FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING

Cognitive Process refers to mental abilities such as perceiving, attending, remembering,

memorizing, and problem solving.
The brain is responsible for cognition. Clearly, the brain is involved whenever
learning takes place (Woolfolk,2010).
Cognitive Processes
Our everyday experiences are replete with simple to complex events that call our cognitive
processes. Not only can we give concrete examples of how our thoughts process, but we can
also provide various examples in a wide variety of life occurrences. The cognitive
process definition demonstrates how people learn new information, form memories, and
make decisions. There are multiple steps that are used when following the cognitive
process. They include:

 Attention - the ability to focus and concentrate

 Language - the ability to communicate and express ideas through written or spoken
language
 Learning - the ability to take in new information, process it, and combine it with
previous knowledge
 Memory - storing learned information to be retrieved later
 Perception - obtaining information through the senses and using that information to
react or respond
 Thought - the ability to solve problems, reason, and to make decisions
Cognition is influenced by:
ü Heredity-Our ability to learn is influenced by neurological efficiency and genetic
component.
ü Maturation-process of becoming fully grown, experienced adult learners does not
require an external stimulus for it is a natural occurrence within the learners.
ü Environment- This may include learning opportunities that provide avenues for
learning.

Theories of Cognitive Processes in Learning

There are multiple theories to describe the cognitive processes in learning. Multiple
philosophers and psychologists have analyzed how people learn. Each developed their own
models to explain the process.

Piaget's constructivism
Piaget's constructivism theory states that distinct pieces of information or knowledge
about a subject are stored, called schema, and then later applied to situations in order to
learn. His theory in a classroom setting dictates that a teacher does not lecture or provide
answers to students, but they guide their own self-understanding.
Gagne's three stages of instruction
Gagne constructed a formula to develop a strategy in teaching. If an educator follows this
model of instruction, then learners will be more engaged in a classroom. Gagne's three
stages of instruction include:

 Preparation - get the students' attention, inform them of expectations, and stimulate
the retrieval of past knowledge on the subject
 Performance and Acquisition - present the new information, guide their learning,
respond to their needs, and provide feedback
 Transfer - assess the students' performance and help them transfer the knowledge
to be retrieved again later

Social-cognitive theory
Albert Bandura's social-cognitive theory describes that learning and cognition are affected
by behavioral and environmental factors and not only through experience. Humans manage
their behavior and decide if they will engage with a topic. Their thoughts are adapted to
achieving a particular goal and include their own motivation. It implies that learning can
occur by observing situations and witnessing the consequences.

Cognitive-behavioral theory
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psychology method used to help people recover
from traumatic events. CBT is widely used to help patients overcome a mental disorder and
to prevent their relapse. It is based on the theory that emotions are influenced by how
someone perceives a situation. Correcting their misperceptions can improve their reaction
to an event.

Cognitive Process

Bloom's Taxonomy
A structure for classifying educational objectives. Bloom’s taxonomy
was proposed by an educational psychologist Bloom and his
colleagues in 1956 in which three domains of learning were
identified.
The domains included cognitive (mental), affective
(emotional/feelings/attitude) and psychomotor (physical ability) skills. The
cognitive domain is the most widely used in developing goals and objectives
for student learning. Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive objectives describes
learning in six levels in the order of: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The taxonomy was later revised by
Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001). The revised taxonomy is created on a
two-dimensional framework to include the cognitive process and knowledge.
The cognitive process includes the six levels of thinking skills as remember,
understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create. The knowledge dimension is
the core for the six cognitive processes and is classified into four types of
knowledge including factual, conceptual, procedural, and meta cognitive
knowledge.

Knowledge
Source: adapted from Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, 4.1, page 46

 Factual: The basic elements a student must know to be acquainted with a

discipline or solve problems in it. (Terminology & specific details and
elements)
 Conceptual: Interrelationship among basic elements in a larger structure
that allows them to function together (Classifications, categories,
Principles and generalizations, Theories, models and structures)
 Procedural: How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for
using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods. (Subject-specific
skills/processes, Subject-specific techniques/methods, Criteria for
determining when to apply procedure, technique, skill, etc.)
 Metacognitive: Knowledge of cognition in general, awareness and
knowledge of one's own cognition. (Strategic knowledge, Cognitive
tasks, appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge, Self-
knowledge)
The Cognitive Process Dimension
Citations from Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational

objectives: Complete edition, New York : Longman. Table 5.1, pages 67-68

The cognitive process dimension (bottom up) begins from low to high order
of thinking skills.
 Create To put elements together or restructure to form something new/clear functional whole

