CHAP 7: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM necessary for bone growth repair and

nutrition.
SKELETON
also found in the endosteum, which lines
- frameworks of joined bones
the medullary cavity.
- “dead” stonelike appearance of
-deposition is controlled by amount of
bones is due to mineral salts like
strain or pressure on the bone.
calcium phosphate embedded in
heel bone or calcaneum is large as it
inorganic matrix of bone tissue.
receives the weight of body.
FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
osteoclast- bone cells derived from
1. supports and stabilizes surrounding
immune system cells responsible for
tissues. (Muscles, blood, lymphatic
reabsorption of bone.
vessels, nerves, fat and skin)
- and to straighten crooked bone.
2. protects vital organs and vital
osteocytes – mature osteoblasts.
tissues of the body.
microscopic cells forms bones.
3. assists in body movements.
4. manufactures blood cells in process
TYPES OF OSSIFICATION
called hematopoiesis that occurs in
1. intramembranous ossification
bone marrow.
-dense connective tissue are replaced by
5. storage area for mineral salts.
deposits of inorganic calcium salts, thus
associated with:
forming bones.
cartilage
-bones of cranium are formed by this
ligaments
process.
tendons
fontanelle- baby’s skull soft spot.
2. endochondral ossification
GROWTH AND FORMATION OF BONE.
-endo inside chondro cartilage.
- ossification formation of bone.
-cartilage is the environment where bone
- longitudinal growth of bones cont.
cells develop.
until approx. 15 years of age in girls
and 16 in boys.
both types result in compact and
- 21 years, maturation and
cancellous bones.
remodeling of bones.
- cartilage DOESN’T turn to bone but
MAINTAINING BONE
the ENVIRONMENT bone develops.
calcium stored in bone= calcium in blood=
protein matrix- responsible for bone’s
calcium excreted by the kidneys= balance.
‘elasticity’.
endocrine system- controlled proper Ca ion
mineral salts- deposited in protein matrix,
concentration.
responsible for strength of bone.
2 hormones control calcium concentration
in our body:
DEPOSITION OF BONE
calcitonin (produced in thyroid gland)
osteoblasts- spindle-shaped cells develop
- causes calcium to be stored in the
from undifferentiated bone cells called
bones.
osteoprogenitor. forms new bones.
parathormone (produced by parathyroids)
formed beneath fibrovascular membrane
covers a bone called periosteum.
 - calcium released in the trabeculae- meshwork of interconnecting
bloodstream sections of bones creates spongelike
appearance of bones.
spaces filled with bone marrow.
HISTOLOGY OF BONE nutrients exit blood vessels in the marrow
2 types of bone tissue: and pass by diffusion through canaliculi to
compact/dense- osteocyte in lacune.
cancellous/spongy-

The Haversian System of COMPACT BONE

haversian canal also called osteon named
after Clopton Havers an English physician.
- first described it as prominent
feature of compact bone.
- system allows for effective
metabolism of bone cells
surrounded by rings of mineral
BONE MARROW
salts.
red bone marrow – richly supplied with
haversian or central canal surrounded by
blood, stages of bone development is
concentric ring of bones each layer is called
found here.
lamella.
- function is hematopoiesis
lacunae- tiny cavities found between two
(formation of red, white blood cells
lamellae. each containing osteocytes.
and platelets.)
canaliculi- smaller canals that connect
- ribs, vertebrae, sternum and pelvis
lacunae to larger central canals.
bones.
perforating canals or Volkmann’s- runs
yellow bone marrow- connective tissue
horizontally to central canal contains blood
consisting of fat cells.
vessels.
- replace rbm when it’s depleted
tissue fluid circulates all canal and bathe
- found primarily shaft of long bone
osteocyte with O and food and carry away
w/in medullary cavity, central area
CO2 keeping osteocyte healthy.
of bone shaft.

