LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

History of Instrumentation and Control

1.1. Pre-Historic Era
- during this period, people use
instrumented functions for existence and
survival

1.2. 1st Indutrial Revolution (Mechanization)

- during this period, people apply the
conccept of instrumented functions to
increase the quality of life
- the work done by human muscles was
gradually replaced by the power of Instrumentation
machines - the art and science of measurement and control

1.3. 2nd Industrial Revolution (Process Control) Instrument

- the human operator was relieved by the - man-made device used to measure and control
bulk of the tedious and repetitive physical physical quantities or conditions, performance,
and mental tasks and was able to position, direction, etc.
concentrate on the more creative aspects
of operating industry Automation
- is a system concept that utilizes instrumentation
1.4. 3rd Industrial Revolution (Process system to perform certain task formerly done by
Automation) humans, and to control sequences of operations in
- the traditional goal of maximizing the an automatic manner or without human
quantity of production will be gradually intervention
replaced by the goal of maximizing the - types of automatic processes: 1) Highly
quantity and durability of the produced Mechanized Process and 2) Chemical or Physical
goods, including safety, while minimizing Process
the consumption of energy and raw - factors that could influence the effectiveness of an
materials and maximizing recycling and automated operation:
reuse ➢ Proper system design and equipment
selection;
1.5. 4th Industrial Revolution (Cyberphysical ➢ Proper equipment installation and
Systems) commissioning;
- cyber physical systems combine ➢ Good maintenance;
communications, IT, data and physical ➢ Properly trained operating and maintenance
elements integrating a number of core staff
technologies:
Implementing Plant Automation (Business POV)
Advantage Disadvantage

● Increase production ● Management

efficiency, quality concern (increase
assurance and plant Safety. plant investment)
● Lower production cost. ● Manpower concern
● Increase real wages of (reduce manpower
workers requirements)
Instrumentation and Control Engineers:
● Design and develop control systems
● Maintain the existing control systems
● Manage the control systems
● Collaborate with design engineers, purchasers and
other staff members involved in the production
processes
● Manage projects within the given restraints
including cost and time
● Troubleshoot
● Ensure that the instruments comply with health
and safety regulations
● Ensure that quality standards are maintained
● Provide consultancy support
Instrumentation System
- an arrangement of two or more instruments
connected together to perform a unified task.
- each instrument operates independently according
to its specific task. Failure of one member
instrument, means failure in the entire
instrumentation system.
- the simplest form of instrumentation system is a
process control loop
Feedback Loop (b)
- is the signal path from the output back to the input
to correct for any variation between the output level
from the set level.
Controlled or Measured Variable (c)
- is the monitored output variable from a process
Manipulated Variable (u)
- is the input variable or parameter to a process that is
varied by a control signal from the processor to an
actuator
Set Point
- is the desired value of the output parameter or
variable being monitored by a sensor.
Actuators
- are devices used to control an input variable in
response to a signal from a controller
Controllers
- are devices that monitor signals from transducers
and take the necessary action to keep the process
within
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)
- are used in process-control applications, and are
microprocessor-based systems
Error Signal (e)
- is the difference between the set point and the
amplitude of the measured variable
Correction Signal
- is the signal used to control power to the actuator
to set the level of the input variable
Transmitters
- are devices used to amplify and format signals so
that they are suitable for transmission over long
distances with zero or minimal loss of information
Process Control
- is the automatic control of an output variable by
sensing the amplitude of the output parameter from
the process and comparing it to the desired or set
level and feeding an error signal back to control an
input variable
- deals with regulating the values of some quantity in
industries such as petrochemicals, food, mining,
mineral processing, steel, glass, etc.
- the term “process control” refers to an engineering
practice that is directed to the collection of devices
and equipment to control processes
- uses statistical methods to observe the performance
of the process in order to predict deviations.
Process Control System Block Diagram
- its purpose is to decompose the system into smaller
subsystems which can be brought together to form
an overall analytical system model
Elements of Process Control System
1. Process
- consists of a complex set of
independent/dependent variables and these
are referred to as multivariable processes
2. Measurement
- refers to the conversion of the variable being
controlled into some corresponding signal that
represents the state of the controlled variable
- sensors are devices that converts a physical
quantity (e.g. temperature) and converts it into
a signal which can be read by electronic
instrument (e.g. controller).
3. Error Detection
- represents the difference between the required
setpoint temperature of the process and the
actual measured temperature.
4. Controller
- required to perform a series of logical steps
(with the error signal as input) to produce an
output (or outputs) that attempts to bring the
process to the desired setpoint state.
5. Control Element
- exerts a direct influence on the process to bring
the controlled variable to the desired setpoint

Process Control System Evaluation

● a control systems performance can be quantified
by the behaviour of the error variable as a function
of time and is given by:
𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑟 − 𝑐(𝑡)
● the objective of the control system is to drive the
error given by the equation to zero and to drive the
process in the desired setpoint set. Generally, in
real systems, the process will never be exactly at
the required setpoint and the error will always be
non-zero. Therefore, evaluation of a process
control system is one of how large the error
achieved is and how it varies with time
 LESSON 2: MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