 Generate (hypothesize)
 Plan (design)
 Produce (construct)

Evaluate To make judgments based on defined criteria

 Check (coordinate, detect, monitor, test)

 Critique (judge)

Analyze To break down information into basic parts and determine how different parts relate to each other an

 Differentiate (discriminate, distinguish, focus, select)

 Organize (find, cohere, integrate, outline, parse, structure)
 Attribute (deconstruct)

Apply To use a process/procedure

 Execute (carry out)

 Implement (use)

Understand To construct meaning from oral, written and graphic communication

 Interpret (clarify/paraphrase/represent/translate)
 Exemplify (illustrate/instantiate)
 Classify (categorize/subsume)
 Summarize (abstract/generalize)
 Infer (conclude/extrapolate/interpolate/predict)
 Compare (contrast/map/match)
 Explain (construct)

Remember To retrieve knowledge from long-term memory

 Recognize (identify)
 Recall (retrieve)

An example of a measurable vs. non-measurable SLO using action verb from

the cognitive process dimension:
 Not Measurable SLO: Students will be able to understand the causes of
unemployment and inflation.

Note: Understand is too vague, not an observable or measurable action.

Measurable SLO: Students will be able to explain the causes of

unemployment and inflation

Sources:

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives: Complete

edition, New York : Longman.

Davis, Scott, “Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to Write Learning Outcomes (2014)”, Pearson Education accessed June 2017 http://www.pearsoned.com/education-blog/using-blooms-

taxonomy-to-write-learning-outcomes/

“Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy”, CELT, Iowa State University, accessed April 2017 http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/effective-teaching-practices/revised-blooms-taxonomy

I. Thought Processes
§ TOT experience or tip of the tongue phenomenon
II. Cognitive Process of Experts and Expert Systems
§ Special Knowledge
§ Domain Specificity
§ Analogical Reasoning
§ Expert Systems
§ Creativity
III. Basic Unit of Cognition
§ Concepts- building blocks of cognition.
§ Propositions- composed of related concepts.
§ Schemata- know how information is organized and utilized to interpret our daily life
experiences.
Ø They are basic knowledge
Ø They are highly structured
Ø They are general categories of knowledge
Ø They are used in comprehension.
IV. Productions
V. Scripts

Cognitive Strategies

These are mental plans that we apply to manage our thinking and behaviour during
problem solving or learning.
ü Student-Centered instruction
ü Activating prior knowledge
ü Social interactions
ü Problem Solving
ü Elaboration
ü Concept Learning

Strategic Demands on Cognitive Processing

The major goal of instruction is student learning. The goal of instruction is to help students
achieve the learning objective.
ü Extraneous processing
ü Essential processing
ü Generative processing

Learner Centered Psychological Principles

Psychological principle deals with learners and how they learn.

Prior Knowledge

Prior knowledge is a mental structure that describes our knowledge and experiences
gained during the course of our life and how old experiences are used to understand new
ones.

Strategies for Developing Prior Knowledge

Development of prior knowledge is based on our ability to learn and the amount of
experience we have gained.

Ø Advance Organizer
Ø Conceptual and pedagogical models
Ø Chunking
Ø Outlining
Ø Highlighting
Ø Questioning

Chapter 2: Analogical Process

Analogical process or thinking refers to our ability to perceive and use relational
similarity. Reasoning and problem solving have one thing in common- they involve
metacognitive tasks and structures. An analogue is a referent or equivalent cognitive
information in the brain that can easily be accessed or mapped when needed.
Analogical reasoning is a method of information processing that requires the
comparison of related features between the old and new concepts.

