
ü By considering the social aspects of conservation,
practitioners can develop more inclusive, effective, and
sustainable strategies that address the complex
interactions between humans and wildlife
Approaches of wildlife management from
geographical perspective
üW i l d l i fe m a n a g e m e n t f ro m a g e o g ra p h i c a l
perspective involves understanding and addressing
the spatial aspects of wildlife distribution, habitat,
and human-wildlife interactions
üGeographical considerations play a crucial role in

formulating effec ti ve w i l dl i fe management
strategies
üSome of approaches to wildlife management from a

geographical perspective includes;
1. Land Use Planning
Objective
ü Minimize conflicts between human activities and wildlife
conservation
Approach
ü Develop land-use plans that consider wildlife habitat
requirements
ü Zoning regulations and spatial planning can help
minimize the impact of urbanization, agriculture, and
infrastructure development on critical wildlife areas
2. Habitat Mapping and Conservation
Objective
üIdentify, map, and conserve critical wildlife habitats
Approach
üUse Geographic Information System (GIS) and
remote sensing technologies to map habitats
üAnalyze the spatial relationships between different
habitats, and prioritize conservation efforts based
on the importance of specific areas for maintaining
biodiversity
3. Spatial Analysis of Human-Wildlife Conflict
Objective
Understand and mitigate conflicts between humans and
wildlife
Approach
ü Analyze spatial patterns of human-wildlife conflict
incidents using GIS
ü Implement measures such as fencing, early warning
systems, or habitat modifications to reduce conflicts
while considering the geographical aspects of such
interactions
4. Corridor Design and Connectivity
Objective
üEnhance wildlife movement and genetic diversity by
maintaining ecological corridors
Approach
üIdentify key wildlife corridors through GIS analysis
üDesign and implement strategies to maintain or
restore connectivity between fragmented habitats
to support the movement of wildlife populations
5. Protected Area Network Design
Objective
ü Establish and manage protected areas for wildlife
conservation
Approach
ü Use GIS and spatial analysis to identify suitable locations
for protected areas based on ecological criteria
ü Consider connectivity between protected areas to ensure
the long-term viability of wildlife populations
6. Monitoring and Surveillance
Objective
üTra c k w i l d l i fe p o p u l a t i o n s a n d a s s e s s t h e
effectiveness of management interventions
Approach
üUtilize satellite imagery, camera traps, and other
remote sensing technologies for spatial monitoring
üImplement geographic databases to store and
analyze data on wildlife populations, habitat
changes, and management outcomes
7. Climate Change Adaptation
Objective
üAddress the impact of climate change on wildlife
and their habitats
Approach
üAnalyze climate change projections and assess their
spatial implications for wildlife
üImplement adaptive management strategies, such
as creating climate-resilient habitats or facilitating
species migration to more suitable areas
Objective
üInvolve local communities in wildlife conservation.
Approach
üConsider the spatial and cultural context of
communities
üImplement conservation programs that align with
local land use practices, and promote sustainable
resource management to ensure the cooperation of
local residents in wildlife conservation efforts
In conclusion;
ü By integrating these geographical approaches, wildlife
managers can develop more informed and effective
strategies for the conser vation and sustainable
management of wildlife and their habitats
ü Approaches of wildlife management from geographical
perspective is critical in this digital world
ü Gis techniques and human dimensions approaches have
become integral tools to manage wildlife ecotourism and
human-wildlife interactions, as well as developed
conservation programs for species at risk
Principles of wildlife conservation
In this lesson we discuss the following aspects
ü Principles and roles of wildlife conservation
ü Role of wildlife conservation
ü Factors leading to wildlife endangerment
ü Conservation measures, strategies and challenges
ü In-situ and Ex-situ conservation strategies
ü Wildlife conservancies
ü Forest and forestry management in relation to wildlife
ü UNESCO lists of biosphere reserves
ü Wildlife migration
ü Endangered species
ü Red data book and IUCN classification
Goal of Wildlife Conservation

üTo ensure that the nature will be around for future
generations to enjoy and also recognize the
importance of wildlife and wilderness for humans
and other species alike
üWildlife plays an important role in balancing
the environment and provides stability to
different natural processes of nature
üMany nations have government agencies and
NGO’s dedicated to wildlife conservation,
which help to implement policies designed to
protect wildlife
üW i l d l i fe c o n s e r v a t i o n h a s b e c o m e a n
increasingly important practice due to the
negative effects of human activity on wildlife
The following are the key principles in wildlife

conservation
ØProtect the breeding stock
ØHarvest the “surplus” wisely
ØBalance animals and habitat

Principles wildlife conservation
1. Protect the breeding stock
ü“Breeding stock” is a term used to describe the

appropriate mixture of young and adult animals
needed to maintain a population
üIt is the task of the wildlife managers to determine

how many animals are surplus in a game population
and to protect the remaining animals
2. Harvest the surplus wisely
Ø The “surplus” animals refers to those animals that exceed
the carrying capacity
Ø Wildlife managers want to carefully remove the surplus
to allow the harvest animals to grow so hunters can get
the most meat possible from the harvest
3. Balance animals and habitat
ØLands and vegetation are an important part of

sustaining a habitat but can be harmed when
the number of animals using an area is too
much for the land to support
Roles of wildlife conservations
Roles of wildlife conservations
Factors leading to wildlife endangerment
üThe following are some of the factors influencing

endangerment of wildlife to the point of extinction
Conservation measures/methods
For effective conservation the following
measures/methods can be employed
ØProtection of threatned species - Protection of
threatened /useful plants and animals species living
in natural habitats, zoological and botanical gardens,
seed gene, tissue culture and DNA banks
ØEstablishment of Protected Areas - It is essential to
establish protected areas like wildlife sanctuaries,
national parks and biosphere reserves to protect
wildlife, conserve habitats and provide ideal and
safe spaces (condition) for wildlife to thrive
ü Restoration and preservation of original habitat -
restoration of original habitat to be built in the deforested
areas. Preservation of critical habitats of animal and plant
species plus the management of life supporting systems in
the surrounding habitats
ü Community-Based Conservation - Empowering and
involving local communities in conservation efforts
promotes sustainable outcomes and fosters a sense of
stewardship, allowing them to actively participate and
benefit from these initiatives
ü Re g u l a t i o n o f p l a n t a n d a n i m a l p ro d u c t t ra d e -
International trade in wildlife animals and plants products
should be regulated and strict vigil should be maintained
upon these actions
ü Protection by law - Laws and policies should be enacted
to protect wildlife. In every country there are laws and
protection acts for wildlife conservation.Governments
and organizations enforce policies and regulations to
safeguard wildlife and their habitats, such as hunting
restrictions, anti-poaching measures, and habitat
conservation plans
ü B ette r l i v i n g co n d i t i o n - T h e a n i m a l s a re to b e
encouraged to live under the cover of thick grass or
bushes or trees
ü Training of wildlife mangement - training of wildlife
forest officers, wildlife ecologists among others is
essential for conservation of wildlife
ü Education and Awareness - The government and NGOs
should play a signicant role in public awareness
campaigns and educational programs which are crucial in
promoting wildlife conservation, educating people about
biodiversity's value and human activities' impacts, and
fostering responsible behavior. Common people to be
educated for the conservation and protection of wildlife.
This is the most effective method of preserving wildlife
ü Research and Monitoring - Scientific research and

monitoring programs are crucial for understanding
wildlife populations, identifying threats, and assessing
the effectiveness of conservation measures
List more conservation measures/methods
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More recommendations
The strategies developed by the convention on
biological diversity (CBD) are as follows;
üAll efforts to be made to conserve threatened
species
üAll endangered species should be protected
üThe wildlife must be protected both in natural
habitat and artificial habitats by establishing
zoological and botanical gardens and parks
üVarieties of useful food crops, plants, animals and
microbes should be preserved for national and
international breeding programs
üThe wild plants and animals should be conserved as
a gene bank for the later
üThe habitats of animals should be guarded and well
protected
üA protected area to be established to preserve the
habitat or migratory or wide ranging animal species
üUnique ecosystem should be conserved on top
priority basis
üEcosystem to be determined for exploited species
during productive periods
üInternational trade and commerce to be prohibited
in the areas of wild animals and plants
Conservation challenges
üHabitat Loss and Fragmentation - Human activities,
such as urbanization and infrastructure
development, can cause habitat loss, fragmentation,
disruption of migratory routes, and loss of critical
resources
üClimate Change - Climate change impacts resource
timing, availability, and migration patterns, posing
challenges for migratory species due to
temperature and weather changes
üPollution - Pollution, including water pollution and
habitat degradation, can negatively impact
migratory species and their relying ecosystems
Conservation challenges
üHuman-Wildlife Conflict - Migratory routes can
intersect with human settlements, causing conflicts
like elephant movement for food and water, which
can also impact agricultural activities
üOverexploitation - Overhunting and overfishing can

