Improving Voltage Levels in Low-Voltage

Networks with Distributed Generation – Case Study

Robert Kowalak, Stanislaw Czapp

Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering
Gdansk University of Technology
Gdansk, Poland
robert.kowalak@pg.edu.pl

Abstract—The use of distributed generation in low-voltage power of these systems usually does not exceed a few
networks may cause the voltage variation in them, within the kilowatts. In this paper only small wind power systems are
wide range. In unfavourable circumstances, the voltage may considered. Wind-based power systems are characterized by
reach unacceptable values. The paper presents the effect of high unpredictability of power production, which directly
distributed generation on voltage levels in a selected low- depends on weather/wind conditions. It means that maximal
voltage rural distribution network in Poland. An analysis of power generation as well as no power generation can occur
possible methods for improving voltage levels in this network is practically at any time of the day, and may not be coherent
conducted. The most suitable method is indicated. with maximal and minimal power demand of consumers.
Example waveforms of variability of wind power generation
Keywords—distributed generation, low-voltage distribution
network, microgeneration, voltage control
can be found in literature [7], [11]–[13].
MV
I. INTRODUCTION TR1
Nowadays many consumers of electric power are also LV W00
owners of power sources and, in fact, become prosumers. In L00-01
consequence, there are many microsources of electric power W01 W40
in low-voltage networks, based on gas and wind L01-02 O40
12.5 kVA
L37-40
microturbines, photovoltaics, fuel cells as well as W02 W37 W35
microturbines for biofuels [1]. The power surplus generated L02-03 O37a
12.5 kVA O37b
L30-37 L30-35
O35
16.5 kVA

by these prosumers can be transferred to the distribution W03 10.5 kVA

W30 W26
network. It is planned that around 10% of energy in Poland L03-04 O30
16.5 kVA
L24-26
O26a
10.5 kVA
O26b
12.5 kVA

will be produced by prosumers [2]. However, in a power

L24-30
W04 W10 W24
O04
network with a large amount of mircosources a problem with 16.5 kVA
L04-05 O10a
10.5 kVA O10b
L08-10 L18-24

voltage levels may occur. These levels depend not only on

12.5 kVA
W05 W08 W18
the network load, but also on the actual power generation by L05-07 L05-06 L06-08 L08-14 L14-18 L18-23

microsources [3]–[7]. In order to stabilize the voltage, it is L07-09

W07 W06 W14 W23

necessary to introduce automatic voltage regulation (control) L07-11 O06a

12.5 kVA
O06b
12.5 kVA
O14a
10.5 kVA O14b
12.5 kVA
L14-17 L23-29
O23a
12.5 kVA
O23b
10.5 kVA

W09 W11 W17 W29

or to apply energy storage units [8]. In Poland, in low-voltage L17-19
O09 O17a O29a
networks there are no energy storage units as well as devices 16.5 kVA
L11-12
16.5 kVA O17b
12.5 kVA
L17-21
12.5 kVA O29b
10.5 kVA
L29-31

W12 W19 W21 W31

that provide automatic voltage regulation. The only possible L12-13
O19
L21-25
O31
adjustment of voltage is performed by changing the position
L12-15 O21 L21-28 L31-33
16.5 kVA 16.5 kVA
10.5 kVA
W13 W15 W25 W28 W33
of the tap-changer in the MV/LV transformer. Nevertheless, L13-16 O15 L15-20 O25 O28a L28-34 O33
these days it can be done only manually in the no-load state. W16
10.5 kVA
W20
12.5 kVA 12.5 kVA O28b
10.5 kVA
W34
12.5 kVA

The application of microgeneration also affects other power O16 L20-22 O20 L20-27 O34a L34-41
quality factors – it increases the amount of active power loss 12.5 kVA 12.5 kVA 16.5 kVA O34b
16.5 kVA
W22 W27 W41
[9] and distorts the voltage waveform, due to the presence of O22 L27-32 O27 L41-46 L41-45

converters being components of microsources [3], [4], [10].