Analogical processes include the following:

Ø Retrieval
Ø Mapping
Ø Access
Ø Abstraction
Ø Representation
Ø Evaluation

Transfer of Learning (Is the effect of prior learning)

Positive transfer occurs when students ability to harness strong associations for some
recall in the future.
Negative transfer occurs when students find two events or items in similar when in
fact they are not.
According to Bynes (2001) gives the following reasons why transfer does not work:
ü Some bits of knowledge are embedded in single contexts
ü Lack of conditional knowledge
ü Lack of conceptual knowledge
ü Inaccurate conceptions of the mind
ü Lack of metacognition

Ways to Promote Transfer

Ø Similarity
Ø Association
Ø Degree of Original learning
Ø Critical Attributes

Ways to Teach Critical Attributes

Identify the attribute that describes something as what it is
Provide simple and specific examples
Move on to the complicated examples in a gradual manner
Allow students to generate examples of their own
Help students realize that there is a limit to various attributes

Chapter 3: Biological and Environmental

Predispositions in Learning
The adult human brain is almost 1.5 kg (about 3 lb.) mass of pinkish gray jelly like
tissue made up of approximately 100 billion nerve cells or neurons, neuroglia (supporting
tissues) cells, and vascular ( blood carrying) cells, and other tissues (Roediger 2008). It is the
brain the organ that responsible for thoughts and feelings, the part of the body that
responsible for intellectual activities. The brain is divided into three different parts: hindbrain,
midbrain and forebrain.

Brain Lateralization
The brain has left and right hemispheres, left hemisphere matches
objects analytically and verbally. On the other hand, right hemisphere matches
objects that are the same to form a visual pattern or relationship.
 Environmental Predisposition in Learning
Environmental influence starts at the onset of conception of the child; the fetus in the
womb is influenced by mother’s mental, physical, and emotional conditions.
Some of the environmental factors or influence can be categorized as:

· Natural Setting
· Social setting
· Cultural Demands
· Social roles and expectation
· Media Influence

Chapter 4: METACOGNITIVE PROCESSES

Metacognition refers to the learners’ understanding and control of their cognitive
process (Kauchak & Eggen 2007)

Types of Metacognition:
v Explicit metacognitive knowledge (focus on factual knowledge)
v Implicit metacognitive knowledge (children know how to monitor themselves)

Essential Skills for Metacognition:

Planning
Monitoring
Evaluating
Stages of Metacognition:
ü Rehearsal
1. Elaborative rehearsal
2. Questioning and answering
3. Predicting and clarifying
4. Restating and Paraphrasing
5. Outlining and Summarizing
6. Selecting
7. Note-taking
8. Underlining

ü Clustering
ü Elaboration
ü Systematic Searching

Differences between Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies

Cognitive learning strategies are characterized by intentionally, effort, situation,
specificity, and goal-direction (e.g., analysing metaphors in poem). On the other
hand, metacognitive learning strategies appear to share common characteristics, also it
enhances the thinking skills and capabilities of adults for self-regulation which implies
relatively more complex and complicated forms of learning (e.g., quizzing oneself to evaluate
one’s understanding of metaphors in a poem).
 Chapter 5: Learning Metaphors
and Theories of Learning
Learning has been defined as a process of gaining knowledge. Changes in behaviour
are pieces of evidence showing that learning has taken place. It means that learning is a
change in behaviour attributable to experience (Mayer, 2011)

Metaphors of Learning

Metaphor is a cognitive tool that enables us to see one thing in terms of developing
higher order thinking skills.

Theories of Learning

I. (Egan, 2005), it is a transfer meaning from one another on the basis perceived similarities. A
specific type of metaphor is called synectics which can be an effective means of Response
Strengthening (reinforcement theory concentrates on consequences)
Ø Reinforcement is commonly viewed as reward. Positive reinforcement occurs when the
behaviour produces another new stimulus. On the other hand, if the disappearance or removal
of a stimulus occurs, we call negative reinforcement.
Ø Punishment is another consequence that often confused with reinforcement, used to decrease
the performance of a behaviour

Thorndike formulated a number of laws that govern important aspects of behaviour. They are
as follows:
1. The Law of Effect
2. The Law of Exercise
3. The Law of Readiness

II. Information Acquisition

This theory is popularized by Herman Ebbinghaus, he pointed out a quantitative relation
between the amount of practice and the amount learned.

III. Knowledge Construction

This theory is popularized by Frederic Barlett, he proposed that meaningful learning
involves assimilating new information to existing schemata. According to this theory, mental
construction of meaning is influenced by perception, understanding and memory.

IV. Semantic Networks

Based on this network model, knowledge is organized according to it’s meaning.
 V. Dual Coding
According to Allan Urho Paivio, who proposed this theory, representation of specific
information accounts for verbal association and visual imagery.