threaten migratory species, especially those with
specific breeding or feeding grounds that are
targeted by humans
In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation
üIn-situ conservation and ex-situ conservation are
the two main strategies used in conservation
biology to safeguard and maintain biodiversity
üThese strategies seek to safeguard the long-term

existence of a variety of living forms by addressing
the numerous challenges to species and ecosystems
üIn this lesson we seek to have an overview of in-situ

and ex-situ conservation strategies in relation to
Definition
üIn-situ conservation refers to the conservation of
species and ecosystems in their natural habitats. It
involves protecting, managing, and restoring entire
ecosystems or specific habitats to maintain
biodiversity
üEx-situ conservation involves the conservation of

components of biodiversity outside their natural
habitats. This can include living organisms in
captivity, such as in zoos or botanical gardens, or
the storage of genetic material
In-Situ Conservation
In-situ Conservation Strategies
Here are few in-situ conservation strategies
üP ro te c te d A re a s - c re at i n g a n d o ve rs e e i n g
protected areas such as reserves, national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries and reserves in a situtaion
where natural ecosystems are preserved and kept
as human-impact-free as possible
üHabitat Restoration - this involves an attempts to

bring damaged or degraded habitats back to their
original/natural state, in order to aid in the
repopulation of native species and ecosystems
ü Community-Based Conservation - this strategy entails involving
local people in the preservation and management of natural
resources, encouraging environmentally friendly behavior, and
promoting cohabitation with wildlife
ü Biosphere Reserves - the strategy involves identifying and

designating regions that integrate conservation with sustainable
development, allowing for the coexistence of biodiversity
conservation and human activities
ü Wildlife Corridors - this entails establishing and maintaining

co n n e c t i v i t y b et we e n o r a c ro s s f ra g m e nte d h a b i tat s
(ecosystems) inorder to facilitate and promote species migration
and gene flow
List more in-situ conservation strategies
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Advantages of in-situ conservation
üPreserves natural interactions and ecological
processes
üSupports the adaptation of species to changing
environmental conditions
üEncourages sustainable use of resources by local
communities
Challenges of in-situ conservation

üV u l n e r a b l e t o h a b i t a t d e s t r u c t i o n a n d
fragmentation due to human activities
üClimate change impacts may affect the suitability of
current habitats.
Ex-Situ Conservation
Purpose of Ex-situ Conservation
For example in plants, ex-situ conservation has several purposes
ü Rescue threatened germplasm
ü Produce material for reintroduction, translocation, reinforcement,
habitat, and landscape restoration and management
ü Produce material for conservation biology research
ü Bulk up germplasm for storage in various forms of ex situ facility
ü Supply material for various purposes to remove or reduce pressure
from wild collecting
ü Grow those species with recalcitrant seeds that cannot be
maintained in a seed store
ü Generate skills and knowledge to support wider conservation aims
ü Make available material for conservation education and display
Ex-situ conservation strategies
ü Zoological gardens (Zoos) - This involves captive breeding
and management of animals in controlled environments,
often with the goal of reintroducing them to their natural
habitats
ü A q u a r i u m s - Fo c u s o n h o u s i n g a n d b re e d i n g o f
endangered aquatic species that may be at risk of
extinction. It also focus on rare and threatened species
where by maintaining viable population in captivity,
aquariums act as a genetic reservoir for species that may
face challenges in their natural habitats
ü Gene Banks - This strategy entails storing genetic
material, such as DNA, sperm, eggs, or embryos, to
safeguard the genetic diversity of species
ü Captive Breeding Programs - This entails breeding and

rearing threatened/endangered species in controlled
environments in order to boost genetic diversity and
population sizes
ü Seed Banks - This involves gathering /collecting,
preserving, and managing the seeds of many plant
species in order to support reintroductions in the future
and protect genetic diversity
ü Botanical Gardens - This entails cultivating and
conserving diverse plant species, especially those that are
rare or endangered, in controlled environment settings
List more ex-situ conservation strategies
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Advantages of ex-situ conservation
ü Provides a safety net for species facing imminent threats
in their natural habitats
ü Can facilitate research and education on species biology
and behavior
ü Allows for controlled breeding and genetic management
Challenges of ex-situ conservation

ü Limited space and resources for maintaining large
populations
ü Challenges in replicating natural behaviors and ecological
interactions
ü Potential loss of adaptability to natural conditions
Introduction to wildlife conservancies
üA wildlife conservancy, also known as a wildlife area
is a protected area for wildlife and their habitats,
aiming to preserve biodiversity, maintain ecological
balance, and protect the natural environment s a
üT h e refo re co n s e r va n c i e s a re s i g n i f i c a nt i n
maintaining the integrity of wildlife habitats and
better lives for stakeholders populations
üConservancies are seen as a form of development
that improves the lives of the animals as well as
those of the community and other stakeholders
Introduction to wildlife conservancies
ü The features of successful conservancies and the
techniques used to achieve them hence have become an
interest of both international and domestic laws
ü Wildlife remains Kenya’s major pillar of tourism, which
generates over Ksh160 billion in income each year
ü Therefore conservancies have become an important
aspects of Kenya’s economy
ü According to Kenya wildlife service (KWS) data, protected
animal conservation areas cover roughly 8% of Kenya’s
landmass
ü Wildlife conservancies can take various forms, including
national parks, game reserves, and private wildlife
sanctuaries
Features & objectives of wildlife conservancies
The following are key features and objectives of
wildlife conservancies
ü Habitat Preservation - The preservation of natural habitats is
crucial for ensuring a secure and undisturbed environment for
wildlife to thrive
ü Biodiversity Conservation - Protecting a wide range of plant and
animal species to maintain and enhance biodiversity
ü Ecological Balance - The goal is to maintain the balance and
health of ecosystems by allowing natural processes to occur
without significant human intervention
ü Research and Monitoring - The research aims to comprehend
wildlife behavior, population dynamics, and ecological processes
through scientific investigation
Features & objectives of wildlife conservancies
Tourism and Education - Some conservancies are exploring
the use of sustainable tourism to generate revenue for
conservation efforts and raise public awareness about the
significance of wildlife conservation
Community Involvement - The focus is on involving local

communities in conservation efforts, ensuring their
livelihoods are considered and they benefit from
conservation activities
Anti-Poaching Measures - putting policies and

implementing measures to combat/stop illicit poaching and
other threats to wildlife within the conservancy
Kinds of conservancy schemes in Kenya
ü Kenya's conservation schemes and initiatives focus on
wildlife and environmental conservation, often involving
collaboration between local communities, private
landowners, NGOs, and government entities
ü Some common types of conservancy schemes in Kenya
includes;
1. Community Conservancies
Ø Involves local communities in wildlife conservation efforts
Ø Provides communities with incentives for protecting
wildlife and their habitats
Ø C a n i n c l u d e reve n u e - s h a r i n g m e c h a n i s m s f ro m
sustainable tourism activities
2. Private Conservancies
Ø Established on privately owned land with a focus on
Ø Often involves partnerships between landowners and
conservation organizations
Ø Allows for sustainable land use practices that benefit
both wildlife and landowners
3. Group Ranch Conservancies
Ø Involves multiple landowners forming a conservancy to
collectively manage and conserve their land
Ø Aims to promote sustainable land management practices
and wildlife conservation
4. Community-Based Wildlife Management Areas (CWMAs)
Ø Similar to community conservancies, CWMAs involve
local communities in managing wildlife and their habitats
Ø Communities may benefit from revenue generated
through controlled hunting, ecotourism, or other
sustainable practices
5. Transboundary Conservancies
Ø Collaborative efforts between neighboring countries to
conserve wildlife and ecosystems that span national
borders
Ø Aims to address transboundary conservation challenges
and promote cooperation.
6. Tourism-Driven Conservancies
Ø Focuses on sustainable tourism as a means of funding conservation
efforts
Ø Balances tourism activities with the preservation of wildlife and
ecosystems.
7. Government-Managed National Parks and Reserves
Ø State-run conservancies that are officially designated for wildlife
protection
Ø Managed by government agencies, such as the Kenya Wildlife Service
(KWS).
8. Rhino Conservancies
Ø Spe c i a l i ze d co n s e r va nc i e s fo c us e d o n t he pro te c t i o n a nd
conservation of rhinoceros populations, particularly black and white
rhinos
Wildlife conservancies in Kenya
Here are some well-known wildlife conservancies in
Kenya
1. Maasai Mara Conservancies