12.5 kVA 16.5 kVA

W32 W46 W45

The problem of power quality most often concerns networks L32-36
L32-38 O46a
12.5 kVA O46b
L46-48 O45a
12.5 kVA O45b
L45-51

in rural areas. These networks are relatively long, so it means W36 W38 10.5 kVA
W48 12.5 kVA
W51
that their impedance value is significant. O36a
10.5 kVA
O36b
12.5 kVA
L38-39 O48a
12.5 kVA
O48b
16.5 kVA
L51-52 O51
16.5 kVA

W39 W52
This paper presents the results of the analysis of the L39-42
L39-44 L39-43 O52a O52b
impact of distributed generation on the voltage levels in W42 W44 W43
16.5 kVA 10.5 kVA

a real low-voltage network in Poland. A computer model of O42 L44-47

O43a
12.5 kVA O43b

this network has been prepared. On the base of the analysis,

16.5 kVA L44-49 12.5 kVA

W47 W49
proposals to improve the voltage levels are presented. L47-50
L47-54 L49-53

W50 W54 W53

II. DESCRIPTION OF THE ANALYZED LOW-VOLTAGE O50
10.5 kVA
O54
16.5 kVA
O53
10.5 kVA

NETWORK
Fig. 1. Structure of the analyzed rural network. TR1 – power transformer,
The most popular microsources in Poland are small W00÷W54 – numbers of nodes, O54 (16.5 kVA) – number of a consumer
photovoltaic installations, and small wind turbines. The rated and its subscribed demand, L00-01÷L51-52 – numbers of power lines.

978-1-5386-6091-1/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE

 25% • microsources are installed and voltage adjustment by
control of reactive power of these microsources is
20%
applied (within the range of their possible power factor
operation),
15% • static compensators are installed – no microgeneration
Load [%]

and maximal microgeneration are considered,

10%
• voltage control is performed with the use of on-load tap-
changer of the MV/LV transformer – no
5% microgeneration and maximal microgeneration are
considered.
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 The basic parameter to be analyzed is the voltage level in
Hours every node of the network. For each node, a voltage
difference ΔVmax(i) between the highest Vmax(i) and the
Fig. 2. Representative power consuming during a day (in relation to the
subscribed demand) in year 2017: ■ max load ● min load.
lowest Vmin(i) value of voltage has been calculated, as
follows:
In order to check the effect of wind-based
microgeneration on the voltage levels, a rural low-voltage ΔVmax (i ) = Vmax (i ) − Vmin (i ) (1)
network located in northern part of Poland was selected. The
network is radial (Fig. 1), supplied via a power transformer
where
with a rated power of 160 kVA and is composed of 20
overhead sections with wires of 70, 35, 25 and 16 mm2 cross- i – number of a node in the network,
sections as well as 34 cable sections of 120, 35 and 25 mm2
cross-section of conductors. This network contains: Vmax – maximal value of the voltage in the node,

• 14 consumers with subscribed demand of 10.5 kVA, Vmin – minimal value of the voltage in the node.

