Agiculture Notes

MODULE 1 - TRENDS IN AGRICULTURE
HUNTING AND GATHERING
- involved the hunting of wild animals and collection of wild fruits, insects, roots, vegetables, medicinal herbs
- they lived a nomadic life in search of food
- food was acquired by chance
- studied behaviour of animals and plants
- family members were all involved in food procurement
- disputes over hunting grounds
- rivalry between hunting groups
Impacts of Hunting and gathering on the environment
- limited human population growth

- destruction of the ecosystem
- extinction or depletion of animal species and plants
- ecological imbalance/loss of biodiversity
DOMESTICATION
- marked the beginning of food production

- food was produced near home
- hunting and gathering was abandoned
- wild cereals, goats , sheep, cattle, horses were domesticated
- people still lived a nomadic
- formation of farming communities
Impacts of Domestication on the environment
- increase in animal and plants species

- imbalance in the ecosystem
- overgrazing due overstocking
Why domesticate animals and plants
- to produce food near home

- to avoid long hunting and gathering distances
- to avoid dispute and rivalry over hunting ground
- reduction in plant and animal species
- extinction of some animal and plant species
- acquire continuous supply of food
SHIFTING CULTIVATION
- land was cleared and crops raised until the land lost all nutrients the move to a new place
- the land that was left (fallowed) was allowed to regain its fertility
- farming location moved from one place to another ( nomadic)
- food produced was for family consumption only
Impacts of shifting cultivation on the environment
- lead to deforestation due to cleared land for crops

- encouraged soil erosion as the land was left bare without cover
- up build and spread of plant pests and diseases was encouraged
- introduction and dispersal of plants and animals to new places
- loss of soil fertility as the land was continuously cropped until it had lost all nutrients
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Prepared and Complied by Nsiiwa – SPSS 2018
SETTLED AGRICULTURE
- shift cultivation gave way to settled Agriculture

- crops and animals were raised on the same for many years
- food was produced for family consumption (subsistence)
- improved technology was used for agricultural production
- food production increased paving way for commercial farming
Impacts of Settled Agriculture on the environment
- overstocking leading to overgrazing of land

- up-build of pests, parasites and diseases
- deforestation as large areas were cleared for crop production
- destruction of some animal habitat
- extinction of some plant species as plants were cut down
COMMERCIAL FARMING
- food production is for the market ( for sale)

- farming was undertaken as business ( market orientated)
- large scale production with high input rate
- it could be arable/livestock/ mixed farming
- high capital investment with good management and skilled personnel
- less people were hired in Agricultural industry freeing more people to venture into other economic activities and
services
Impacts of Commercial farming on the environment
- extinction of some animal/plant species due to loss of habitat

- loss of habitat for some animals as plants are cut down
- soil erosion due to vast land clearance which is left bare
- pollution (air & water) due to high use of agro-chemicals
- depletion of ground water as water is used to water plants and animals
- imbalance in the ecosystem
- eutrophication in rivers/surface water sources due to excessive us of fertilizers
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT AND ANIMAL GROWTH
These include temperature, wind, humidity, frost, rainfall and light
Humidity – is the percentage moisture content of the air.
Effect of humidity on animals and plants Modification

- high humidity encourage fungal diseases - Use extractor fans in the green houses
- high humidity promotes rooting in cuttings - Practice proper spacing and pruning to reduce humidity
Plants
- high humidity increases pathogens and pest population - Use humidifiers in the green houses to increase humidity
- low humidity coupled with high temperature causes extreme wilting in - Use fog & mist forming systems in crop structures to
plants increase humidity
- high humidity delays drying of crops - Artificial drying of crop produce
- high humidity reduces rate of evapo-transpiration & vice versa - Sprinkler irrigation to increase humidity in field of crops
- high humidity coupled with high temperatures increases heat stress in - use of extractor fans in animal houses
animals - ensure enough ventilation for animal houses
- high humidity causes poor feathering in chicks - proper stocking rate in animal houses
Animals
- high humidity encourage cannibalism in chickens

- low humidity causes irritation of the mucous membrane
- optimum humidity encourage hatching of eggs
- high humidity cause an increase in pathogens and parasites
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Rainfall – this involves the duration and intensity of the rain
Effect of rain fall on animals and plants Modification

- low rain fall causes poor growth, development and yields in crops - Irrigation of crops when rainfall is not enough
- High rain fall may result in floods that are destructive to crops and causes - Mulching of the soil to prevent capping, soil
Plants
erosion compaction and erosion

- Water-borne diseases and pest can be spread through rain water - When drainage is a problem use raised seedbeds or
- Rain cools soil and plants, and increases humidity subsurface drainage
- Promotes growth of weeds and crops - Rain harvesting to use in dry seasons
- Too much rain leads to high occurrence of fungal diseases - Use drought resistant crop varieties
- Determines the availability of animal fodder - provide suitable livestock housing
- Heavy rainfall may cause floods which may kill animals - raising drought resistant breeds
Animals
- Spread of parasites and diseases can be done through rain water - conserve fodder to use in dry seasons
- Heavy rains may cause death of young animals
- Low rains may cause poor animal condition, production and death in extreme
cases of drought.
Temperature: the degree of how cold or hot the weather condition is.
Effect of temperature on animals and plants Modification