ØEnonkishu Conservancy
ØMara North Conservancy
ØOlare Motorogi Conservancy
ØNaboisho Conservancy
2. Amboseli Ecosystem
ØKimana Wildlife Sanctuary
ØOlgulului Ololarashi Group Ranch
3. Tsavo Ecosystem
ØTaita Hills Wildlife Sanctuary
ØLumo Community Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Northern Rangelands Trust (NRT)

ØSera Community Conservancy
ØNamunyak Wildlife Conservancy
ØLewa-Borana Wildlife Conservancy
5. Chyulu Hills Conservation Trust

ØMbirikani Group Ranch
6. Laikipia Conservancies
ØOl Pejeta Conservancy
ØLewa Wildlife Conservancy
ØSegera Conservancy
ØOl Jogi Conservancy
7. Shompole Community Trust

ØShompole Conservancy
Wildlife conservancies
In conclusion,
üWildlife conservancies are vital in protecting

endangered species, preserving ecosystems, and
preserving biodiversity globally, with regulations
and management practices varying based on local
authorities or organizations
Forest and Forestry Management
Introduction
üForests play a crucial and essential role in wildlife
management and conservation
üMany animal species, including mammals, birds,
re p t i l e s , a n d i n s e c t s , f i n d h o m e o n fo re s t
ecosystems (environments) and rely on them for
food, water, cover (shelter) breeding grounds, and
security/protection
üWildlife populations are directly impacted by
forestry management methods
ü Strategies for sustainable forestry management take into
account the needs of wildlife which include keeping a
variety of habitat types to ensure biodiversity, making
sure that habitats are connected to one another, and
managing forests to resemble natural disturbances
ü Therefore, the biodiversity richness, ecological balance,
and overall health of these ecosystems depend on
efficient and effective forestry management
ü The relationship between forests, forestry management,
and wildlife management conservation is characterized
by several important factors as discussed in this lesson
1. Habitat Provision
üMany different types of wildlife, such as mammals,

birds, insects, and plants, call forests home
üAiming to preserve and improve ideal habitats for

various species, proper forestry management
techniques take into account elements like
vegetation structure, food availability, and nesting
locations/sites.
2. Ecosystem Services
üImportant and essential ecosystem services that
forests offer include soil stabilization, water
filtration, and carbon sequestration
üThese services enhance and support the well-being
o f w i l d l i fe p o p u l a t i o n s b y i m p r o v i n g a n d
contributing to the overall health of ecosystems
ü Sustainable forestry management practices take
into account the importance of these ecosystem
services
3. Biodiversity Conservation
üOne of the planet's most biodiverse ecosystems is a
forest
üTherefore, forestry management practices should

prioritize the conservation of biodiversity by
protecting rare (uncommon) and endangered
s p e c i e s , p re s e r v i n g n at i ve ve getat i o n , a n d
preventing habitat fragmentation
4. Forest Fragmentation and Connectivity
üRoad building, unplanned logging, and other human

activity can cause forest fragmentation, which
isolates wildlife populations and messes with their
migration patterns and routes
üIt is therefore, important for forestry management

to take into account preserving and reestablishing
or restoring landscape connectivity to enable the
movement of wildlife across different forested areas
5. Fire Management
üNatural or man-made forest fires can have a big and

significant effect/impacts on wildlife habitat
ü Forestry management should therefore aim to

lower the likelihood of disastrous/destructive
wildfires and preserve healthy forest ecosystems
through fire prevention, early detection, and
controlled burns.
6. Invasive Species Control
üNative fauna and vegetation may be adversely

affected by invasive plant and animal species
üForestry management practices may involve

strategies to control and mitigate the spread of
invasive species, helping to protect the integrity of
the ecosystem
7. Sustainable Harvesting Practices
üSustainable harvesting methods/practices are vital

to preserving the ecosystem's long-term health, if
forests are utilized to produce timber or other
commodities/resources
üBy balancing the needs for human resources with

the objectives of conservation, sustainable forestry
makes sure that forest resources are used without
jeopardizing the integrity of ecosystems.
8. Community Engagement
üLocal communities are frequently involved in

forestry management, particularly in regions that
heavily rely on forest resources
üInvolving local people in decision-making processes

and taking into account their needs and traditional
knowledge can help to promote conservation
efforts and a sense of stewardship.
9. Legal and regulatory framework
üLegislative (legal) and regulatory frameworks that

safeguard wildlife and their habitats serve as a
guidance for effective management of forests
üThese rules and regulations may include guideline

for logging, conservation measures, habitat
protection and preservation
üUnderstanding the biological and ecological

dynamics of forest ecosystems through continuous
research and monitoring is beneficial to forestry
management
üThis include evaluating the effects/impacts of

disturbances, researching how wildlife responds to
management techniques, and modifying/adapting
management plans/strategies in light of scientific
discoveries/findings.
Challenges
Forests and forestry management in relation to wildlife management and
conservation is faced by several challenges which among others includes;
ü Deforestation and Habitat Loss
ü lllegal Logging and Unsustainable Practices
ü Climate Change Impacts
ü Invasive Species and Diseases
ü Lack of Governance and Enforcement
ü Conflict Between Conservation and Development
ü Limited Resources and Capacity
ü Fragmentation and Connectivity Issues
ü Social and Cultural Challenges
***Refer to Faith Dicklice presentation for details
Opportunities
For effective forest and forest management the following opportunities exists
ü Forest Restoration and Reforestation
ü Sustainable Forest Certification and Practices
ü Community-Based Forestry
ü Technology Integration for Monitoring and Management
ü Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
ü Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)
ü Collaborative Partnerships and Governance Reform
ü Innovation and Research
ü Education and Awareness
ü Green Economy and Sustainable Investments
***Refer to Faith Dicklice presentation for details
In summary,
üThe sustainable management of forests is essential
for wildlife conservation
üBy integrating ecological principles, conservation

objectives, and community engagement into
forestry practices, it is possible to maintain healthy,
resilient forest ecosystems that support diverse
wildlife populations
UNESCO List of Biosphere Reserves
Introduction
üThe designation of Biosphere Reserves is dependent
on factors such as biodiversity, ecological value, and
sustainable development methods/practices
üThese reserves seek to strike a balance between

research, sustainable natural resource use, and
conservation initiatives
üIn this lesson we will look at some of the key

designation of Biosphere Reserves worldwide
1. Yellowstone Biosphere Reserve (United States)
üLocation: United States (spanning Wyoming,
Montana, and Idaho)
üDesignation Year: 1976
üNotable Features: Yellowstone National Park,

geothermal features, diverse ecosystems, and
wildlife including grizzly bears, wolves, and herds of
bison
2. Galápagos Islands Biosphere Reserve (Ecuador)
üLocation: Ecuador
üNotable Features: Unique and diverse ecosystems,

endemic species (including the Galápagos giant
tortoise), and a living laboratory for the study of
evolution
3. Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve (South Africa):
üLocation: South Africa
üNotable Features: Encompasses Kruger National