VI. Magic number 7

George Miller is best known to his magic number (7 plus minus 2) which focused his
attention on to a problem called cognitive overload. He believed that people can amass a
large volume of information at anytime. He held the idea that 7 plus minus 2 means the
number of elements (letters, objects, words, numbers, or other units) that the memory can
handle.
VII.
Short Term Memory Techniques (Brownell, 2002)
Repetition
Chunking
Identifying logical patterns

VIII. Long Term Memory Techniques (Brownell, 2002)

Association
Categorization
Mediation
Imagery
Mnemonics

IX. Barriers to effective Memory

· Repression and distortion
· Retroactive inhibition
· Primacy and Recency effects

X. The Seven Sins of Memory (Daniel, 1999)

v Transience
v Absent-mindedness
v Blocking
v Misattribution
v Suggestibility
v Bias
v Persistence

XI. Generative Process

Merlin C. Wittrock was the founder of this theory that hinges on knowledge about the
brain processes and functions. The brain is responsible for cognitive functions such as
comprehension, knowledge acquisition, attention, motivation, and transfer.
XII. Cognitive Process
Cognitive development popularized by Jean Piaget who is known for his research on the
development of children’s cognition.

Stages of Cognitive Development

· Sensorimotor Stage (from birth to two years)
Ø Reflex scheme level
Ø Primary circular level
Ø Secondary circular level
Ø Coordination of secondary course round modest circular level
Ø Tertiary circular reaction level
Ø Symbolic representation

Educational Implications: To foster knowledge in this stage, it is suggested that parents and
caretakers allow children to play with objects or other toys that produce sounds.

· Preoperational stage (two to seven years)

Ø Preconceptual level
Ø Intuitive level

Educational Implications: To maximize learning, children may play by putting on

costumes or disguising something and encouraging them to take on a different character (e.g.,
paper, play-doh, sand, clay, water). This activity can help children develop the concept of
conservation.

· Concrete Operational Stage (seven to eleven years)

At this stage, child possesses operative schemes that necessitate him to think logical
terms.
Educational Implications: During this stage, children really enjoy helping their mother
in the kitchen, especially when she cooks something. Helping mother can be fun especially
when such activity turns into a great learning opportunity.

· Formal Operational Stage ( eleven years and older)

Ø Composition
Ø Reversibility
Ø Associativity
Ø Identity
Ø Tautology
Ø Iteration

Educational Implications: During this stage, students are filled with opportunities for
hypothetical situations. They motivated to work collaboratively within groups, or they be
allowed to work in pairs so that they develop working on hypothetical topics.

XIII. Behavior Theory

All behaviourists are focused on the analyses of stimuli and responses. The methodology
used in behaviourism is basically scientific where stimulus variables can be objectively
manipulated in response variables can be reliably measured, many behaviourist conducted
experiments using animal subjects.
XIV. Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt theory was developed by three psychologists: Wolfgang Kohler, Max
Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka. According to Gestalists, behaviour cannot be understood in
terms of its molecular parts because the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Gestalt theory generates five laws that govern perception. They as follows:
· Law of Continuity
· Law of Closure
· Law of Similarity
· Law of Proximity
· Law of Pragnanz

XV. Social Cognitive Theory

This theory refers to the interface between behavioural behaviour and cognitive
perspectives. Social-cognitive perspective is focused on both internal and external factors that
lead to the idea of reciprocal determinism-the interaction among person, person’s behaviour,
and the environment.
XVI. Social Constructivism
Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky, stressed the people’s culture has something to do with their
development. For him, cognitive development is a social process; he maintained the idea that
socio-cultural contexts in which it occurs. Vygotsky viewed, can best facilitated in the zone
of proximal development (ZPD) refers to variety of tasks that are slightly too complex for a
child to do alone but can be accomplished successfully with guidance from an adult or more
experience child (Bee & Boyd 2007).