• 23 consumers with subscribed demand of 12.5 kVA,
• 15 consumers with subscribed demand of 16.5 kVA.
The farthest consumer is located 713 meters from the
power transformer (node W54 in Fig. 1). The network load
has been determined on the base of known subscribed
demand of consumers and 2017’s load profiles included in
Annex No. 5 of the Power System Operator instruction [14].
The maximal and minimal load values for particular hours of
the day, resulting from the assumed load profiles, are
presented in Fig. 2. Based on them, it was assumed in the
analysis that the maximal contribution of each consumer to
the network load is equal to 20% of power indicated by the
subscribed demand, and the minimal contribution is equal to
4.7%, respectively. Rated power of every wind-based
mircosource is equal to 5 kW – the voltage analysis has been
performed for this value of generated power.
As a result of the previous consideration [15], the
microsources are connected to the following nodes (Fig. 1):
W06, W14, W17, W23, W27, W30, W35, W40, W45, W50,
W54. The computer model of the rural network, and all
simulations have been performed with the use of DigSilent
PowerFactory software.
III. RESULTS OF THE COMPUTER ANALYSIS
A. The Scope of the Analysis
First step of the analysis is to evaluate voltage reference
levels, i.e. when no microgeneration is applied. Next, the
following network states and measures for voltage levels
improvement are considered:
• microsources are installed and no voltage control is
applied – voltage levels depend on actual power demand
of consumers and operation of microsources without
their power factor control (assum. power fact. value: 1),
Moreover, a voltage difference ΔVW between voltage in
a node with the highest value VW-max and voltage in a node
with the lowest value VW-min has been calculated:
ΔVW = VW - max − VW - min (2)
where
VW-max – max{Vmax(W00); …; Vmax(W54)},
VW-min – min{Vmin(W00); …; Vmin(W54)}.
It should be stressed that, according to [14], permissible
voltage variation is within the range ±10% (with reference to
the nominal voltage of the network; 0.2 p.u. in total).
B. Voltage Levels without Voltage Control
Firstly, voltage levels in the low-voltage network have
been calculated for the following cases:
• no microgeneration (0%) and minimal load of the
network,
• no microgeneration (0%) and maximal load of the
network,
• maximal microgeneration (100%) and minimal load of
the network,
• maximal microgeneration (100%) and maximal load of
the network.
Results of the calculation are presented in Fig. 3. There
are significant differences in the voltage levels between
nodes. The lowest voltage variations are observed in the
supply node (node W00 – with transformer). It is obvious
that, when no microgeneration occurs, the highest value of
voltage is in this node, and the lowest is in the node supplied
via a line with the highest impedance (here: at the end of the
network – node W54).
 After starting microgeneration with full power, the
opposite tendency in voltage levels along the length of the
power network (blue dashed trace in Fig. 3) is observed. In
nodes far from the power transformer, the voltage value can
be much higher (the highest in node W54) than in node W00,
and is very close to the upper permissible limit (1.1 p.u.).
Comparison of voltage values for the characteristic nodes is
presented in Tab. I and Tab. II.
Analysis of the calculation results presented in Tab. I
enables to conclude that voltage values are within the
permissible range 0.9÷1.1 p.u. for every node. However,
after application of microgeneration, maximal voltage at
node W54 is equal to 1.096 p.u. (1.046 p.u. without
microgeneration) and is very close to the upper limit.
Moreover, voltage difference ΔVW is equal to 0.165 p.u.
(Tab. II) and is higher than for the state with no
microgeneration (0.140 p.u). In some circumstances
microgeneration may be the cause of excessive voltage rise
and variation, therefore voltage control is recommended to
be applied.
1.12
C. Voltage Adjustment by Microsources Reactive Power
Control
In order to change voltage in the network, a variation of
the power factor of microsources, within the range 0.95ind.÷
0.95cap., has been considered. It allows the voltage to be
maintained at the connection point of the microsource during
its operation in the given reactive power range, whereas
when the limit of reactive power generation is reached, the
microsource operates with constant reactive power. It has
been assumed that the desired voltage value of the sources is
equal to the nominal voltage of the network.
Fig. 4 presents voltage levels for all nodes of the
network, whereas Tab. III and Tab. IV present calculation
results for selected, representative nodes. It is obvious that
for the case with no microgeneration (0% in Tab. III),
voltage values are the same as in Tab I for the respective
case. When voltage adjustment by control of the reactive
power is applied, for microgeneration 100% (Tab. III)
voltage levels are also almost the same as without the
adjustment (Tab. I). Comparison of voltage variation
between selected nodes (Tab. IV) gives similar conclusion.

1.1 1.12

1.08 1.1

1.06 1.08

1.04 1.06
Voltage [p.u.]

1.02 1.04
Voltage [p.u.]