Park, diverse landscapes, wildlife including the "Big
Five" (lion, elephant, buffalo, leopard, rhinoceros),
and cultural heritage sites
4.Mount Kenya Biosphere Reserve (Kenya)
üLocation: Kenya
üNotable Features: Mount Kenya, diverse habitats,

highland forests, and alpine meadows, supporting a
variety of wildlife
5. Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve (Mexico)
üLocation: Mexico
üNotable Features: Coastal and marine ecosystems,

tropical forests, ancient Maya archaeological sites,
and a diverse array of flora and fauna.
6. Western Ghats Biosphere Reserve (India)
üLocation: India
üNotable Features: Biodiversity hotspot, diverse

landscapes, and ecosystems, home to numerous
plant and animal species, including endemic and
endangered ones
7. Lake Baikal Biosphere Reserve (Russia)
üLocation: Russia
üNotable Features: Lake Baikal, the world's deepest

freshwater lake, unique and diverse ecosystems,
and a rich array of aquatic life
8. Te Wahipounamu Biosphere Reserve (New Zealand)
üLocation: New Zealand
üNotable Features: UNESCO World Heritage Site,

includes Fiordland National Park, glaciers, fjords,
and a diverse range of ecosystems and wildlife
Indicating notable features, List Biosphere Reserves in
Kenya
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Wildlife Migration
Definition
üWildlife migration refers to the regular, seasonal
movement of animals from one place to another
üMany different species, including mammals, birds,

fish, insects, and even certain reptiles and
amphibians, exhibit the common trait of migration
üMigration can serve various purposes, such as

accessing resources, avoiding harsh environmental
conditions, breeding, and finding suitable habitats
Wildlife Migration
üWatc h t h e l i n ke d v i d e o o n g re at m i g rat i o n
docmentary
Wildlife Migration
Types of wildlife migration
1. Seasonal Migration
ü Seasonal migration is a common way for many animals to
adapt to shifting/changing environmental conditions. For
example, in the spring and summer, birds may migrate to
their nesting or breeding grounds and in the fall and
winter, they may return to warmer climate areas
2. Altitudinal Migration
As the seasons change, certain animals travel up and down
hills or mountains. This type of migration allows them to
access different elevations with specific temperature and
resource conditions
Wildlife Migration
3. Vertical Migration
üIn oceans, certain marine animals migrate vertically,
including fish and zooplankton. During the night,
they migrate to the surface waters to feed, and
during the day, they retreat to deeper depths to
evade predators
4.Nomadic Migration
üSome species exhibit nomadic movements without
a fixed pattern. These migrations are often driven
by the availability of food and water resources and
can vary in distance and direction
Wildlife Migration
Examples of migration
üMammal Migration - Mammals travel great
distances in search of food, water, and ideal
breeding habitats. Examples of these animals are
the caribou in North America and the wildebeest in
Africa
üFish Migration - Many fish species travel in order to

reproduce (for breeding purposes). For example,
salmon travel to freshwater rivers from the ocean in
order to spawn
Wildlife Migration
üBird Migration - Bird migration is a well-known
phenomenon. Numerous species, including the
monarch butterfly and the Arctic tern, migrate over
great distances—often thousands of kilometers
üInsect Migration - Long-distance migration is a

common strategy used by insects like the monarch
butterfly to find ideal breeding grounds or flee
adverse conditions. Additionally well-known for
their migratory habits are locusts and dragonflies
Wildlife Migration
Reasons for Wildlife migrations
Wildlife migrate from one area to another at different
seasons for different reasons;
üMigrations may be to avoid stressful season, like
winter in the north and south poles, hot sun in
tropics etc
üMigrations may also be for breeding, for examples
the Flamingoes are known to breed mainly in Lake
Natron in Tanzania and therefore at a given time in
their lifecycle, all flamingos migrate from Lake
Nakuru, L. Elementaita, L. Bogoria and converge at L.
Natron for breeding
Wildlife Migration
üSimilarly, the wildebeest in Maasai Mara migrate to
Serengeti N. Park for breeding but also in search of
lush pastures during the breeding time.
üAtlantic Salmon migrate upstream for breeding in
fresh/brackish water and return back to marine
water later to find mate – breeding
üDisease spread presents even a bigger challenge
when dealing with migratory species e.g. migratory
birds. Avian Flu did spread fast in many countries
from domesticated birds through migratory wildlife
birds.
Wildlife Migration
üIn such of pasture - wildlife will migrate in various
season in search of quality pasture
üInsecurity can also trigger animal’s migration from
one area to another. This is common with elephants.
Migratory wildlife presents a big challenge to
conservation especially long distance migration e.g.
inter-continental migrations. There is need to
h a r m o n i s e p o l i c i e s fo r m i g ra t o r y s p e c i e s .
Ownership of the species is problematic and so is
the responsibility for their protection
Wildlife Migration
Factors influencing wildlife migration
üResource availability
üEnvironmemental factors
üReproductive needs
üNavigational abilities
Wildlife Migration
Resource availability
ü Migrations are frequently driven by the availability of
food, water, and suitable breeding sites (nesting grounds)
ü In order to ensure their survival and procreation, animals
relocate to places with an abundance of resources
Reproductive Needs
ü Reproductive cycles and migration are frequently related
ü In order to ensure the survival of their species, animals
may relocate to particular locations for mating, nesting,
and raising progeny
Wildlife Migration
Environmental Conditions
ü Weather trends, temperature variations, and changes in
daylight hours can all cause migratory behavior
ü Many animals move in order to benefit from good and
favourable mating (breeding) seasons or to avoid the
severe weather e.g, winters in tempetare region or hot
sun in tropic
Navigational Abilities
ü Many migratory species are remarkably adept at
navigating; they can do so over great distances by using
cues from the sun, stars, Earth's magnetic field, and even
landmarks
Endangered Species
üA species is considered endangered if there is a
significant chance that it may go extinct in the near
future due to a reduction in its number
üTherefore, endangered species are those that face a

high risk of extinction in the near future if their
populations continue to decline
üN u m e r o u s e l e m e n t s / f a c t o r s l e a d t o t h e
jeopardization of species, and conservation
measures are taken to save them from going extinct.
Endangered Species
Factors Contributing to Endangerment
ü H a b i tat L o s s a n d D e g ra d at i o n - D u e to c t i v i t i e s l i ke
deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture which significantly
impact species' survival
ü Overexploitation - Unsustainable hunting, fishing and collection

for trade among others can lead to population declines and
threaten the survival of species
ü Pollution - Environmental pollution, including air, water, and soil

pollution, can harm ecosystems and the species within them.
Chemical pollutants can have direct toxic effects on organisms
Endangered Species
Factors Contributing to Endangerment
ü Climate Change - Rising temperatures and altered precipitation,
can affect habitats, food availability, and migration patterns,
posing challenges for species adaptation
ü Disease - The spread of diseases, especially those introduced by

humans or invasive species, can have devastating effects on
populations that lack natural immunity
ü Invasive Species - The introduction of non-native species to new

environments can lead to competition for resources, predation,
and habitat alteration, negatively impacting native species
Endangered Species
Conservation Strategies for Endangered Species
1. Habitat Protection and Restoration
ü It is essential to identify and protect endangered species'
vital habitats
ü The goal of restoration efforts is to repair (rehabilitate)
damaged/degraded ecosystems and establish favorable
circumstances for the resurgence/recovery of species
2. Legal Protections
ü Putting laws and regulations into action to shield
threatened species from commerce, habitat loss, and
hunting
ü These could include national conservation laws and
international agreements
Endangered Species
3. Captive Breeding and Reintroduction
üEstablishing breeding programs in captivity to
increase population numbers, genetic diversity, and
resilience
üReintroduction efforts involve releasing individuals
back into their natural habitats
4. Community Involvement
üA c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l o c a l
communities in preserving wildlife and habitats and
involving them in conservation initiatives.
üS u sta i n a b l e l i ve l i h o o d a l te r n at i ve s m ay b e
developed to reduce human-wildlife conflicts
Endangered Species
ü This involves, educating the public on the value of
biodiversity, the risks facing endangered species, and the
part that each person can play in conservation efforts