- Extreme temperatures reduce crop yields - Provide mulch to reduce Evapo-transpiration
- High temperatures delay flower bud development - Provide shade to plants
- Warm temperature favour outbreak of crop pests and diseases - Use of greenhouse for plants
Plants
- High temperatures coupled with low humidity cause extreme wilting of - Irrigate plants
plant and or death
- Evapo-transpiration increases with temperature increase which leads to
wilting of plants
- Extreme temperatures cause low production in animals - Erect shelter for animals
- Warm temperatures encourage outbreak of parasites and diseases - Provide shade
Animals
- High temperature inhibits animal growth - Use of well adapted livestock breeds
- High temperature food intake and increase water intake in livestock - Provide warmth for young stock to prevent them from
chilling
Wind –movement of mass of air, at high or low velocity (speed)
Effect of wind on animals and plants Modification

- Wind increases the rate of transpiration - Provide mulch to reduce erosion
- Wind spreads windborne diseases and pests - Establish wind breaks to reduce wind speeds and
- Wind pollinates flowers and disperses seeds destructive effect.
Plants
- Strong winds causes flower and fruit falling - Use of greenhouse for plants
- Strong winds cause plants lodging (fall over) and destruction of trees - Maintain vegetative cover over soil to prevent erosion
- Wind drifts chemical sprays beyond target areas
- Strong winds spread wind borne pathogens and parasites - Establish wind breaks to reduce wind speeds and
- Strong winds can destroy livestock houses destructive effect.
- Wind causes draughty conditions for animals - Provide suitable livestock housing
Animals
- Rain- bearing winds bring rain to a given area - Provide livestock houses with eaves to prevent wind
- Reasonable wind speed ensures effective natural ventilation in livestock driven rain from entering
houses
Frost – these are extreme temperature beyond 0oC
Effect of frost on animals and plants Modification

- Frost kills sensitive plants - Water plants early in the morning not in the evenings
- Plant growth is reduced - Raise crops in green houses
- Microbial activities in the soil is reduced - Cover plants during the night
Plants
- Frost sensitive pathogens and pests are killed - Plant frost resistant varieties of crops
- Water and nutrients uptake is reduced - Use hotbeds for seedlings
- Make fires in the orchards
- Frost sensitive animals are killed especially the young ones - Raise frost resistant animals
- Rate of growth in animals is reduced - Provide suitable livestock housing
Animals
- Food intake is increased to provide energy for warm and water

intake reduces
- Performance and production is reduced
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Light
Effect of light on animals and plants Modification

- Is required for photosynthesis in green plants - Shading crops that do not require intense light and
- Essential for chlorophyll formation and other pigments in plants reduce sun-scorch
- Inadequate light causes etiolating in plants - Pruning plants to increase light penetration
Plants
- Lettuce and tobacco seeds need light for germination but far-red light - Spacing of crops regulates light reaching the crops
inhibits germination - Mulching to reduce solar radiation reaching the
- Strong sunshine causes sun scorch to sensitive plants soil
- Has a disinfecting effect on animal and animal housing - Use livestock building to reduce effect of light
- Essential for Vitamin D manufacture - artificial lighting
Animals
- Discolours white coated rabbits and fades coloured coats of rabbits

- Ultraviolet rays cause skin burn in animals
- Affects availability of animal fodder
Photo period: this is the daily cycle of light and darkness
Effect of photoperiod on animals and plants Modification

- Affects flowering in plants - artificial lighting in the green houses
- Affects tuberization in tuber forming plants - light proof covers can be pulled over crops to
Plants
- Affects bulbing in plants (onion) reduce day length