Components of Constructivism:
· Discovery learning
· Inquiry learning
· Cooperative learning
· Individualized learning
· Learning with technology

XVII. Jerome Bruner’s Theory

Based on the concept of categorization, Bruner believed that as active learners, student’s
continue to structure and restructure their environment. He further believed that the world
they experience is a product of their mind. He emphasizes discovery learning that is premised
on his belief that the information of coding systems requires discovery relationships.
Metaphoric assumptions can be helpful in describing learning. To engage our students in
the learning enterprise, we can help them for better articulate their thoughts and ideas with
the aid of metaphors. Through these theories of learning are offered and these theories differ
for a variety of reasons, but these theories help in order to understand the nature of learning
and how it occurs.
 Chapter 6: Types and Qualities of Knowledge
The concept of knowledge is central to process of learning and instruction.

Types of Knowledge:
Ø Episodic Knowledge refers to our biographical memory; we have our individual and
personal histories that make up who we are.
Ø Semantic Knowledge deals with the memories and information that are not tied to
our personal biography.
Types of SEMANTIC knowledge:
v Declarative Knowledge
v Procedural Knowledge
v Conditional Knowledge
v Strategic Knowledge

Organization of Semantic Knowledge:

Ø Facts
Ø Data
Ø Information
Ø Ideas
Ø Wisdom
Ø Concepts
Ø Properties
Ø Natural categories
Ø Artifact categories
Ø Nominal categories
Ø Generalizations

Qualities of Knowledge
Qualities of knowledge may be described as generic. Abstract. Informal, elaborate, and
structured. Each quality is suited to each type of knowledge while others are used in more
general. Although these qualities described, sometimes some seem to overlap.

Knowledge Acquisition Techniques

Protocol-generation getting information through interviews
Protocol-analysis scrutiny of interview results
Hierarchy-production includes types of laddering in order to build taxonomies such as
grading or ranking structures.
Grid-construction deals with the formulation of reference lines on map
Sorting-out includes putting together things that have the same attributes so that we can
organize and disentangle something
Diagram-based involves provision, application, and processing of concepts to indicate
statistical trends or mathematical information
 Chapter 7: Articulating the Learning Objectives in
the Classroom
Anatomy of Learning Objectives

· Specificity of student behaviours

· Description of a specific performance that students will exhibit
· Describe of the specific result instruction
· Written in language that students can understand
· Written for students to remain focused
· Make use of verb from bloom's taxonomy
· Emphasize students learning outcomes
· Help teachers and students begin the lesson with the end of the mind
· Written in single statement
· Used by students and teacher throughout the lesson to monitor progress toward learning

Purposes of learning objectives

ü Guide students in instructional planning, delivery, and evaluation of student performance
ü Guide and direct behaviour
ü Provide opportunities for analysis to teaching and learning
ü Provide clarity including challenges and standards
ü Help select the appropriate learning experience and evaluation strategies

Components of Learning Objectives (ABCD Components)

Audience- Usually the student

Behaviour- Refers to action that describe an observable (Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Research oriented, Time-bound, Research-Oriented)
Condition- Used to give students limitation:
Ø Given a set of rules
Ø "Using the poem the road not taken by Robert Frost...”
Degree of performance or criteria level- Describes how well the behaviour must be
performed to satisfy the intent of the behavioural verb.

Taxonomy types of knowledge

v Knowledge of facts-Knowledge of basic term
-Knowledge of specific information including its details and elements
v Knowledge of concepts- Knowledge of restriction for classifying objects
- Knowledge of principles and generalizations
- knowledge of theories, models, and structures
v Knowledge of Procedure- knowledge of subject-specific skills and conceptual domains
-knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods
- knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate in procedures
v Knowledge of metacognition- knowledge of certain strategies
 - knowledge about function of cognition, including specific contextual and conditional
knowledge
- knowledge of self and regulating self

Chapter 8: The Place of Motivation in Learning

Motivation refers to an internal condition of stimulation that often comes
before the performance of a desired behaviour.
Motivation is triggered with variety of sources:
· Exercise
· Good nutrition
· Sleep
· Rewards
· Challenges
· Friendship
· Kindness
· Security
· Authority
· Independence
· Pleasant environment
· Creative expression
· Meaning

Aspects of Motivation
Ø Motivation takes place within the individual
Ø It is possible to treat students in ways that will encourage them to develop the desire for
learning.
Ø It is possible to present materials to be learned in ways that will make learning easier.
Ø The potential learner’s motivation will automatically be directed toward his or her most
pressing need at moment.