ü Carrying out scientific studies/research to understand
(comprehend) the ecology, behavior, and dangers that
endangered animals encounter
ü Monitoring programs help assess the effectiveness of
conservation strategies
Endangered Species
7. International Cooperation
ü working together or collaborating across boundaries to
address global conservation issues
ü International collaboration is facilitated by agreements
like the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
8. Genetic Management
ü The goal of genetic management techniques is to keep
populations healthy by preserving genetic diversity and
avoiding inbreeding
ü This could entail meticulously (carefully) planned and
designed breeding initiatives/programs
Endangered Species
Examples of Endangered Species in Kenya
üAfrican Elephant (Loxodonta africana)
üBlack Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)
üGrevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi)
üGrevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi)
üAfrican Wild Dog (Lycaon pictus)
üMountain Bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci)
üJackson's Chameleon (Trioceros jacksonii)
üTana River Red Colobus Monkey (Piliocolobus
rufomitratus)
üHawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)
üAfrican Penguin (Spheniscus demersus)
Endangered Species
To have more insights on the various endangered

species globally visit the linked site and you can
search for endangered species by area/country
Introduction
üThe Red Data Book and the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classification system
are the two resources (tools) used in the field of
conservation to evaluate (assess) and
classify/categorize the conservation status of
species
üThey help identify species at risk of extinction and
guide conservation efforts (they support the
identification of endangered species and direct
conservation initiatives)
IUCN Red list classification
üThe organization publishes the IUCN Red list of
threatened species which assesses the conservation
status of species
üIt works for enlistment and preservation of

endangered species of plants and animals
üNow known as the world conservation union, it

aims to impart information about the distribution
a n d stat u s o f t h re ate n e d s p e c i e s , d e ve l o p
awareness about the importance of threatened
b i o d i v e rs i t y a n d g u i d e t h e i r c o n s e rav t i o n
programmes and actions
üThe International Union for Conservation of Nature
created the IUCN categorization (classification)
system, which serves as a global benchmark for
evaluating /assessing the state of species
conservation
ØIn this context, the IUCN Red List of Threatened

Species is a well-known and reliable source
Key Features of IUCN red list Classification
1. Categories
üThe IUCN Red List classifies species into several
categories based on their risk of extinction. These
categories include;
- Least Concern (LC)
- Near Threatened (NT)
- Vulnerable (VU)
- Endangered (EN)
- Critically Endangered (CR)," and others
i) Least concern (LC)
ü Species in this category are evaluated and found to be at
low risk of extinction
ü The population of the species is stable, and there are no
immediate threats that could cause a significant decline
in numbers
ii) Near Threatened (NT)
ü Species in this category are close to qualifying for a
threatened status but are not yet considered as such
ü They may be experiencing a decline in population or
facing potential threats, but the situation is not critical at
the moment.
iii) Vulnerable (VU)
ü Species in this category face a high risk of extinction in
the wild
ü The population has declined significantly, or the species
faces major threats that could lead to its extinction if not
addressed
iv) Endangered (EN)
ü Species in this category are at a very high risk of
extinction in the wild
ü The population has declined substantially, and the
threats are severe
ü Urgent conservation actions are needed to prevent
extinction.
v) Critically Endangered (CR)
üSpecies in this category face an extremely high risk
of extinction in the wild
üThe population is critically low, and the threats are
imminent and severe
üImmediate and intensive conservation measures are
required to prevent the species from disappearing
ØThese categories provide a standardized way to
communicate the conservation status of species
and highlight the urgency of conservation efforts for
those facing higher risks of extinction.
2. Criteria
ü The classification is determined using specific criteria, including
the rate of decline in population, size of the population, and the
extent and quality of the species' habitat
3. Global Standard
ü The IUCN red list is an international program that offers a
uniform method (provide a standardized approach) for
evaluating the risk of extinction for different species globally. It
encompasses a wide variety (broad range) of taxa, such as fungi,
algae, plants, and mammals
4. Regular Updates
The IUCN Red List is regularly updated to reflect the latest
scientific knowledge and assessments. It serves as a critical tool for
prioritizing conservation efforts
For more insight you can examine the IUCN Red Lists
database online at www.iucnredlist.org
Red data book classification
üThe Red Data Book is a compilation of lists of
species that are facing a high risk of extinction
üIt is published by various organizations, and

different countries may have their own Red Data
Books
üThe term "Red Data" refers to the inclusion of

species names in the book, indicating their
vulnerable or endangered status
Key Features of Red data book
1. Categories
üSpecies are classified into various threat categories
in the Red Data Book according to the degree of risk
they are exposed to. Common categories include
- Critically Endangered
- Endangered
- Vulnerable
i) Critically Endangered
üThis category is reserved for species that are facing
an extremely high risk of extinction in the near
future
üThe population of Critically Endangered species is
critically low, and they often face severe and
i m m e d i ate t h re at s t h at co u l d l e a d to t h e i r
extinction if not addressed urgently
üConservation efforts for Critically Endangered
species typically require intensive and immediate
action
ii) Endangered
üSpecies classified as Endangered are at a very high
risk of extinction in the wild
üThe population of Endangered species has declined
significantly, and they face substantial threats that
need to be addressed to prevent further decline
üConservation efforts for Endangered species are
crucial to ensure their survival, though the level of
urgency may be somewhat lower than for Critically
Endangered species
iii) Vulnerable
üVulnerable species are at a lower risk of extinction
compared to Endangered and Critically Endangered
species, but they still face a high risk
üThe population of Vulnerable species may be
decreasing, and they are exposed to threats that
could lead to a more critical status if not mitigated
üConservation efforts for Vulnerable species are
necessary to prevent them from moving into higher-
risk categories
2. Criteria
ü The classification is typically based on scientific
assessments using criteria such as population size, rate of
decline, geographic range, and fragmentation of
populations
3. Taxonomic Groups
ü Many taxonomic groupings are included by the Red Data
Book, such as fish, mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles,
invertebrates, and plants
4. Documentation
ü The Red Data Book provides information on the
conservation status, distribution, and threats to each
listed species
ü It serves as a valuable reference for conservationists,
researchers, and policymakers
Summary
In summary,
ü The IUCN categorization system and the Red Data Book
are essential tools for identifying and cataloging
(documenting) species that are in danger of going extinct
ü These tools help guide conservation strategies, prioritize

resources, and raise awareness about the importance of
protecting biodiversity on a global scale
ü The ultimate goal is to stop the extinction of species and

guarantee the resilience and long-term health of
ecosystems
Further reading
üFo r m o re i n s i g ht s o n w i l d l i fe m a n a ge m e nt
techniques and methods of wildlife conservation
read the linked slideshare on wildlife management
Health and Nutrition
In this lesson we will discuss
üWildlife health and nutrition
üPhysiographic factors and wildlife management
Wildlife Health and Nutrition
üNutrition and wildlife health are essential to animal
populations' survival and well-being in the wild
üSustaining populations within their environments
and preserving the health of individual animals
depend on proper nutrition
üTherefore, wildlife health and nutrition are integral
aspects of the well-being and survival of animal
populations in the wild
üIn this section, we will discuss key factors related to
wildlife health and nutrition
1. Habitat and Food Availability
ü Ecosystem Variation - The health of wildlife populations
is directly impacted by the availability of appropriate
habitats and food sources. Wildlife nutrition can be
affected by modifications to natural food sources or
changes in habitat quality
2.Water Requirements
ü Hydration Needs - Water supplies that are adequate are
necessary for wildlife. Diverse wildlife species have
diverse needs when it comes to water, and having access
to clean water is essential to sustaining multiple
physiological processes and staying properly hydrated
3. Natural Diet and Foraging
üWildlife Adaptations - Wildlife species have evolved
to thrive on certain diets that meet their
physiological and ecological requirements.
Understanding these adaptations is crucial for
assessing their nutritional requirements
üForaging Behavior - Different foraging habits are

displayed by wildlife species to get the nutrients
they need from their natural surroundings. This
covers hunting, scavenging, browsing, and grazing
4. Nutrient Requirements
üProteins, Carbohydrates, and Fats - Different
wildlife species have different dietary needs
depending on things like size, activity level, and
reproductive state. In the diets of wildlife, proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats are the main
macronutrients
üMicronutrients - Vital and essential vitamins and

minerals are necessary and critical for wildlife to
thrive, maintain appropriate metabolic processes,
and be healthy overall
5. Seasonal Variation
Seasonal Changes in Diet - The nutritional composition of
available food sources may vary seasonally. Wildlife often
adapt their diets to seasonal changes, adjusting their
nutrient intake based on resource availability
6. Human-Wildlife Conflict and Nutrition

