UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS

GOV. PACK ROAD, BAGUIO CITY

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

ASSIGNMENT
TECNIQUES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

NAME: (FN, GN): DE LEON, MARIA SHEKINAH B. DATE: MARCH 12, 2024
SCHEDULE: 7:30 AM - 8:50 AM (TThS)

INSTRUCTION: RESEARCH THE FOLLOWING

GENETIC ENGINEERING - is the process of modifying the genetic material of an organism

by introducing specific DNA sequences or altering existing ones. This can involve
techniques such as gene splicing, gene editing, or recombinant DNA technology to
achieve desired traits or characteristics in organisms.

I. Artificial selection (early genetic engineering). Artificial selection involves humans

identifying desirable traits in plants and animals and intentionally breeding individuals
with those traits to enhance and perpetuate them in future generations.

A. Selective breeding involves choosing organisms with desirable traits and breeding
them to produce offspring with those desired traits. This process has been used for
centuries in agriculture and animal husbandry to improve traits such as yield, disease
resistance, or specific physical characteristics (e.g., size, color). Selective breeding relies
on natural variations within a species and does not involve direct manipulation of
genes.

B. Hybridizations involve crossing two different species or varieties within the same
species to create offspring with desirable traits from both parents. This technique is
commonly used in plant breeding to combine beneficial characteristics such as disease
resistance, yield, or quality. Hybridization can lead to hybrid vigor, where the offspring
exhibit superior traits compared to either parent.

C. Inbreeding involves mating closely related individuals within the same species. While
it can concentrate desirable traits, it can also lead to the expression of harmful
recessive traits and reduced genetic diversity. Inbreeding is often used in animal
breeding to fix desired traits within a population but must be carefully managed to
avoid negative consequences such as inbreeding depression.

II. Recombinant DNA technology involves the manipulation of DNA molecules to create
new combinations of genetic material. This technology allows scientists to insert, delete,
or modify specific genes within an organism's genome, leading to the production of
desired traits or the study of gene function.

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 Applications of recombinant DNA technology

1. Scientific Applications: Recombinant DNA technology serves as a cornerstone in

scientific exploration, facilitating the manipulation and examination of genes to unlock
deeper understandings of diverse biological phenomena. Through techniques such as
gene cloning and DNA sequencing, researchers gain invaluable insights into cellular
processes, disease mechanisms, and evolutionary relationships.

2. Diagnosis of Genetic Diseases: The application of recombinant DNA techniques is

indispensable in the identification and diagnosis of genetic disorders. By scrutinizing
DNA for specific mutations or markers associated with these conditions, healthcare
professionals can offer accurate diagnoses, guide treatment decisions, and provide
genetic counseling to affected individuals and their families.

3. Genetic Fingerprinting Identification: Recombinant DNA technology finds practical

application in genetic fingerprinting, a pivotal tool in forensic science and paternity
testing. By analyzing unique DNA profiles, derived from regions of non-coding DNA,
experts can conclusively identify individuals and establish familial relationships with a
high degree of accuracy.

4. Agricultural Applications: Within agriculture, recombinant DNA technology plays a

transformative role in the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Engineered with desirable traits such as pest resistance, drought tolerance, and
improved nutritional content, GMO crops offer sustainable solutions to global food
security challenges while minimizing environmental impact.

5. Nanotechnology: The synergy between recombinant DNA technology and

nanotechnology has revolutionized various fields, including medicine and materials
science. By harnessing DNA as a programmable building block, researchers can
fabricate intricate nanostructures for applications ranging from targeted drug delivery
systems to ultra-sensitive diagnostic assays.

6. Therapeutic Applications: Recombinant DNA technology stands at the forefront of

therapeutic innovation, driving the development of novel treatments for a myriad of
diseases. From the production of therapeutic proteins and monoclonal antibodies to
the design of gene therapies and personalized vaccines, these advancements offer
promising avenues for combating illnesses and improving patient outcomes.