Motivation and Behavior

Motivation is individual and elusive. It is important to learning: yet it is influenced by

a person’s beliefs, feelings, interests, and goals. The following factors affect motivation. The
following factors affect motivation:

Knowledge in a particular content area

Beliefs about what the teacher expects
Adolescents self-concept or perceived personal ability
Anxiety and concern over grades
Level of support I the classroom environment
Difficulty and challenges of the task
Social interactions
 Belief that learning is useful, meaningful, and of consequence of others

How motivation works

· Interest
· Belief
· Attributions
· Goals
· Social partnership

Motives and Drives

Motivation is an innate and integral part of our biological

predispositions. It means that motivation is connected to our minds,
feelings, and emotions. For example, when we are thinking or improving
our grades in English, we think of something concrete-one that will help
us realize our goal. With the goal in mind, our motives will determine
how to respond to that goal. Our feelings are influenced by our responses to a
particular behaviour.

Predominant theories of human motivations mostly assured that people are compelled to
act in order to:
Ø Increase pleasure and decrease painful experience
Ø Get innate physiological needs
Ø Compensate for drive (Compton, 2005)

Elements of Motivational System

· Self-concept
· self-esteem
· self-regulation

Inner Speech

One very specialized form of self-talk is called inner speech (Brownell, 2002).
The four characteristics of Inner speech:
1. Egocentric
2. Silent
3. Compressed syntax
4. Semantic embeddedness

Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy affects the process of choosing goals, expectation of outcomes and
achieving success and failure (Snowman and Biehler, 2006).

Chapter 9 Theories of Motivation

 Theories of Motivation
There are at least 3 different perspectives to understand motivation.
1. Biological Perspective
· Instinct Theory-Describes how motivation result in automatic behaviours.
· Drive-reduction Theory-Is anchored on the belief that all living organisms have biological
needs.
· Arousal Theory-Emphasizes the idea that we possess a certain amount of curiosity in which
we need to explore novelty and complexity of things in the environment.
2. Psychological Theory
· Incentive Theory-Explain the motivations result in external stimuli.
· Cognitive Theory-Concerned with attributions that affect motivation.
3. Humanistic theory
· Dispositional Theory-This emphasizes the role of stable behavioural tendencies in
understanding the differences why individuals behave the way they do.
· Two-Factor Theory –Herzberg proposed two kinds of factors that that affect motivation.
Hygiene Factor
Motivators
· Alderfers ERG Theory-He improved Maslows Hierarchy of needs. Exhibits a frustration-
regression principle where an already satisfied lower level need can be activated when people
fail to satisfy a higher level need.
· Goal Theories-Represent basic categories for different achievement situation.
Shaping Motivation
The following are some factors that shape motivation.
· Effective Teachers-Important factor in shaping student motivation. It is believed that
effective teachers have a great impact on student performance.

Ø Pedagogical Knowledge
Ø Communication Skills
Ø Leadership
Ø Human Relations
Ø Technological Literacy

· Classroom Management-It is a place where students engage in a free market of ideas as

they share their feelings and insights.
· Effective Instruction-No lesson should begin unless we provide clear instructions and gain
students interest.
· The use of Imaginative activities-Enhancing the motivation of a student.
· Establishing Effective leaning environment-It should have Withitness-refers to awareness
of what is happening in the classroom and Group Alerting pertains to the classroom
environment that signals the entire class.

· Kellers ARCS model in motivation

1. Attention
2. Relevance
3. Confidence
· Questioning Strategies-Help our student develop focus.
Adjunct questions are strategically placed
Ø Before the Information
Ø Within the Information
Ø After the Information

Chapter 10 Children’s Development

Nature and nurture controversy
Our ability to learn is affected by biological or genetic
predisposition ( nature) and environmental factors (nurture)
Children's learning and development S
· growth development of a child: Constant ystematic
H olistic
Dialectal theory A utomatic · outer physical dimension
· inner biological dimension dealsN atural
· G radual
individual psychological dimension Inner psychological dimension
· cultural –sociological dimensionE ssential · perceptual-cognitive-moral domain
Socio-emotional or personal · social- emotional or personality domain
domain
· perceptual-cognitive-moral domain · development is also affected by
· children's perception multiple socio-cultural context
· Characteristic
Young of a child
children-biological
children's learning
predisposition to learn · they may lack the needed
cognitive development
· the learning of a child follows a certain sequence knowledge in some task but they
· learning proceeds at varying rates are Knowledgeable in other
cognitive domain