1 1.02

0.98 1

0.96 0.98

0.94 0.96

0.94
0.92
W00
W02
W04
W06
W08
W10
W12
W14
W16
W18
W20
W22
W24
W26
W28
W30
W32
W34
W36
W38
W40
W42
W44
W46
W48
W50
W52
W54

0.92
W00
W02
W04
W06
W08
W10
W12
W14
W16
W18
W20
W22
W24
W26
W28
W30
W32
W34
W36
W38
W40
W42
W44
W46
W48
W50
W52
W54
Node numbers
Node numbers
Fig. 3. Voltage levels without voltage control: ● no microgeneration (0%)
and max load of the network, ♦ no microgeneration (0%) and min load of Fig. 4. Voltage levels with voltage adjustment by microsources reactive
the network, ▲ max microgeneration (100%) and max load of the network, power control: ● no microgeneration (0%) and max load of the network,
■ max microgeneration (100%) and min load of the network. ♦ o microgeneration (0%) and min load of the network, ▲ max
microgeneration (100%) and max load of the network, ■ max
microgeneration (100%) and min load of the network.

TABLE I. VOLTAGE VALUES IN SELECTED NODES – NO VOLTAGE

CONTROL
TABLE III. VOLTAGE VALUES IN SELECTED NODES – VOLTAGE
Micro- Voltage in nodes, p.u. ADJUSTMENT BY MICROSOURCES REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
Network
generation
load W00 W52 W54 Micro- Voltage in nodes, p.u.
% Network
generation
max 1.056 0.931 0.940 load W00 W52 W54
%
0
min 1.071 1.044 1.046 max 1.056 0.931 0.940
0
max 1.060 0.984 1.000 min 1.071 1.044 1.046
100
min 1.073 1.087 1.096 max 1.061 0.988 1.002
100
min 1.068 1.079 1.088

TABLE II. VOLTAGE VARIATION (MAXIMAL) IN SELECTED NODES –

NO VOLTAGE CONTROL
TABLE IV. VOLTAGE VARIATION IN SELECTED NODES – VOLTAGE
Micro- ADJUSTMENT BY MICROSOURCES REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
ΔVmax(W00) ΔVmax(W52) ΔVmax(W54) ΔVW
generation
% p.u. p.u. p.u. p.u. ΔVmax(W00) ΔVmax(W52) ΔVmax(W54) ΔVW
p.u. p.u. p.u. p.u.
0 0.015 0.113 0.106 0.140
0.015 0.148 0.148 0.157
100 0.017 0.156 0.156 0.165
 The maximal variation of voltage is equal to 0.157 p.u. TABLE VI. VOLTAGE VALUES IN SELECTED NODES – VOLTAGE
CONTROL BY STATIC COMPENSATORS
(Tab. IV), whereas without any voltage control is equal to
0.165 p.u. (Tab. II). Such almost negligible effect of voltage Micro- Voltage in nodes, p.u.
Network
improvement is caused by a relatively small range of generation
load
% W00 W52 W54
possible control of the power factor, and additional flow of
reactive power in the analyzed network. Thus, more effective max 1.067 0.954 0.959
0
methods of voltage control are recommended to be applied. min 1.059 1.019 1.025
max 1.057 0.980 0.992
D. Application of Static Compensators 100
min 1.060 1.061 1.073
In the low-voltage network, Static Compensators (SC),
which enable both generating and consuming reactive power,
are considered to be applied. These compensators are TABLE VII. VOLTAGE VARIATION IN SELECTED NODES – VOLTAGE
connected to nodes W52 and W54 (Fig. 5) – in these nodes CONTROL BY STATIC COMPENSATORS
the highest voltage variability is observed. The analyzed
ΔVmax(W00) ΔVmax(W52) ΔVmax(W54) ΔVW
network is divided at node W05 into two branches (Fig. 1) –
p.u. p.u. p.u. p.u.
in the first branch is node W52 and in the second: W54.
Basic technical data of the considered compensators are 0.010 0.107 0.114 0.119
presented in Tab. V. Rated power of the compensators is
selected to compensate full reactive power at the nodes of Fig. 6 presents results of calculation for the case with
their connection, transferred to the consumers. The static compensators. Similarly to the previous cases, selected
compensators may operate both with microgeneration and results are presented in tables – here Tab. VI and Tab. VII.
without microgeneration. Comparing indicator ΔVW for cases: static compensators (last
column in Tab. VII) vs. no voltage control (last column in
Tab. II), it can be noticed that the value of this indicator for
W00 W05
W52 SC the first case (0.119) is lower (positive effect) than in the
case with no voltage control and no microgeneration (0.140).
Therefore, the effect of application of a static compensator is
MV TR1 LV satisfactory, despite the additional flow of reactive power,
W54 SC forced by the voltage control.