Safety Issues and Ethics of recombinant DNA technology

A. Safety Issues of recombinant DNA technology
● Potential environmental impact of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
● Concerns about unintended gene transfer to non-target organisms.
● Risks associated with the release of genetically modified organisms into the
ecosystem.
● Biosafety hazards in laboratories handling recombinant DNA.
B. Ethical Considerations of recombinant DNA technology
● Moral implications of manipulating genetic material and creating genetically
modified organisms.
● Equity issues related to access to genetic technologies and therapies.

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 ● Concerns about genetic privacy and the potential misuse of genetic
information.
● Ethical dilemmas surrounding human germline editing and its implications for
future generations.

III. Genetically modified organisms. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are living
organisms whose genetic material has been altered through genetic engineering
techniques, typically involving the insertion of DNA from another organism to confer
specific traits or characteristics.

A. Transgenic plants or crops and examples. Transgenic plants or crops refer to

organisms whose genetic material has been intentionally altered by introducing genes
from another species using recombinant DNA technology. This modification aims to
impart specific desirable traits to the plants, such as resistance to pests, tolerance to
environmental conditions, or enhanced nutritional content.

Examples:

1. Bt Cotton. Engineered with a bacterial gene (Bacillus thuringiensis), Bt cotton

produces a protein toxic to certain insect pests, providing built-in resistance.
2. Golden Rice. Modified with genes to enhance beta-carotene production, Golden
Rice addresses vitamin A deficiency by providing a source of provitamin A in the rice
grains.
3. Roundup Ready Soybeans. These soybeans are genetically modified to tolerate the
herbicide glyphosate, allowing effective weed control without harming the crop.
4. Flavr Savr Tomato. Altered to delay ripening and improve shelf life, the Flavr Savr
tomato was one of the first genetically modified crops developed for commercial use.
5. Rainbow Papaya: Developed to resist the papaya ringspot virus, the Rainbow
Papaya contains genes from the virus, providing immunity to this destructive disease.

B. Transgenic animals and examples

Transgenic animals are organisms that have had foreign DNA (transgene) inserted into
their genome through genetic engineering techniques. These genetic modifications
result in animals that express novel traits or proteins not typically found in their species.

Examples:
1. GloFish: Zebrafish modified with genes from jellyfish and sea anemones to fluoresce
under certain wavelengths of light.
2. ATryn Goats: Goats engineered to produce antithrombin, a blood-clotting protein
used in treating thromboembolic disorders.
3. EnviroPig: Pigs modified with genes from E. coli and mice to aid in phosphorus
digestion and reduce environmental pollution from pig waste.
4. Dolly the Sheep: The first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell, marking a
milestone in cloning technology.
5. Albino Rabbits: Rabbits engineered to lack pigmentation genes for research in skin
and eye disorders.

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“Knock-out” Technology
Knock-out technology is a genetic engineering technique used to disable or "knock
out" specific genes within an organism's genome, thereby elucidating the gene's
function and its role in biological processes. This method involves the targeted disruption
of a gene sequence, typically through the insertion of a non-functional or "knocked out"
allele, allowing researchers to study the resulting phenotypic changes.

“xenotransplantation”
Xenotransplantation refers to the transplantation of living cells, tissues, or organs from
one species to another, typically from animals to humans, with the aim of treating
organ failure or disease in the recipient.

Advantages/Benefits of GMO
1. Crops - GMO crops offer several benefits such as increased yield, reduced
dependency on chemical pesticides and herbicides, enhanced nutritional content,
and improved tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought and salinity (Huang
et al., 2016).

2. Animals - Genetically modified animals can be engineered to exhibit desirable traits

such as improved growth rates, disease resistance, and enhanced nutritional value,
thereby potentially benefiting both animal welfare and agricultural productivity (Van
Eenennaam & Young, 2014).

3. Environment - GMOs can contribute to environmental sustainability by reducing the

need for chemical inputs, conserving soil and water resources, promoting conservation
tillage practices, and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions associated with agriculture
(Klumper & Qaim, 2014).