Chapter 11 Adolescent Learning

ADOLESCENT LEARNING

Characteristics of adolescent learning

Ø they have the ability to think of abstract concept and differentiate between hypothetical and
real
Ø there is a regular increase in the complexity of their learning and thinking skills
Developmental dimension
There are a lot of developmental dimension that occur during adolescence. These
encompass the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional aspects that help shape teenager's
development process

DIMENSION FEATURES
Ø Physical · There is already sexual maturation
· Moments intense restlessness; there is a
rapid growth because of nutrition
demand
Ø COGNITIVE · Creates mental pictures
· Their minds is filled with other issues
· They clarify their own thought and
share them with others manifest
 independent and critical thinking
Ø SOCIAL · they also depend on parental values
· they can easily lose track of time
· they are frighten by novel situation
Ø EMOTIONAL · They are sensitive to criticism
· They feel that adults do not understand
their feeling
· Sometimes they tend to be
inconsiderate of others

Educational implication of adolescent's learning:

ü Lesson in class should help them understand their physical development

ü Lesson should provide opportunities for constructive social interaction and non-threatening
classroom environment.

Chapter 12 Addressing the Socio-Cultural

Development Dimension Learning
Learning Strategies
Are cognitive processes that not occur automatically but require effort(Santrock,
Payne, & Isaacs 2006).

Different between a learning and strategy and a study strategy

· Learning strategy uses a higher level thinking behaviours such as decision making, self-
motivation, and self-monitoring
· Study strategy is more similar to a standard procedure o an ordered series of steps that
requires limited use of higher order thinking skills (Price & Nelson 2007)
v Personal Management
Ø Efficient use of time
Long term goal
Short term goals
Immediate goals
Ø To manage wisely
Prioritizing
To do list
Scheduling
v Personal skills needed to succeed in all
subjects
Self-discipline
Self-esteem self determination
Assertiveness
Self confidence
Motivation
Initiative
Responsibility
Alertness
 Judgement
Time management
Money management
v Study skills needed to succeed in all subjects
Finding information
Analysing information
Processing information
Summarizing
Problem solving
Critical and divergent thinking

Eight principles of effective studying

Principles of practice
1. Spacing
2. Feedback
3. Worked example
4. Guided discovery
Principles of generating
5. Testing
6. Self-explanation
7. Questioning
8. elaboration

Guiding student's cognitive processing during instruction

Effective learning occurs when students are actively involved in and focused on the
cognitive process.

Instructional Techniques for selecting

1. objectives
2. pre question
3. post question
4. highlighting
Organizing
Process of mentality arranging the selected information into a coherent representation.

Instructional techniques for organizing

1. outline
2. headline
3. pointer word
4. graphic organizer
5. summarizing

Integrating
 The process of connecting the mental representation with relevant prior knowledge
retrieved from long term memory system.

Instructional techniques integrating

concrete advance organizer
concrete model

Pedagogy practice

Is science of instruction. It is a set of teacher's repertoire for making students learn from
the lesson
· create supportive learning environment
· encourage reflective thinking
· enhance the importance of new learning
· facilitate shared and negotiated meaning
· provide sufficient opportunities

Evidence-based practice

Multidisciplinary framework that is rooted in clinical practice since 1992`

12 principles of effective Instructional Design

1. Coherence
2. Signalling
3. Expectation
4. Segmenting
5. Spatial contiguity
6. Temporal contiguity
7. Pre training
8. Modality
9. Multi media
10. Personalization
11. Concreting
12. Anchoring

Technology in the classroom

Teaching and learning are now made easier and more comfortable, with the aid of
modern tools in teaching such as the multimedia projector, slides, filmstrips, computers,
tablet, learning is made fun and easy. The advent of modern technology has facilitated
globalization that influenced the rapidly changing and exploding information and knowledge.

Globalization

Globalization likewise opens new possibilities for worldwide information exchange

and communication (Rao, 2004).

Lifelong Learning
 The concept of lifelong learning may traced in Maslow’s taxonomy of human needs.
When we move from one level to another, we try to satisfy our needs. The need for
satisfaction is form of learning.

Chapter 13 Social Processes in Learning

The Term “social” refers to the interactions produced in the
environment.