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES BASED ON

SHAPE

CANCELLOUS BONE

Long Bones- length exceed width.
consists of diaphysis/shaft composed of
compact bone.
and metaphysis/flare portion consist of
cancellous bone.
epiphysis/two extremities separated from
metaphysis by epiphyseal/growth line
where longi. growth of bone occurs only at
superior end of bone.
medullary cavity- interior of shaft. filled
with yellow bone marrow.
Ex: obvious- clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna,
femur, tibia, and fibula.
not obvious- metacarpals, metatarsals and
phalanges of fingers and toes.
Short Bones
lack long axis
irregular shape
thin layer of compact tissue over majority
of spongy bone.
Ex: carpal bone of wrist and tarsals of foot.
Flat Bones
thin bones found where there is a need for
extensive attachment or protection for soft
vital parts of body.
usually curved, consist of 2 flat plates of
compact bone tissue.
Ex: sternum, ribs, scapula, parts of pelvic
bones, some bones of skull.
Irregular Bones
peculiar and irregular shape
spongy bone enclosed by thin layers of
compact bones.
Ex: vertebra, ossicles of ears.
Sesamoid Bones
small rounded bones
enclosed in tendon and fascial tissue,
located adjacent to joints.
assist functioning of muscles.
kneecap or patella- largest sesamoid
bones.
BONE MARKINGS
processes- surface projections of a bone.
fossae- surface depression.
- help join bone to another
- provide surface for attachments of
muscles.
- serves as passageway for blood
vessels and nerves.
Processes
1. Spine: any sharp, slender projection such
as the spinous process of a vertebra
2. Condyle (KON-dial): a rounded or
knucklelike prominence usually found at
the point of articulation with another bone
such as the lateral and medial condyles of
the femur
3. Tubercle (TOO-ber-kl): a small round
process like the lesser tubercle of the
humerus
4. Trochlea (TROK-lee-ah): a process
shaped like a pulley as in the trochlea of
the humerus
5. Trochanter (tro-KAN-ter): a very large
projection like the greater and lesser
trochanter of the femur
6. Crest: a narrow ridge of bone like the
iliac crest of the hip bone
7. Line: a less prominent ridge of bone than
a crest.
8. Head: a terminal enlargement like the
head of the humerus and the head of the
femur
9. Neck: that part of a bone that connects
the head or terminal enlargement to the
rest of the bone, like the neck of the femur
Fosses
1. Suture: a narrow junction often found
between two bones like the sutures of the
skull bones
2. Foramen: an opening through which
blood vessels, nerves, and ligaments pass
like the foramen magnum of the occipital
bone of the skull or the obturator foramen
of the pelvic bone
3. Meatus or canal: a long tube-like
passage, like the auditory meatus or canal
4. Sinus or antrum: a cavity within a bone
like the nasal sinuses or frontal sinus
5. Sulcus: a furrow or groove like the
intertubercular sulcus or groove of the
humerus
DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETON
has 206 named bones.
axial part- skull (28 bones inc. the cranial
and facial bones.) hyoid bone and the
vertebrae.
appendicular part- upper extremities of
arms (64 bones inc. shoulder girdle bones.)
and lower extremities/legs. (62 bones, inc.
bones of pelvic girdle.)
The AXIAL SKELETON
skull- cranial and facial bones.
Cranial Bones
sutures- immovable junction lines that
unites all the individual bones.
frontal bone- forehead, roof of nasal cavity
and orbits- bony sockets of the eye.
important bone markings:
orbital margin- ridge above orbit,
eyebrows are found.
supraorbital ridge- middle of forehead
coronal suture- where frontal bone joins
two parietal bones.
parietal bones - joined at the sagittal
suture in midline.
occipital bone- back and base of the
cranium joins parietal bones at the
lambdoid suture.
foramen magnum- large opening in the
inferior portion of the bone, where spinal
cord connects with the brain.
occipital condyle- each lower side of
occipital bone. allows head to connect with
and rest on the vertebrae.
process for articulation with the 2st cervical
vertebra.
external occipital crest and external
occipital protuberance- felt at base of the
neck.
2 temporal bones- form lower sides and
base of cranium.
has 4 parts:
1. squamous portion- largest and
most superior. projecting from its
lower part is zygomatic process
that forms lateral parts of
zygomatic arch or cheek bone.
 2. petrous part- deep base of the
skull where it protects and
supports the inner ear.
3. mastoid part- behind ear, assist in
moving your head.
4. tympanic plate-floor and anterior
wall of the external auditory
meatus.
single sphenoid bone- anterior portion
base of cranium. shaped like a butterfly.
single ethmoid bone-principal supporting
structure of nasal cavities helps form part
of orbits. lightest of cranial bones.
Wormian bones/sutural bones- within the
sutures of cranial bones. not included in
total no. of bones in body.
forms zygomatic arch-frontal process
extends upward to articulate with the
frontal bone and smaller temporal process
joins laterally with the temporal bone.
2 lacrimal bones-part of orbit at inner
angle of the eye.
lateral surface has fossa that holds the
lacrimal sac/tear sac and provides canal for
lacrimal duct.
2 turbinates or nasal conchae bones-thin
and fragile found in each lateral side of
nostril.
1 vomer bone-flat bone makes up lower
posterior portion of nasal septum.
mandible bone-develops in 2 parts.
strongest and longest bone of the face.
each ramus has condyle for articulation
with the mandibular fossa of the temporal
bone, allowing wide range of movement.