Altered Diets - Conflicts between humans and animals,
including crop raiding or scavenging in human populated
settlements, can expose wildlife to artificial (non-nutural)
food sources, which can cause nutritional imbalances or
other health problems
7. Disease and Parasite Management
üImpact on Nutrition - Wildlife's nutrition and
general health can be severely impacted by diseases
and parasites. Malnutrition may weaken immune
systems, making animals more susceptible to
infections.
üResearch and Monitoring - In order to detect and
control disease outbreaks and parasite infestations,
wildlife health specialists and professionals carry
out research and population monitoring
8. Conservation and Habitat Management
üPreserving Natural Habitats - In order to guarantee
that wildlife has access to a variety of natural food
sources, conservation initiatives frequently
concentrate on protecting and restoring natural
ecosystems
üS u p p l e m e n t a l F e e d i n g - I n c e r t a i n c a s e s ,
conservationists may provide supplemental feeding
to wildlife populations facing food shortages due to
habitat loss, degradation or other threats.
9. Wildlife Rehabilitation
Nutritional Support - Animals which are injured or
orphaned can receive nutritional support from wildlife
rehabilitation facilities. This involves developing diets that
mimic the natural foods the animals would consume in the
wild

Nutritional Studies - Studies are conducted by wildlife
researchers to have a better understanding of the dietary
requirements of various animals. The management plans
and conservation techniques that support the health of
wildlife are informed by this research
In summary,
üA thorough and a comprehensive understanding of
wildlife's natural diets, the availability of food
sources, and the effects of human activity on their
nutritional well-being is necessary to maintain their
health and nutrition
üTo maintain the long-term health and sustainability
of animal populations in their native
habitats/environments, conservation initiatives
should take these aspects into consideration
Physiographic Factors and Wildlife Management
Introduction
ü W i l d l i fe m a n a g e m e n t i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y
physiographic elements/factors, which are the physical
features and qualities/characteristics of the environment
(landscape)
ü These factors (elements) affect/influence biodiversity,
habitat suitability, and the general well-being (overall
health) of wildlife populations
ü C o m p re h e n d i n g ( u n d e rsta n d i n g ) p hys i o g ra p h i c
characteristics is essential for implementing successful
wildlife control tactics
ü In this lesson we discuss key physiographic factors and
their implications for wildlife management:
1. Topography
üImpact on Habitat - The sorts of wildlife habitats
that are available are influenced by the topography
of a place, which includes its elevation, slope, and
relief. Therefore, wildlife in a region may be
distributed differently depending on whether
species prefer particular elevations or slope
gradients
üWildlife Movement - Topographic features can

either help or hinder the movement of wildlife.
Wildlife corridors may be necessary to connect
habitats separated by topographic obstacles.
2. Geology
üSoil Composition - Geology impacts the makeup
(composition) of the soil, which in turn affects the
types of vegetation and the availability of nutrients.
Many times, wildlife species need particular
(specific) types of soil for nesting and foraging
(feeding)
üWater Availability - Water bodies are essential to

animals and can be influenced by geological
features. Examples of these water bodies include
rivers, lakes, and aquifers. The distribution and
abundance of species are influenced by the
availability of water.
3. Climate
üTemperature and Precipitation - The types of
vegetation and ecosystems that are found in a given
location are greatly influenced by the climate. Since
wildlife species are climate-specific, variations in
temperature and precipitation patterns can have an
impact on their distribution and behavior
üClimate Change Impacts - The availability of

appropriate habitats for wildlife can be impacted by
changes in temperature and precipitation patterns
brought about by global climate change, which can
also cause changes in vegetation zones.
4. Vegetation
ü Plant Communities - The kinds and distribution of
vegetation affect the amount of food, cover, and
breeding grounds that are available to wildlife. Different
species may be adapted to specific plant communities
ü Succession: For the purpose of maintaining ecosystems

across time, it is essential to comprehend (understand)
the successional stages of vegetation. While some
species favor mature forests or grasslands, others may be
linked to habitats that are in the early stages of
succession
ü Listen to the linked video on habitat and succession

5. Landforms
üLandform Diversity - The diversity of habitat is
influenced by a variety of landforms, including
m o u nta i n s , p l ate a u s , a n d va l l e y s . W i l d l i fe
management should consider the conservation of
different landforms to support a variety of species.
üLandform Connectivity - Connectivity between

various landforms can promote gene flow and
w i l d l i f e m o b i l i t y, e n h a n c i n g p o p u l a t i o n
survival/viability over the long run
6. Hydrology
üRiver Systems and Wetlands - Water flow patterns,
wetlands, and river systems are examples of
hydrological features that affect the availability of
aquatic habitats for species. A wide variety of
organisms are supported by aquatic
habitats/ecosystem
üFloodplains - Hydrology affects floodplains, which are

crucial habitats for a wide variety of organisms.
Natural flood patterns can support the health of an
ecosystem
7. Human Disturbance
üHuman Settlements - The infrastructure and
existence of human settlements can cause habitat
disruption and fragmentation. Effective wildlife
management should consider strategies to mitigate
the impact of human activities on natural habitats
üUrbanization - Wildlife may face difficulties in urban

locations, but with careful planning and habitat
management, urban ecosystems (environments)
that promote biodiversity can be created
8. Fire Regimes
üFire Frequency - The composition and structure of
the vegetation in an ecosystem are influenced by
the frequency and severity of fires. Some wildlife
species are adapted to fire-prone ecosystems, while
others may be negatively affected
In Conclusion,
üComprehending these physiographic variables is

crucial to creating comprehensive strategies for
managing animals
üThe relationships between these variables and their

effects on biodiversity, habitat quality, and the
ability of wildlife populations to adapt to changing
environmental conditions should all be taken into
account in conservation efforts
Wetland Management and Wildlife
In this lesson we will discuss
üWetland management and wildlife
üWater resources and wildlife
Wetland in Kenya
üIn Kenya, wetlands are defined as areas of land that
are permanently or occassionally waterlogged with
fresh, saline,blackish or marine waters at a depth of
not exceeding six metres, including both natural and
man-made areas that support characteristic biota
üThey includes; swamps, bogs, shallow lakes, ox-bow
lakes, river meanders and flood plains as well as
river banks, lakeshores and seashores where
wetland plant grows
üIt also includes marine and intertidal wetlands such
as delta, estuaries, mudts, mangroves, salt marshes,
sea, grass bed and shallow reefs
ü The distribution of Kenya’s wetlands depends largely on
the amount of rainfall and to some extent on the land
form
ü The wetlands provide many ecological and socio-
economic good and services
ü Despite their valuable functions, wetlands are often
regarded as wastelands and are continually being
degraded and lost through conversion for agricultural
uses, settlement and industrial development
ü Wetlands have suffered degradation caused among
others pollution, overexploitation and catchment
destruction
ü In addition, lack of awareness and appreciation of the
values of wetlands has contributed to their loss and
mismanagement
Economic importance of wetlands in Kenya
üWetlands provides economic benefit through
fisheries and generation of products such as fuel
woods, building materials, medicine, honey and
various types of natural food
üWetlands are important grazing areas
üWetland contributento sustainable development
through provision of essential infrustructure
through which fresh water is delivered for human
consumption, making wetlands foundational to
ensure availability of water for all
Wetland functions and importance
ü The rationale for wetland conservation and sustainable
utilisation is based on the following unique services and
benefits to human and other life forms associated with
them
1. Improvement of water quality
ü Wetlands helps improve water quality by removing
nutrients, organic matter and sediments carried by runoff
and breaking down organic matter
ü Wetland vegetations absorbs nutrients and toxic
substances from inflowing water thereby improving the
quality of water downstream
üPlants and biological processes present in a wetland
breakdown and convert these pollutants into less
harmful susbstances
üMany chemical fertilizers, human and household
wastes and toxic compounds are tied to sediment
and trapped in wetlands
üRunoff from catchment areas is filtered by the
wetland vegetation resulting in water purification
2. Increased ground water availability
üWetlands discharge and recharge both surface and
ground water resources respectively
üThe impended drainage allows the water to stay in
one place for long enough to maximize infiltration,
enhancing recharge of ground water and aquifers
üExcess water in wetlands and aquifers discharges
into springs, rivers and other water bodies
üAquifers also play a complementary role by
recharging wetlands during dry spell
3. Flood control and soil erosion prevention
ü Wetlands acts as storage (reservoirs) for excess amounts
of water during heavy rainfall, thereby ensuring flood
control and prevent soil erosion
ü They reduce severity of floods downstream by retaining
water and releasing it during drier periods
ü Wetland vegetation slows down the flow of flood water
resulting in silt and sediment retention and river bank
protection
ü Ensure river flows are maintained for longer periods
ü The vegetation in wetlands shields the soil from damage
by strong waves and winds
ü This feature can help slow floodwaters, lower flood
heights and reduce shoreline and stream bank erosion
4. Carbon storage
üWetlands are among the most effective ecosystems
for carbon storage
üWetland vegetation takes up carbon from the
atmosphere and converts it into plant biomass
during the process of photosynthesis
üIn many wetlands, waterlogged soil conditions
prevent decomposition of the plant materials
thereby retaining carbon in the form of un-
decomposed organic matter
üThe long retention of carbon in wetlands prevents
excessive amounts of atmospheric carbon, thereby
contributing to reduced global warming
5. Natural habitat/Centres of biodiversity
üWetlands are natural habitats for variety of fauna
and flora some of which are of conservation
significance including endemic, endangered and
migratory species, bird species like waterfowls
üThis makes wetlands important tourist areas
üWetlands are also in-situ banks for genetic
resources
üThey also provide fish and wildlife including
numerous rare and endangered species with food,
breeding grounds, and resting areas
6. Prevention of saline water intrusion
üWetlands are essential for maintaining a buffer zone
between fresh water and saline water
üThe destruction of wetlands due to over-extraction
or drainage reduces the influx of freshwater and
hence increases the intrusion of saline water
üI nt r u s i o n o f s a l i n e wate r d e p r i ve s p e o p l e ,
agriculture, industry and ecological communities of
valuable freshwater
7. Wetland soil and mineral products
üWetlands are major sources of clay products such as

