Lecture 1

BY: DR. A.N.OMARA

In this lecture you will know …
1. Semiconductors vs conductors vs insulators
2. Intrinsic vs extrinsic semiconductors
3. Atomic structure
4. Forming a crystal
5. Electron-hole pair
6. Doping process
7. N-type vs P-type semiconductors
8. P-N junction diode
Semiconductors and Electricity
1. Semiconductors conduct electricity moderately, positioned between highly
conductive metals and insulators.
2. Common semiconductor materials include silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and
carbon (C), with silicon being the most widely used in electronics.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
1. Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductor materials, while extrinsic
semiconductors have impurity atoms introduced through doping.
2. Doping alters semiconductor characteristics, mainly conductivity, by
introducing impurity atoms with fewer or more than four valence electrons.
3. At room temperature, intrinsic semiconductors behave more like insulators,
whereas extrinsic semiconductors exhibit greater conductivity.
4. The level of conductivity in extrinsic semiconductors depends on the quantity
of impurity atoms added during the doping process.
 Atomic Structure
1. Silicon atom has 14 protons and 14 electrons, with a nucleus surrounded by
electron shells.
2. (K-shell) has 2 electrons, (L-shell) has 8, and (M-shell) has 4.
3. The outermost shell, called the valence ring, contains 4 valence electrons,
crucial for determining conductivity.
4. Semiconductors, including silicon, have 4 valence electrons, influencing their
electrical properties.
5. The number of valence electrons in an atom dictates its conductivity and
bonding behavior with other atoms.
6. Conductors typically have 1 valence electron, while insulators have complete
valence electron shells.
7. The net charge of the silicon core is -4 due to its 14 protons and 10 inner
electrons.
Forming a Crystal
1. When silicon atoms are grouped together, they form a solid
crystalline structure.
2. Each silicon atom shares its four valence electrons with
nearby atoms, resulting in a stable structure where each atom
has eight valence electrons.
3. This sharing of valence electrons is known as covalent
bonding.
4. Covalent bonds between silicon atoms contribute to the
formation of the solid crystalline structure.
Thermally Generated Electron-Hole Pairs
1. At absolute zero temperature (-273°C), all valence electrons in
a silicon crystal are bound in covalent bonds, resulting in no
free electrons present.
2. Above absolute zero, some valence electrons gain energy from
external sources, like heat or radiation, allowing them to break
free from their parent atoms and become free electrons.
3. The departure of an electron from its covalent bond creates a
vacancy, or hole, in the crystal lattice structure.
4. Increasing temperature leads to the generation of more
thermally induced electron-hole pairs within the silicon
crystal.
Thermally Generated Electron-Hole Pairs
1. The hole in the crystal behaves as a positive charge, attracting free
electrons passing through the material.
2. Silicon generates fewer thermally induced electron-hole pairs
compared to germanium at the same temperature, making silicon
more stable at higher temperatures.
3. Silicon's stability is a key factor in its widespread use as a
semiconductor material in manufacturing diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits.
4. Intrinsic semiconductor materials, like silicon, have only a small
number of thermally induced electron-hole pairs at room
temperature, making them relatively good insulators.
Doping
1. Doping involves adding impurity atoms to intrinsic semiconductors to alter their conductivity.
2. Intrinsic semiconductors, like silicon or germanium, have limited use in electronics without
doping.
3. Impurity atoms are added to intrinsic semiconductor materials to enhance their conductivity.
4. Extrinsic semiconductors are those that have undergone doping with impurity atoms to
modify their electrical properties.
n-Type Semiconductors
1. Pentavalent atoms, such as antimony (Sb), arsenic (As),
and phosphorous (P), have five valence electrons.
2. When a silicon crystal is doped with pentavalent impurity
atoms, excess free electrons are generated in the material.
3. The extra electron from each pentavalent impurity atom,
not involved in covalent bonding, becomes a free electron
that can move through the material.
4. The resulting material is termed an n-type semiconductor
due to the prevalence of free electrons, which are the
majority charge carriers.
 n-Type Semiconductors
1. Despite the abundance of free electrons, the net charge of the n-type
material remains neutral as the total number of electrons equals the total
number of protons.
2. Thermal energy still creates some electron-hole pairs in the crystal,
leading to the presence of a few holes alongside the free electrons.
3. Holes, or vacancies in covalent bonds, act as positive charges and attract
free electrons.
4. In n-type semiconductor materials, there are many more free electrons
than holes, making electrons the majority current carriers and holes the
minority carriers.
5. Positive ions are present in n-type semiconductor material due to the
imbalance created when the fifth valence electron of pentavalent atoms
leaves its parent atom, resulting in fixed positive charges in the crystal
lattice.
p-Type Semiconductors
1. Trivalent atoms, like aluminum (Al), boron (B), and gallium
(Ga), have three valence electrons.
2. Doping a silicon crystal with trivalent impurity atoms leads
to the creation of holes in the covalent bond structure due
to the need for an additional valence electron for stability.
3. Adding millions of trivalent impurities to an intrinsic
semiconductor results in the formation of millions of
holes, making it a p-type semiconductor.
p-Type Semiconductors
1. Although a p-type semiconductor has a net neutral charge, it contains
both holes (majority carriers) and a few free electrons (minority
carriers).