The FACIAL BONES

- united by immovable sutures
except lower jawbone or The ORBITS
mandible. two deep cavities in the upper portion of
2 nasal bones-thin and delicate joins in a face that protects the eyes.
suture to form bridge of the nose.
2 maxillary bones-upper jaw.
each bone consists of 5 parts:
body-forms part of floor and outer wall of
nasal cavity, greater floor of orbit, anterior
The NASAL CAVITIES
face below temple.
framework of nose surrounding the two
zygomatic process-participate in formation
nasal fossae located in the middle of face
of cheek.
bet. hard palate inferiorly and the frontal
frontal process-extends upward to frontal
bone superiorly.
bone or forehead.
palatine process-anterior portion of roof of
the mouth.
alveolar process-bears teeth of upper jaw.
each tooth is embedded in an alveolus or
socket.
2 zygomatic bones-known as the malar
bones, form prominence of cheek.

The FORAMINA of the SKULL
foramen magnum-largest foramen of the
skull.
smaller foramina-passageways for blood
vessels and nerves entering and exiting the
various organs of the skull.
The HYOID BONE
single hyoid bone-unique component of
axial skeleton because it has no articulation
with other bones.
shaped like a horseshoe consisting of
central body w/ two lateral projections.
greater cornu-larger projections
lesser cornu-smaller lateral projections.
acts as a support for tongue.
helps elevate the larynx during swallowing
and speech.
How to Study the BONES OF THE SKULL
the older the skull the less obvious the
sutures.
The TORSO or TRUNK
sternum, ribs, and vertebrae make up the
trunk of the axial skeleton.
vertebrae-rigid, provide support for the
body, the fibrocartilaginous disk between
vertebrae allows for ‘flexibility’
spinal column-formed from a series of 26
irregular bones called vertebrae, cushioned
and separated by interverbal disk of
cartilage.
typical vertebra parts:
body-thick disk-shaped anterior portion
with numerous small holes for nerves and
blood vessels that nurture the bone.
neural arch-encloses space
neural/vertebral foramen-passage of the
spinal cord.
arch has three passes for muscle
attachment:
spinous process-quite large on the thoracic
vertebrae, directed backward.
transverse processes-one on each side of
the vertebra.
articular processes
vertebra above 2 superior articular
processes and below two inferior articular
processes.
vertebral arch 2 portions: lumbar vertebrae
pedicles- passage of nerves to and from - largest and the strongest. modifies
spinal cord for attachment of back muscles.
laminae-forms posterior wall of the sacrum-triangular and slightly curved bone.
vertebral column. coccyx-can move slightly to increase the
size of birth canal during delivery in the
vertebral column: female.
7 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
5 sacral vertebrae become fused by adult
life and form single sacrum
4 coccygeal vertebrae unite to form coccyx
or tailbone.
odontoid process-axis of motion pivot
point on 2nd cervical vertebrae, permits us
to turn our head.
cervical vertebrae smallest vertebrae.
1.) atlas-supports the head by
articulation w/ the condyles of the
occipital bone.
2.) axis- acts as pivot on w/c atlas and
head rotate. The THORAX
made up of:
sternum, costal cartilages, ribs, and bodies
of the thoracic vertebrae.
supports:
shoulder girdle and bones of upper
extremities.
enclosed and protect heart and lungs.