bricks and ceramics
üThey are also essential sources of minerals such as

sand and salt
8. Wildlife Products
üWetlands provide a number of wildlife resources

and products
üThese includes reptile skins and ornamental

(aquarium) fish
üMany communities increasingly harvesting these

resources to enhance and improve their livelihoods
9. Natural plant products
üWetlands plants are harvested to provide materials

for construction and thatching, the cottage industry,
canoes, fishing baskets and traps
üWetland plants are also used for medicinal purposes

and as a food source
10. Grazing
üWetlands are important sources of water and

pasture for livestock and wildlife particularly during
the dry season
üSome wetlands soils contain essential minerals

necessary for animal health and natural salt licks
11. Religious and cultural significance
üWetlands are important historical sites that
comprise important components of Kenya’s cultural
heritage
üLocal communities have strong attachments to the
sites because of their social, cultural and spiritual
importance
üT h e co m m u n i t i e s a l s o p ro m o te i n d i ge n o u s
knowledge and practices on environmental
functions and values that are essential for their
survival
üSome communities in Kenya use wetlands for
cultural ceremonies like circumcision
üSome of these communities like the Bukusu, poker
a n d t h e T i r i k i c h o o s e w e t l a n d s , w h i c h a re
permanently wet as sites for their initiation
ceremonies
üIn addition to this some wetlands plants have to be
present for the wetland to act as a suitable site for
ceremonies
Water Resources and Wildlife
üIn order to sustain biodiversity and wildlife habitats,
water supplies are essential
üThe availability, quality, and flow patterns of water
are essential to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
üTherefore, water resources play a crucial role in
supporting wildlife habitats and maintaining
biodiversity for both aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems
üIn this section we will look at some key connections
between water resources and wildlife
1. Habitat Provision
ü Aquatic Habitats - Fisheries, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals are just a few of the wildlife species that depend on
rivers, lakes, ponds, marshes, and other bodies of water as host.
Diverse groups of creatures that are acclimated to aquatic
conditions are supported by these habitats.
ü Riparian Zones - A variety of terrestrial and aquatic species are

supported by riparian zones, which are the regions along the
banks of rivers and streams. These are important transition
zones. For many different types of animals, such as birds, insects,
and mammals, they offer vital habitat
2. Migration and Breeding
ü Migration Routes - The migration of numerous wildlife
species depends on water availability. During their
seasonal migrations, fish, birds, and animals may follow
streams, thus these paths are crucial to their survival
ü Breeding Sites - Aquatic habitats such as marshes,

wetlands and and other aquatic environments are crucial
breeding sites (mating cycles) for a variety of species. For
successful reproduction and the survival of progeny,
water availability is essential
3. Drinking Water
ü Wildlife Watering Holes - Wildlife must have access to
c l e a n wate r to m e et t h e i r hyd rat i o n n e e d s a n d
physiological processes. For animals to get the water they
need to survive, watering holes are essential in both arid
and non-arid conditions
4. Biodiversity Support
ü High Biodiversity Areas - Regions possessing abundant
and varied and diverse water supplies are frequently
home to elevated/high levels of biodiversity. This covers
the wide range of wildlife that is indirectly dependent on
water, as well as aquatic animals
5. Ecosystem Services
üWater Purification - By capturing sediments and
filtering contaminants, wetlands and riparian zones
serve as natural organic filters that aid in the
purification of water. This ecosystem service
benefits both wildlife and human communities
downstream
üFlood Mitigation - By absorbing and reducing the

flow of water during periods of high rainfall, natural
watercourses and wetlands help to mitigate floods
and benefit both human communities and wildlife
6. Threats to Wildlife:
üWater Scarcity - Changes in water availability due to
factors like climate change, deforestation, and over-
extraction can lead to water scarcity, impacting the
availability of suitable habitats and resources for
wildlife
üPollution - Pollutants including plastics, industrial

chemicals, and agricultural runoff contaminate
water bodies, endangering aquatic life and
potentially having a cascading impact on terrestrial
ecosystems
7. Conservation and Restoration
üWetland Conservation - Conservation efforts often
focus on protecting and restoring wetlands, which
a r e c r i t i c a l fo r m a i n t a i n i n g w a t e r - r e l a t e d
ecosystems and supporting diverse wildlife
üRiver Restoration - The goal of restoration projects

i s to m a ke r i ve rs a n d st re a m s h e a l t h i e r by
p re s e r v i n g t h e i r n at u ra l f l o w p atte r n s a n d
ecosystems, which are vital to aquatic and riparian
species
8. Climate Resilience:
üClimate-Resilient Habitats - Ecosystems with a lot of
water are frequently more resistant and resilient to
climatic variations. They can sustain more stable
ecosystems and offer wildlife refuges during dry
spells
In summary,
üWildlife health and well-being are closely related to
the availability, quantity, quality, and sustainability
of water supplies
üPrioritizing water resources in conservation and

management initiatives helps to preserve aquatic
ecosystems as well as biodiversity and the habitats
that support a wide variety of wildlife species
Wildlife Conservation Education
In this lesson we will discuss;
üWildlife conservation education
üCommunity participation and involvement

Introduction
üWildlife conservation education is a critical
component of efforts to protect and preserve the
world's biodiversity
üEducation plays a key role in raising awareness,
fostering a sense of responsibility, and inspiring
action to address the various threats faced by
wildlife
üIn this lesson we discuss several aspects of wildlife
conservation education
1. Public Awareness and Outreach
üI nfo r m i n g t h e P u b l i c - T h e go a l o f w i l d l i fe
conservation education is to educate the public on
the relevance of ecosystems, biodiversity, and
wildlife in preserving ecological equilibrium
(maintaining ecological balance)
üThreats to Wildlife - Education initiatives draw

attention to the numerous dangers that wildlife
faces, such as habitat loss, poaching, pollution,
climate change, and conflicts between people and
wildlife
2. Habitat Conservation
üU n d e r s t a n d i n g H a b i t a t s - E d u c a t i o n
initiatives/programs aid in raising public awareness
of the value of protecting and preserving a variety
of environments, such as from wetlands to
rainforests, as well as the part these ecosystems
play in sustaining and supporting wildlife
üLand-Use Planning - Effective conservation requires

educating communities about the effects of human
activity on wildlife habitats and sustainable land-use
practices
3. Conservation Ethics and Values
üPromoting Conservation Values - Education

encourages ethical considerations for wildlife and a
sense of responsibility. It motivates people to
embrace conser vation pri nc i pl es and make
decisions that support the health of ecosystems
üEthical Wildlife Tourism - Responsible wildlife

tourism techniques may be covered in conservation
education, highlighting the significance of moral
i n t e ra c t i o n s w i t h w i l d l i fe i n t h e i r n a t u ra l
environments
4. Species and Ecosystem Knowledge
ü Understanding Biodiversity - Knowledge about many
species, their habitats, and the interdependence of
ecosystems is provided through education. To fully
appreciate the intricacy/complexity of ecological systems,
one must have this insight
ü Endangered Species Awareness -Raising awareness of