Fig. 5. Simplified diagram of the network indicating the Static E. Voltage Control by the use of Transformer Tap-Changer
Compensators (SC) location.
Voltage control in low-voltage networks with the use of
on-load tap-changer of transformer is considered. Usually, in
this type of voltage control, a reference node (a node to
TABLE V. TECHNICAL DATA OF THE INSTALLED COMPENSATORS achieve desired value of voltage) is the node with the
No. of Rated Reactive power Droop Desired transformer (here W00). However, in this investigation other
node power range voltage nodes have also been adopted as reference nodes: W52, W54
kVA kvar % p.u. (Fig. 7). For node W00, the desired value of voltage is
W52 30.7 -30.7 ÷ +30.7 1 0.980
assumed to be 1.065 p.u., and for nodes W52, W54: 0.98 p.u.
W54 11.9 -11.9 ÷ +11.9 1 0.980 Fig. 8 presents voltage levels in the network when node
W00 is a reference node. The obtained results are almost
identical to those for the case of network operation without
voltage control (Fig. 3). Voltage variation in this node is very
1.12 small, resulting from the proximity of the medium-voltage
1.1 network with low impedance. Unfortunately, voltage in the
1.08
nodes far from the transformer varies within a relatively wide
1.06
range. Much better results have been obtained when a node
1.04
far from the transformer (W52 – Fig. 9 and W54 – Fig. 10) is
Voltage [p.u.]

1.02
adopted as a reference node. Admittedly, in node W00 the
voltage variation is wide, but for nodes starting from W06, it
1
is relatively narrow.
0.98

0.96

0.94 tap-changer W52 Vref = 0.98 p.u.

0.92 W00 W05
W00
W02
W04
W06
W08
W10
W12
W14
W16
W18
W20
W22
W24
W26
W28
W30
W32
W34
W36
W38
W40
W42
W44
W46
W48
W50
W52
W54

Node numbers Vref = 1.065

MV TR1 LV p.u.
Fig. 6. Voltage levels with voltage control by static compensators: ● no W54 Vref = 0.98 p.u.
microgeneration (0%) and max load of the network, ♦ no microgeneration
(0%) and min load of the network, ▲ max microgeneration (100%) and
max load of the network, ■ max microgeneration (100%) and min load of Fig. 7. Simplified diagram of the network indicating nodes with
the network. reference/desired voltage Vref, and value of this voltage – voltage control by
the use of tap-changer of transformer TR1.
 1.12
TABLE VIII. VOLTAGE VALUES IN SELECTED NODES – VOLTAGE
CONTROL BY THE USE OF TAP-CHANGER OF TRANSFORMER
1.1

1.08 Micro- Voltage in nodes, p.u.

Network
generation
1.06 load W00 W52 W54
%
1.04
Voltage [p.u.]