thoracic vertebrae two distinguishing
characteristics:
1.) long spinous process pointing
downward and six facets
2.) three on each side for articulation
with a rib.
The STERNUM
also known as breastbone.
three parts:
manubrium- articulates w/ the clavicle.
resembles handle of sword.
gladiolus- resembles blade of sword
xiphoid process- where diaphragm and
rectus abdominis muscles attach.
terminal portion of sternum
bone landmark for CPR

The RIBS
costae-refers to the 12 pairs of ribs that are
named after their anterior attachments.
upper seven true ribs-articulate directly
with the sternum
lower five pairs false ribs- also called
floating ribs 11th and 12th ribs because they
have no cartilage and do not attach at all
anteriorly.
all ribs attach posteriorly to the thoracic
vertebrae.
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The BONES of the UPPER EXTREMITIES
- includes shoulder girdle, arm,
forearm, wrist, the hand, and the
fingers.
scapula- shoulder blade
permit the attachment of muscles that
assist in arm movement and serve as a
place for the attachment of the arms
two prominent bony projections:
coracoid process-attachment for muscles
that move the arm.
glenoid fossa-helps form the shoulder
joint. receives the head of the humerus.
humerus-largest and longest bone of the
upper arm.
ulna- longer, medial bone of forearm
proximal end is the
olecranon process/elbow. funny bone.
radius- shorter lateral bone of forearm.
carpals-bones of the wrist. (8)
proximal row, from medial to lateral:
pisiform
triquetral
lunate
scaphoid/also known as navicular.
distal row from medial to lateral:
hamate
capitate
trapezoid/lesser
trapezium/greater mulitangular.
palm made up of 5 metacarpal bones.
- small long bones with base, shaft
and head. radiate out from wrist
bones.
- each articulate with a proximal
phalanx of a finger.
each fingers have proximal, middle, and
terminal/distal phalanx EXCEPT the thumb
has only proximal and distal.

The BONES of LOWER EXTREMITIES
- inc. pelvic girdle, thigh, kneecap,
shin, calf, ankle bones, foot and
toes.
pelvic girdle- made up of two hip or coxal
bones articulate with one another at pubic
symphysis. posteriorly, articulate at
sacrum. ring of bones is pelvis.
hip/coxal bone
each hipbone is consisted of three fused
parts:
ilium- uppermost and largest portion of
hipbone.
ischium-strongest portion of a hipbone and
is directed slightly posteriorly. has the
rounded and thick ischial tuberosity, w/c
we sit on.
pubis-superior and slightly anterior to the
ischium.
obturator foramen-bet. pubis and ischium,
largest foramen/opening in the body,
allows passage of nerves, blood vessels and
nerves.
acetabulum-deep socket above obturator.
three parts of pelvic bone meet and unite
here. receives head of femur to help form
hip joint.
femur-or thigh, largest and heaviest bone
of the body. articulates distally w/ tibia.

patella-kneecap, largest of the sesamoid
bones. enveloped with tendon of
quadriceps femoris muscle.
tibia-shinbone larger of the two bones
forming the lower leg.
rounded condyles of femur rest on flat
condyle at the proximal end of the tibia.
fibula- calf bone. most slender bone of the
body. attaches to the proximal end of tibia
via its head.
tarsal bones- bones of the ankle. tarsal
bones of hindfoot are
calcaneus/calcaneum, largest of tarsal
bone and forms heel.
talus- ankle bone.
navicular and the cuboid.
tarsal bones of the forefoot:
medial I
intermediate II
lateral III cuneiforms.
5 metatarsals and phalanges (toes-long
bones) rest of the forefoot bones.
The ARCHES OF THE FOOT
two longitudinal arches:
medial longitudinal arch- is formed by
calcaneus, talus, navicular, the three
cuneiforms and the three metatarsals.
- highest arch of the foot.
lateral longitudinal arch- much lower and
is formed by calcaneus, cuboid, two lateral
metatarsals.
transverse arch- perpendicular to longi
arches and most pronounced at the base of
the metatarsals.
pes planus /flatfoot indicates a decreased
height of the longitudinal arches.