Structure of Instruments ● Accuracy implies precision, but precision does not

imply accuracy

Tolerance
- closely related to accuracy of an instrument
where the accuracy of an equipment is sometimes
referred to in the form of tolerance limit.
- defined as the maximum error expected in an
Measurement instrument.
- a process of gathering information from physical
world and comparing this information with agreed Repeatability
standards. - is the closeness of readings of sets of
measurements made in the short term.
Measurand
- is the physical parameter under investigation Reproducibility
- is the closeness of measurements when repeated
Accuracy over a longer time.
- is a measure of closeness of instrument reading to
the true or “real” value of variable. Sensitivity
- the method vendors of instruments or components - is a measure of change in readings for a given
specify accuracy can differ from vendor to vendor. change in measured quantity.

Types of Accuracy Resolution

1. Absolute Error - is the difference between the - the smallest change in input reading that can be
''real value'' of the measurand and the sensor traced accurately
reading
| δ𝑦 | | δ𝑦 | | δ𝑦 | Offset or Bias
∆𝑦 = |∆𝑥1 | + |∆𝑥2 | + . . . + |∆𝑥𝑛 | - is the differences between the desired inputs and
| δ𝑥1 | | δ𝑥2 | | δ𝑥𝑛 |
desired output, that is, when the input is zero, the
2. Relative Error - represents how the absolute
output is not zero and vice versa.
error relates to the ''real value'' that was
- this error is usually rectified or corrected through
measured (with that error)
calibration.
3. Full Scale (FS) Error - is the absolute error
divided by the range of the sensor or the full
Drift
scale (i.e. the maximum value) of the sensor
- is the change in output of an instrument for the
same input.
Precision
- is a measure of consistency of a series of
Calibration
measurements. For a set of measurements, the
- is the setting or correcting of a measuring device
precision p(i) is given by:
or base level
| 𝑥 −𝑥 |
𝑝(𝑖) = 1 − | 𝑖 𝑥 |
| 𝑖 | Transfer Function
- precision determines the rounding off of numbers - expresses the relationship between signal and
(e.g1256 Hz (high precision), or 1.25 KHz (lower physical variations
precision), or 1.2 KHz (lowest precision) - can be linear or non-linear
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Static Response Classification of Error
- instruments operate discretely under static 1. Systematic Error
conditions. - remain constant with repeated
- the operations are described by their dynamic measurements
range and full-scale (FS) deflection, sensitivity, - caused by:
gain, etc. ● Instrumental Errors - also known as
loading error, scale error, zero
Dynamic Response error, and response time error; are
- characterised by its natural frequency, amplitude, inherent within the instrument, due
frequency response, phase shift, linearity and to mechanical structures, electronic
distortions, rise and settling times, and slew designs, and improper adjustments.
rates. ● Environmental Errors - caused by
- can be linear or non-linear (most instruments environmental factors external to the
exhibit linear characteristics) instrument such as temperature,
2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 humidity,
𝑎2 2 + 𝑎1 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑎0𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑡) electrostatic/electromagnetic
𝑑𝑡
radiation, etc.
𝑑𝑦 2. Gross Error - result of human mistakes and
𝑎1 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑎0𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑡)
equipment fault. Human errors may occur
during observations, recording, and
𝑌(𝑠) 𝐾
𝑋(𝑠)
= τ𝑠 + 1
interpretation of results. These errors cannot be
treated mathematically and eliminated
completely, but can be minimized by having
different observers and repetitions
3. Random Error - appears as a result of noise and
interference, and ambient influences.
(Experimental random errors vary by small
amounts around a mean value; therefore
stochastic approaches are used for analysis and
compensation. Depending on the system,
random error may obey different probability
distribution models such as Binomial and
Error Poisson distribution.
- defined as the difference between measured value
and the true value of the measurand Uncertainty
- may be due to: - is the limit to which a specific error may extend
● Imperfections in electrical and mechanical with some confidence
components (high tolerances, noise, offset - the most commonly used confidence level is 95% or
voltages) two standard deviations
● Changes in component performances (shift in - it differs from error in that it involves such human
gains, changes in chemistry, aging, drifts in judgemental factors as estimating the possible
offsets) values of errors
● External and ambient influences (temperature, 2 2 2
pressure, and humidity)
● Inherent physical fundamental laws (thermal
∆𝑦𝑈𝐶 = ( δ𝑦
∆𝑥1 δ𝑥
1
) ( +
δ𝑦
∆𝑥2 δ𝑥
2
) + + ( δ𝑦
∆𝑥𝑛 δ𝑥
𝑛
)
and other electrical noises, brownian motion,
and radiation)
Error Reduction Techniques
- to control error: choose appropriate components,
filtering, and bandwidth selection, and by reducing
noise
- to increase static and dynamic performances,
application of compensation strategy is used.
- in static: by using isolation and zero environmental
sensitivity conditions, opposing compensating
environmental inputs, and by using differential and
feedback system
- in dynamic: by reducing harmonics with the use of
filters, adjusting bandwidths, and by using feedback
compensation technique

Units and Standards