R
max 1.056 0.931 0.940
1.02
0
1 min 1.071R 1.044 1.046
R
0.98 max 1.060 0.984 1.000
0.96 100
min 1.073R 1.087 1.096
0.94
R
0.92
max 1.085 0.964 0.972
0
W00
W02
W04
W06
W08
W10
W12
W14
W16
W18
W20
W22
W24
W26
W28
W30
W32
W34
W36
W38
W40
W42
W44
W46
W48
W50
W52
W54
R
min 1.018 0.990 0.992
Node numbers
max 1.060 0.984R 1.000
100
Fig. 8. Voltage levels with voltage control by the use of tap-changer of min 0.973 0.988 R
0.998
transformer. Node to achieve desired (reference) voltage – W00: ● no
microgeneration (0%) and max load of the network, ♦ no microgeneration max 1.085 0.964 0.972R
(0%) and min load of the network, ▲ max microgeneration (100%) and 0
min 1.018 0.990 0.992R
max load of the network, ■ max microgeneration (100%) and min load of
the network. max 1.033 0.955 0.971R
100
min 0.973 0.988 0.998R
R
– reference node (node to achieve desired voltage)
1.12

1.1

1.08 TABLE IX. VOLTAGE VARIATION IN SELECTED NODES – VOLTAGE

CONTROL BY THE USE OF TAP-CHANGER OF TRANSFORMER
1.06

1.04 Reference ΔVmax(W00) ΔVmax(W52) ΔVmax(W54) ΔVW

Voltage [p.u.]

1.02
node p.u. p.u. p.u. p.u.
1 W00 0.017 0.156 0.156 0.165
0.98 W52 0.112 0.026 0.028 0.121
0.96 W54 0.112 0.035 0.027 0.130
0.94

0.92
Therefore, the method with use of tap-changer of
W00
W02
W04
W06
W08
W10
W12
W14
W16
W18
W20
W22
W24
W26
W28
W30
W32
W34
W36
W38
W40
W42
W44
W46
W48
W50
W52
W54

Node numbers transformer, and assuming a reference node far from

Fig. 9. Voltage levels with voltage control by the use of tap-changer of
transformer. Node to achieve desired (reference) voltage – W52: ● no
microgeneration (0%) and max load of the network, ♦ no microgeneration
(0%) and min load of the network, ▲ max microgeneration (100%) and
max load of the network, ■ max microgeneration (100%) and min load of
the network.
1.12
1.1
transformer, is the most effective. Tab. VIII presents voltage
values in the selected nodes for this case, whereas Tab. IX
presents the voltage variation. The best result is obtained
when node W52 is the reference node. Maximal variation of
voltage ΔVW is equal only to 0.121 p.u. (Tab. IX). It is worth
mentioning that in the method that uses tap-changer of
transformer, no additional flow of reactive power occurs, and
it is slightly better than the method that uses static
compensators.

1.08 IV. CONCLUSIONS

1.06
Utilization of microgeneration connected to a low-
1.04
voltage network influences voltage levels in this network.
Voltage [p.u.]

1.02
Voltage levels can be very high even in nodes far from the
1
transformer supplying the network. In unfavourable
0.98
circumstances, microgeneration may cause voltage to exceed
0.96
the permissible level. Thus, application of voltage control
0.94 should be considered. In the analyzed low-voltage network,
0.92 the most suitable is the method that uses tap-changer of the
W00
W02
W04
W06
W08
W10
W12
W14
W16
W18
W20
W22
W24
W26
W28
W30
W32
W34
W36
W38
W40
W42
W44
W46
W48
W50
W52
W54

transformer, however the reference node should be furthest

Node numbers
Fig. 10. Voltage levels with voltage control by the use of tap-changer of
transformer. Node to achieve desired (reference) voltage – W54: ● no
microgeneration (0%) and max load of the network, ♦ no microgeneration
(0%) and min load of the network, ▲ max microgeneration (100%) and
max load of the network, ■ max microgeneration (100%) and min load of
the network.
away from the one with the transformer. A method that uses
static compensators can be used as well. The least effective
result has been achieved by simple reactive power control of
microsources.
Due to relatively high variation of voltages in the
network, even without microgeneration, application of one of
the presented voltage control methods seems to be necessary
– particularly, if microsources installation is planned.
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