4. Society - GMOs have the potential to address global food security challenges by
increasing agricultural productivity, improving nutritional quality, and enabling the
cultivation of crops in marginal lands, thereby contributing to poverty alleviation and
economic development (James, 2010).

Controversies on GMO
1. Safety - Concerns regarding the safety of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
revolve around potential risks to human health and the environment, including
allergenicity, toxicity, and unintended consequences of genetic modifications.

2. Access and Intellectual Property - Disputes arise over access to GMO technology
and the control of intellectual property rights, particularly regarding patents on seeds
and genetic engineering techniques, which may limit access for small-scale farmers
and breed dependency on multinational corporations.

3. Ethics - Ethical considerations surrounding GMOs encompass issues such as the rights
of farmers and consumers, the welfare of animals used in genetic engineering, and the
broader societal implications of manipulating genetic material.

4. Labeling - Controversies arise over the labeling of GMO products, with proponents
advocating for transparent labeling to inform consumer choice and opponents raising
concerns about the potential stigmatization of GMOs and the logistical challenges of
labeling compliance.

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5. Society - Societal debates over GMOs encompass broader questions about
agriculture, food security, sustainability, and socioeconomic disparities, reflecting
diverse perspectives on the role of biotechnology in addressing global challenges.

6. Environmental Risk - Discussions focus on the potential environmental impacts of

GMOs, including concerns about gene flow, unintended ecological consequences,
and the emergence of resistant pests and weeds, raising questions about long-term
sustainability and biodiversity conservation.

7. Threat to Biodiversity - GMOs are perceived as posing risks to biodiversity through

gene flow, genetic contamination of wild populations, and the displacement of native
species, sparking concerns about the loss of genetic diversity and ecosystem resilience.

IV. Cloning is the process of creating an identical copy of an organism or a specific

gene sequence. In biology, cloning can refer to a variety of techniques, including
reproductive cloning, where an entire organism is reproduced, or molecular cloning,
which involves copying a specific gene sequence.

Applications of Cloning
1. Research Models - Cloning can provide genetically identical animal models for
scientific research, allowing researchers to study diseases, genetics, and
developmental biology.

2. Organ Transplantation - Cloning techniques may potentially be used to create organs

and tissues compatible with a recipient's immune system, reducing the risk of rejection
in organ transplantation.

3. Agricultural Advancement - Cloning is utilized in agriculture to reproduce desired

traits in plants and animals, leading to improved crop productivity, enhanced livestock
quality, and better disease resistance.

4. Biomedical Exploration - Cloning offers researchers genetically uniform models for

investigating diseases, developing drugs, and unraveling the genetic underpinnings of
various conditions, offering critical insights into human health.

5. Species Conservation - Cloning is investigated as a means of preserving endangered

species by replicating individuals with valuable genetic traits, aiming to bolster
dwindling populations and prevent extinction.

3 Types of Cloning
1. DNA (gene) cloning - DNA cloning involves the production of multiple copies of a
specific DNA segment or gene. This process typically utilizes recombinant DNA
technology to insert the target DNA into a vector, such as a plasmid, which is then
introduced into a host organism, often bacteria, where it replicates to produce
numerous copies of the inserted DNA fragment.

2. Therapeutic (stem cell) cloning - Therapeutic cloning, also known as somatic cell
nuclear transfer (SCNT), aims to generate embryonic stem cells for therapeutic
purposes. This process involves transferring the nucleus of a somatic cell into an

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enucleated egg cell, resulting in the creation of an embryonic clone from which
pluripotent stem cells can be derived.

3. Reproductive (organism) cloning - Reproductive cloning involves the creation of a

genetically identical organism to another, typically accomplished through somatic cell
nuclear transfer. In this process, the nucleus of a somatic cell is transferred into an
enucleated egg cell, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother where it
develops into a cloned organism genetically identical to the donor.