Semiotic Mediation and Internalization

We develop more complex cognitive abilities which Vygotsky called higher mental
functions. Examples of which include concentrated attention, deliberate memory, and logical
thinking. Children use higher mental functions that are developed through various
interactions. These form part of the shared knowledge of a culture. This process known as
internalization.

Communication in Learning
Language is socially negotiated, constructed, and shared

Communication in teaching

The communication of ideas, facts, feeling, and emotion is very crucial in facilitating
human learning

The following important needed in in effective expression of ideas

Ø Word of use
Ø Encoding and decoding system
Ø Non-verbal cues
Ø Attitudes
Ø Knowledge base
Ø Socio cultural

Communication and language

Communication is the heart and soul of the classroom interactions.
Function of language
o Instrumental
o Regulatory
o Interactional
o Personal
o Imaginative
o Informational
o Heuristic
Characteristic of language
Every language is unique which characterized by the following:
language is system
language is arbitrary
language is basically vocal
language is symbolic
 language is infinite
language is dynamic
language is social
language is unique

Effective classroom communication techniques

o assume the best from everyone

o operate with the assumption that everyone has the students' best interest in mind
o keep a positive attitude
o practice empathy and understanding

Attributes of language( Andrande and May, 2004)

v language enable communication between individuals

v language is culturally transmitted and varies across cultural groups
v language uses primarily vocal sounds but only a subset of all possible vocal sounds.
v Language units are arbitrary symbols need not have any correspondence to the things they
represent
v Language has a grammatical structure that can be analyzed on many levels.
v Language units can be arrange according to grammar to produce novel utterances and to
convey novel ideas.
v The ideas need not currently be true, and might never have or never be true.

The Message
The message is the meat of the communication situation. The message is embedded in
the following signs and symbols:
ØNatural sign
ØNon-natural sign
ØIconic sign
ØDigital sign

Basic communication skills

üProbing
üClarifying
üInterpreting
üConfronting
üsummarizing

Chapter 14 Social and Cultural Influences on

the cognitive and motivational processes of
learning
Socio cultural influences on learning
 Learning is the major goal of teaching. Learning is influence by various social and cultural
factors.

Theories of situated learning

Situated learning is also known as situated cognition. It hinges on
the belief that learning is embedded in or connected to the context in
which knowledge and skills are developed (Santrock,2004)
It is a basic assumption in the constructivist approach that deals
with leaning. This assumption is twofold (Snowman and Biehler, 2006)

Learning is made meaningful when it is anchored on a realistic context.

Traditional forms of classroom learning and instruction are largely decontextualized in the
sense that what students learn is good only for taking tests and performing other classroom
tasks. This situation leads to condition that has been referred to as inert knowledge. This
condition indicates that students fail to use their learning to solving real life problems.

Teaching strategies to address the socio cultural dimension of learning

o active teaching
o critical thinking
o discussion strategy
o case story teaching
o social networking
o service learning
o problem based teaching
o experimental learning
o reflective teaching

Chapter 15 Theories of Intelligence

Intelligence is a construct that refers to our ability to acquire
knowledge, think and reason logically and deal effectively with the
environment.
SPEARMAN'S TWO FACTO THEORY

· G factor refers to inborn ability

· S Factor is influenced by the environment statistical procedures, such us factor analysis.

THORNDIKE'S MULTIFACTOR THEORY

· Level refers to the degree of difficulty of certain tasks

· Range is for the quantity of task of certain level of difficulty
· Area means the overall quantity of task of each level
· Speed is the rate of movement of each task

THURSTONE'S THOERY
· Verbal comprehension refers to our ability to understand written or spoken expression
· Perceptual speed
· Numerical ability
· Associative memory
· Spatial visualization

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Stenberg develop the theory to emphasize product of or the end results of
intellectual work.
·
Analytic Intelligence
o Metacomponents
o Performance components
o Knowledge acquisition
· Creative intelligence
· Practical intelligence

Multiple Intelligences (MIs)

In 1983, Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner proposed his famous theory of
multiple intelligences.

· Linguistic intelligence
· logical/ mathematical intelligence
· spatial intelligence
· musical intelligence
· bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
· interpersonal intelligence
· naturalist intelligence
Types of Intelligences
Rational Intelligence deals with the mental function necessary for conceptual and rational
thinking.
Emotional Intelligence lies at our emotions.