2. Free electrons passing through a p-type semiconductor may fill holes,
creating negative ions, which are fixed charges unable to move within
the crystal structure.
Review
1. What type of semiconductor material is created when a silicon
crystal is doped with pentavalent impurity atoms?
2. What are the minority current carriers in a p-type semiconductor
material?
3. Does a hole exhibit a positive, negative, or neutral charge?
The p-n Junction Diode
1. Diodes are semiconductor devices created by combining
p-type and n-type semiconductor materials, forming a p-
n junction.
2. They are unidirectional devices, permitting current flow
in only one direction.
3. The schematic symbol for a semiconductor diode
features an anode (A) on the p-side and a cathode (K) on
the n-side.
4. The anode represents the positive terminal, while the
cathode represents the negative terminal.
Depletion Zone
1. A p-n junction forms with free electrons on the n side
and holes on the p side.
2. Upon formation, free electrons migrate from the n side
to the p side, becoming minority carriers.
3. These free electrons have a short lifetime as they fall into
holes on the p side, creating positive and negative ions.
4. This process establishes a barrier potential, VB, halting
further electron diffusion across the junction.
Depletion Zone
1. Electrons sense a repulsive potential on the p side,
preventing further migration, while holes are repelled
back to the p side.
2. The region where positive and negative ions accumulate
is termed the depletion zone or depletion layer.
3. The depletion zone lacks mobile charge carriers, as ions
are fixed in the crystalline structure and unable to move.
Barrier Potential ,
1. Ions establish a potential difference at the p-n junction,
termed the barrier potential (VB).
2. In silicon, the barrier potential at the p-n junction is
typically around 0.7 V, while for germanium, it's
approximately 0.3 V.
3. Although the barrier potential cannot be directly
measured with a voltmeter externally, it is present at the
p-n junction.
4. The barrier potential plays a critical role in impeding the
diffusion of current carriers across the junction.
Forward-Biased p-n Junction
1. Bias refers to a control voltage or current applied to a diode.
2. Forward-biasing a diode enables easy current flow through it.
3. In a forward-biased p-n junction, the n material connects to
the negative terminal of the voltage source (V), while the p
material connects to the positive terminal.
4. The voltage source (V) must overcome the internal barrier
potential ( ) to facilitate current flow. It repels free electrons
across the depletion zone into the p side, where they fill holes,
thus creating current flow.
Forward-Biased p-n Junction
1. For a silicon p-n junction, the external voltage source must be
at least 0.7 V to neutralize the internal barrier potential and
initiate current flow.
2. A schematic symbol of a forward-biased diode is shown in
Figure 27–8b, with the anode (A) positive relative to the
cathode (K).
3. Forward bias occurs when the anode is positive with respect
to the cathode, and electrons flow toward the n side, contrary
to the arrow on the diode symbol, which represents
conventional current flow.
4. Electron flow analysis is used in this book when analyzing
circuits with diodes.
 Reverse-Biased p-n Junction
1. Reverse-biasing a p-n junction involves connecting the negative
terminal of the voltage source to the p-type semiconductor and
the positive terminal to the n-type semiconductor.
2. This setup causes charge carriers in both sections to move away
from the junction, widening the depletion zone.
3. Electrons in the n-type side are attracted away from the junction
towards the positive terminal, while holes in the p-type side are
drawn towards the negative terminal.
4. In Figure 27-9b, the schematic symbol of a diode under reverse
bias is depicted with the voltage source connected as described.
5. Under reverse bias, the diode enters a non-conducting state,
effectively acting as an open switch with infinite resistance.
Reverse-Biased p-n Junction
1. For a silicon p-n junction, the external voltage source must be
at least 0.7 V to neutralize the internal barrier potential and
initiate current flow.
2. A schematic symbol of a forward-biased diode is shown in
Figure 27–8b, with the anode (A) positive relative to the
cathode (K).
3. Forward bias occurs when the anode is positive with respect
to the cathode, and electrons flow toward the n side, contrary
to the arrow on the diode symbol, which represents
conventional current flow.
4. Electron flow analysis is used in this book when analyzing
circuits with diodes.
Leakage current
1. Even in a reverse-biased diode, there is a small amount of current flow known as leakage
current.
2. Leakage current is primarily caused by minority current carriers present in both sections of
the diode.
3. The minority current carriers consist of holes in the n-type side and free electrons in the p-
type side.
4. Thermal energy generates a few electron-hole pairs, leading to the existence of minority
current carriers.
5. Temperature plays a significant role in determining the number of electron-hole pairs
produced, thereby affecting the leakage current.
6. An increase in diode temperature results in higher leakage current.
7. Minority current carriers move in the opposite direction to that provided by forward bias.
Review
1. What is the barrier potential, , for a silicon diode?
2. The p side of a diode is called the (anode/cathode) and the n side is
called the (anode/cathode).
3. To forward-bias a diode, the anode must be (positive/negative) with
respect to its cathode.
4. A reverse-biased diode acts like a(n) (open/closed) switch.
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