e n d a n g e r e d s p e c i e s a n d t h e n e e d fo r fo c u s e d
conservation efforts to protect them is a common
emphasis of wildlife conservation education
5. Mitigating Human-Wildlife Conflicts:
üConflict Resolution - Education addresses human-
wildlife conflicts by providing communities with
information on how to coexist with wildlife safely
üThis may involve techniques for protecting crops,
livestock, and property without harming wildlife
6. Climate Change Awareness
üImpact of Climate Change - Public education
campaigns educate people on how ecosystems and
wildlife are affected by climate change. This covers
the consequences on seasons of reproduction,
migration patterns, and habitat
appropriateness/suitability
üMitigation and Adaptation - The role that people

and communities may play in reducing the effects of
climate change and assisting wildlife in adjusting to
new circumstances may also be emphasized in
conservation education
7. Community Engagement
üLocal Involvement - Conservation education often
involves working with local communities to ensure
that conservation efforts are culturally sensitive and
aligned with community needs
üEmpowering Communities - Education empowers
communities to actively participate in conservation
initiatives, fostering a sense of stewardship over
local biodiversity
8. Education Platforms
üSchool Programs - Integrating wildlife conservation

education into school curricula helps instill a
conservation ethic in future generations
üPublic Events and Workshops - Public lectures,

s e m i n a rs , w o r k s h o p s , a n d e v e n t s p r o v i d e
opportunities for ongoing education and
engagement with local communities
9. Technology and Social Media
ü Online Resources - Widespread (extensive) outreach and
engagement can be achieved by using /leveraging
technology and social media platforms to disseminate
information and resources on wildlife conservation
10. Advocacy and Policy Influence

ü Influencing Policies - People who are knowledgeable are
more likely to support strict environmental regulations.
People who get conservation education are better
equipped to advocate locally, nationally, and worldwide
for laws that benefit wildlife
List more aspects of wildlife conservation education
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In conclusion,
üWhen done right, wildlife conservation education
helps create a community that is informed, involved,
and proactive, with a long-term goal of conserving
biodiversity and safeguarding wildlife habitats.
Community Participation & Involvement
Introduction
ü Effective wildlife management and conservation
initiatives depend heavily on community involvement
and participation.
ü Engaging local communities in conservation efforts
enhances the viability of conservation projects, fosters
support for the cause, and attends to the needs and
worries of the local population living near wildlife areas.
ü In this lesson we discuss some important aspects of
community participation and involvement in relation to
wildlife management and conservation
1. Local Knowledge and Expertise:
üU t i l i z i n g I n d i g e n o u s K n o w l e d g e - L o c a l
communities often possess valuable traditional
knowledge about wildlife behavior, migratory trends,
a n d e co l o g i ca l re l at i o n s h i ps , w h i c h ca n b e
effectively integrated into conservation planning for
improved management strategies
2. Sustainable Resource Use

üPromoting Coexistence - Community involvement
in wildlife management promotes sustainable
natural resource use without compromising
biodiversity, while balancing conservation goals
with local livelihood needs which is crucial
3. Livelihood Improvement
ü Alternative Livelihoods - Developing alternative livelihood
options for communities reliant on natural resources,
such as ecotourism, sustainable agriculture, or other
income generating activities can mitigate wildlife habitat
pressure

ü Community Outreach and Education Programs -
Educational programs and awareness campaigns within
local communities promote understanding of wildlife
conser vation, leading to increased support and
participation in conservation initiatives
5. Conflict Resolution
üM a n a g i n g H u m a n - W i l d l i fe C o n f l i c t - L o c a l
communities' involvement in conflict mitigation
strategies helps address concerns and reduces
retaliatory actions against wildlife in areas with
potential human-wildlife conflict.
6. Community-Based Conservation Initiatives
üCommunity conservancies empower communities
to manage and benefit from their own conservation
areas, promoting sustainable and community-driven
conservation practices
7. Participatory Decision-Making:
ü Inclusive Planning Processes - Participating local
community members in wildlife management decisions
ensures their perspectives and needs are considered,
fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility
8. Capacity Building:
ü Training and Skill Development - Building the capacity
and development of local communities' skills in
conservation practices, sustainable resource
management, and monitoring techniques enables them
to actively participate in conservation efforts
9. Legal and Institutional Support
Community Rights - Ensuring that communities have legal
recognition and rights over natural resources are crucial for
sustainable management and prevention of
overexploitation by communities
10. Monitoring and Reporting
Community-Led Monitoring Programs - Engaging
communities in wildlife monitoring and reporting helps
collects crucial data on population trends, behavior, and
potential threats. This citizen science approach enhances
the overall understanding of local ecosystems
11. Cultural Sensitivity
Respecting Cultural Values - Respecting and recognizing
local cultural values and beliefs related to wildlife is
essential. Thus, alignment of conservation efforts with
cultural practices is crucial for fostering a harmonious
relationship between communities and wildlife
12. Government-Community Partnerships

Collaboration with Local Authorities - Collaborating and
partnering with local authorities ensures community-driven
conservation efforts align with broader regional and
national conservation goals
List more aspects of community participation and
involvement that apply to wildlife management
................................................................................................
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In conclusion,
üCommunity participation and involvement is crucial

for successful wildlife management and
conservation, promoting sustainability, social
acceptance, and long-term biodiversity preservation
through sustainable and socially acceptable
initiatives
Further reading
üTo gain more insight on wildlife benefits and
community conservation, limits to benefit-based
economic models of community wildlife
conservation and going beyond a benefit-based
approach to the economics of community wildlife
conservation, read the various sections on the
article linked here on community conservation
research in Africa: principles and comparative
practices, Paper No. 9 by Lucy Emarton

Wild Life Management Conservation

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Wild Life Management Conservation

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ALR 3319: WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

INSTRUCTOR: MR. ANTONY N. NJIRU

Department Land Resource

vBut cultivated plants and domestic animals are not

üCover (shelter) requirements

üNumerous wildlife management strategies integrate

üSuccessful wildlife management typically requires a

ü Here are some key conservation philosophies

üActions are right insofar as they promote happiness

üEveryone’s happiness counts equally

üIt emphasizes meeting the needs of the present

üThis philosophy recognizes the interconnectedness

üThis perspective prioritizes the well-being of the

üIt advocates for a more ecocentric viewpoint and

üThis philosophy encourages responsible and ethical

üAccording to this philosophy, ecosystems can be

üBy designating core regions for stringent protection

üThis way of thinking prioritizes including local

üIt acknowledges the significance of encouraging

üThe goal is to prevent isolation of populations and

üTourism and recreation - Wildlife attracts tourists

8. Human-Wildlife Conflict - Human populations'

Types/levels of biological diversity (biodiversity)

There are three types of biodiversity, namely;

üLoss of genetic diversity is

Why were conventions on biodiversity created?

üSo, for conservation of biological diversity and

üIt is among the most ancient and the only global

üThe agreement was created in response to the

ü It came to force in 1975 upon receipt by UNESCO, the

üThe convention’s mission is the conservation and

üAt the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the “wise

ü Wetlands provides fundamental ecological services and

Contracting parties or member states of ramsar

üThe Ramsar convention has 160 members

üThe conference of the parties (COP) adopts a core

üWorld wetland day is celebrated on 2nd of February

ü The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) started

The (UNEP) conevened the Ad Hoc

üTo explore the need for an international convention

The Ad Hoc group of technical and legal

1. The Cartagena protocol on biosafe

2. The Nagoya protocol on access and benefits sharing

1. The conservation on biological diversity

2. The sustainable use of the components of

3. The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising

üBiodiversity conservation can be achieved through

ü To promote the sustainable use of components of

ü Integrate consideration of conservation and sustainable

üTo ensure the fair and equitable sharing of the

üAn appropriate access to genetic resources

üAn appropriate transfer of relevant technologies

ü An appropriate funding, thereby contributing to the

- Conservation of Biological Diversity

- Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity

- Access and Benefit-Sharing

üThere are over 140 contracting parties, including

ü Limited Resources - IUCN, like many other organizations, struggles to

ü Balancing Conservation and Development - A recurring difficulty is

üThe Wildlife Conservation and Management Act

üThis law provides for the protection, conservation,

üThese strategies often involve collaboration

üCommunity-based conservation initiatives aim to