DISORDERS OF THE SPINE
kyphosis-hunchback posterior curvature of
spine is accentuated in upper thoracic
region.
- also caused by tuberculosis of
spine, osteomalacia or rickets.
lordosis-swayback abnormal accentuated
lumbar curvature.
- can also result from rickets or
spinal tuberculosis.
- temporary lordosis is common in
man with potbellies and pregnant
woman.
scoliosis- twisted condition. muscle
paralysis on one side of body. lower limbs
of unequal length.
DISORDERS
osteoporosis- decrease in bone mass with
increased susceptibility in bone fractures.
- results from decreased levels of
estrogens.
- estrogens help maintain bone
tissue by stimulating osteoblasts.
PAGET’s disease- nonmetabolic disease,
cause is unknown.
usually affects middle-aged and elderly
individuals.
- irregular thickening and softening
of bones.
- excessive bone destruction and
unorganized bone repair.
areas affected:
skull, pelvis, limbs.
gigantism- excessive endochondral
ossification at the epiphyseal plates of long
bones.
- abnormally large limbs,
dwarfism- inadequate ossification at the
epiphyseal plates of long bones.
- abnormally small.
spina bifida- congenital defect in the dev’t
of the posterior vertebral arch, where
laminae do not unite at midline.
- common disorder
- complete absence of laminae,
causing contents of spinal canal to
protrude posteriorly.
herniated disk- rupture of the
fibrocartilage surrounding an intervertebral
disk.
- occurs most often in lumbar region
and is also known as slipped disk.
cleft palate and cleft lip
more common in females, palatine
processes of maxillary bones do not fuse
properly, resulting in an opening bet. oral
and nasal cavities.
cleft lip more common in males. when
maxillary bones do not form normally.
black eye- blow to the supraorbital ridge.
deviated septum- nasal septum shift to the
left.
sinusitis- inflammation of one or more of
the paranasal sinuses.
- caused by infection, allergic
reactions, changes in atmospheric
pressure.
whiplash- affects cervical vertebrae and
assoc. muscles and ligaments.
- caused by violent back-and forth
movement of the neck.
acromegaly- chronic condition caused by
overactivity of the anterior pituitary
- results in excessive growth
hormone.
- widening and thickening of the
bones of the hands, face and jaws
and feet.
- developing complications overtime
includes heart disease,
hypertension, excess blood sugar.
fractured clavicle- most commonly broken
bone.
CAREER:
athletic trainers- provide guidance.
chiropractors
prosthetists
orthopedists
orthotists- make braces
paramedics and emergency medical
technicians
Acromial process
bony prominence on the scapula Neck
Acetabulum the part of a bone that connects the head
deep socket on lateral side of hipbone just or terminal enlargement to the rest of a
above the obturator foramen. long bone
Alveolus Osteoclasts
socket for articulation w/ a tooth bone cells present in almost all cavities of
Auditory Ossicles bone responsible for reabsorbing bone
another name for ear bones during remodeling
Capitate Suture
one of the bones of the wrist articulation in which the bones are united
Cervical Vertebrae by a thin layer of fibrous tissue
7 smallest vertebrae found in the neck. Trabeculae
Condyle fibrous connective tissue; extension of the
rounded prominence found at the point of capsule of a lymph node
articulation w/ another bone. Trochanter
Coronal suture very large projection on a bone
frontal bone joins two parietal bones Trochlea
Crest process shaped like a pulley on a bone
narrow ridge of bone Tubercle
External occipital crest small round process on a bone
a projection of the occipital bone for Sulcus
muscle attachment groove/furrow in a bone.
External occipital protuberance
a projection of the occipital bone for
muscle attachment
Foramen magnum
inferior portion of the occipital bone
through which the spinal cord connects
with the brain
Stapes
ear bone referred to as the stirrup
Incus
ear bone referred to as the anvil
Malleus
ear bone referred to as the hammer
Mastoid portion of temporal bone
located behind and below the auditory
meatus or opening of the ear; part of the
temporal bone
Line
a less prominent ridge of bone than a crest