Two techniques:
a. Embryo splitting is a reproductive cloning technique that involves dividing a single
embryo into multiple embryos, each genetically identical to the original. This method is
commonly used in agricultural breeding programs to produce genetically identical
animals with desirable traits.

b. Somatic cell Nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a cloning technique that involves transferring
the nucleus of a somatic cell into an enucleated egg cell. This process reprograms the
somatic cell nucleus to behave like a fertilized egg, leading to the development of a
genetically identical organism. SCNT has been utilized in both animal cloning and stem
cell research.

V. Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine

● Stem Cells are undifferentiated cells with the remarkable ability to differentiate
into specialized cell types and undergo self-renewal, enabling them to replenish
tissues and organs throughout the body. They hold immense potential for
regenerative medicine and research due to their capacity to repair and replace
damaged or diseased cells.

● Regenerative Medicine is an interdisciplinary field focused on harnessing the

body's innate healing mechanisms and leveraging innovative biomedical
approaches, such as stem cell therapy, tissue engineering, and gene editing, to
restore, repair, or replace damaged tissues and organs. It offers promising
solutions for treating a wide range of medical conditions and injuries, with the
ultimate goal of restoring normal function and improving patients' quality of life.

Two types of stem cells

1. Embryonic Stem Cells (ESC): Embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cell
mass of blastocysts, which are early-stage embryos typically obtained from in vitro
fertilization procedures or donated by individuals for research purposes. It received
from: embryos at the blastocyst stage, typically obtained from in vitro fertilization
procedures.

2. Adult Stem Cells (ASC): Adult stem cells are found in various tissues and organs
throughout the body, including bone marrow, adipose tissue, and neural tissue. They
can be harvested from adult individuals via minimally invasive procedures such as bone
marrow aspiration or adipose tissue extraction. It can be received from adult tissues,
including bone marrow, adipose tissue, and neural tissue.

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Potential of Stem Cells

1. Totipotent (total): Totipotent stem cells have the ability to differentiate into any cell
type in the body, as well as extraembryonic tissues such as the placenta. They can give
rise to an entire organism.

2. Pluripotent (plural): Pluripotent stem cells can differentiate into almost any cell type in
the body, but not extraembryonic tissues. They can give rise to all three germ layers:
ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

3. Multipotent (multiple): Multipotent stem cells have the capacity to differentiate into a
limited range of cell types within a specific lineage or tissue. They are more restricted in
their differentiation potential compared to pluripotent stem cells.

4. Oligopotent: Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into a few closely related cell
types within a specific lineage or tissue. They have a more limited differentiation
potential compared to multipotent stem cells.

5. Unipotent: Unipotent stem cells can only differentiate into a single cell type. They are
committed to producing cells of a specific lineage.

VI. The Human Genome Project is a monumental international scientific initiative that
commenced in 1990 with the primary goal of mapping and sequencing the entire
human genome – the complete set of DNA present in human cells, comprising genes
and non-coding regions.

Aims:
1. To identify and map all the genes contained within human DNA.
2. To determine the sequence of the entire three billion DNA base pairs that make up
the human genome.
3. To comprehend the structure, function, and organization of human genes.
4. To investigate the wide-ranging implications of this extensive genetic knowledge
across disciplines such as medicine, biology, and anthropology.

What we have learned from HGP

1. Identification of approximately 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes.
2. Understanding the role of non-coding DNA regions and their regulatory functions.
3. Uncovering genetic variations and polymorphisms among individuals.
4. Facilitating advancements in genomic medicine, personalized treatments, and
disease prevention.

Summary of findings of the Human Genome project

The Human Genome Project (HGP) revolutionized our understanding of human genetics
by identifying approximately 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes and shedding light on
non-coding DNA regions and their regulatory functions. This comprehensive catalog of
our genetic makeup unveiled a multitude of genetic variations among individuals,
enriching our knowledge of human genetic diversity. Importantly, the HGP paved the
way for significant advancements in genomic medicine, enabling personalized
treatments tailored to individual genetic profiles. Furthermore, insights gleaned from the
project have played a pivotal role in enhancing our understanding of the genetic basis

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of diseases, thereby facilitating improved strategies for disease prevention, early
detection, and targeted therapies.

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