- Long day accelerates plant growth especially in seedlings - use of photoperiod insensitive varieties
- Long photoperiods increase egg laying rate in layers - Use of suitable livestock housing
Animals
- Photoperiod affects breeding time in some animals e.g. sheep and twinning
in sheep
- Photoperiod affect migration, hibernation and aestivation of animals
Photoperiodism
Photoperiodism is the influence of daily cycle of light and darkness on the physiology and behaviour of plants and animals.
Short-day plants- plants that need a day length less than a critical number of hours to flower e.g. pineapple, tobacco, sweet-
potato, okra etc.
Long-day plants- plants that need a day length greater than a critical number of hours to flower e.g. potato, onion, lettuce,
spinach, groundnut etc.
Day-neutral plants – plants that are insensitive to day length for them to flower e.g. maize, tomato, cotton, French beans etc.
HYDROLOGIC (WATER) CYCLE
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Water cycle is solar driven cycle of Evapo-transpiration, condensation, precipitation and run-off.
Water is lost from the earth’s surface as water vapour through evaporation from the soil surface, surface water sources and
plant surfaces. Plants absorb water from the ground and lose it through leaves by transpiration, man and animals through
perspiration and breathing. Decaying materials also loses water as they rot.
Water vapour rise into the atmosphere and when it reaches the condensation level it cools down and condenses to form clouds.
As water cools clouds become heavy and releases water to the earth’s surface in liquid or solid form; that is, in the form of
rain, snow, hailstorm and or fog. This is called precipitation. Some water evaporates before it reaches the earth’s surface and
much of the water that reaches the earth’s surface quickly evaporates.
Water infiltrates the ground surface, seeps and percolates down to form soil water and recharge underground water sources.
When the soil becomes saturated with water; water starts to flow over land into rivers, lakes and other surface water sources.
This is called water run-off.
Water is then lost again from surface water source, soil, plants and animals starting the cycle once again.
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PRINCIPLES OF LAND USE
Land Tenure
The way land is owned, held, the rights and duties arising from its use.
Or
The ownership of land, rights and obligations governing its use
Communal land tenure
- Land owned by the whole community and all eligible members have rights of land utilization
- Found in rural areas and covers 71% of Botswana by area
- Allocation is done by land boards with authority from the Tribal Land Act of 1968
- Land not allocated to any member is collectively used
- Amenities like dams, boreholes are shared amongst community members
- The land rights are inheritable and very secure
- Allocated land can be fenced to exclude other people (Owners have exclusive rights over land)
Advantages
- Cost of production is low since amenities on land are shared

- Land rights are inheritable (can be transferred to the next of kin)
- Eligible people have an easy and free access to the land
- State can be granted land ownership for public use
- Land right do not elapse with passage of time
Disadvantages
- Land cannot be sold or bought

- Promotes land degradation in communal grazing lands
- Land cannot be used as security to obtain loans
- Lack of rangeland improvement and management strategies
- Land my lay idle when allocated to farmers not interested in farming
Leasehold
Leasehold is the ownership of land by a tenant for a given period of time at a stated rent over mutual agreeable terms between
the tenant and landlord.
Leasehold under communal land tenure
- 50 years common law lease for over 6400haTGLP ranches.

o Has right of inheritance and fencing for exclusivity
o Annual rent is paid to the land board
- 15 years common law lease for commercial farming on arable land
o Annual rent is paid per hectare per year
- 99 years common law lease on for residential purposes for citizens only
o If the lease is not renewed the land goes back to its customary residential allocation
State land
- Land is owned by the state (government)

- Land is administered through Department of Surveys and Lands
- Covers 23% of Botswana by area
- Found in areas like national parks and game reserves, forest reserves, urban centers, residential plots etc.
Advantages
- Ensures equitable land distribution to the citizens

- Ensures availability of land for industrial, commercial and urban development
- Ensures orderly urban centers development
- Land tenure can be converted to other forms tenure system
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Disadvantages
- Takes long for land allocation and resolution of land disputes

- When subsidies are given to farmers land leased may not reflect true market value of land
- Government policies may hinder optimum yields for economic benefits
- In corrupt governments the land may be mainly owned by the few rich and powerful individuals
Leasehold under state land
- Government leases land for residential, commercial and industrial purposes under Deed of fixed period of state grant and
the certificate of rights
Deed of fixed period of state grant
- Lease renewal application should be done 15 years before expiry date

- 99years for residential land and
- 50 years for commercial and industrial purposes
- upon lease expiry if not renewed the land goes back to the state without compensation for developments made on it
- Rent is paid once for the lease lifetime
Certificate of right
- Can be converted to FPSG

- Ownership of land is with the state bur land holders have the right to use it
- Provides security of tenure to urban squatters and poor members of urban populace e.g. through SHHA- self-help housing
agency
- Owners pay a levy / rent to the city council
Free hold land tenure
- Land is privately owned by individuals or organizations (churches, person, company, etc)

- Exclusive rights over land use and disposal
- Covers 6% of Botswana by area.
- E.g. Tuli block, Tati, etc.
- Title deed under this tenure does not elapse with time
Advantages
- Land can be sold or bought

- Land can be acquired by both the citizens and non-citizens
- State can purchase and use land for any purpose of national interest
- Land can be used as security to obtain loans
- Freely transferable and inheritable
Disadvantages
- Tenants may be exploited through rent by land lords

- If land control act is not enforced the land may easily be in the hands of non-citizens
- Valuable land for agriculture may lie idle if the owner so wishes
- High capital investment
Leasehold under freehold land
- Land is rented out on mutual agreeable terms and conditions of lease agreement
- Land rights and obligations are clearly spelt out in the agreement
- Written and witnessed agreements are preferable
- Lessee pays an annual rent for land use
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USDA LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION
Land is internationally classified according to its ability to support Agricultural activities by the United State Department of
Agriculture. The classes are eight and must be written in capital roman figures.
Class Characteristics Uses

- has a slope of <2% - for crop production (arable farming)
I - deep soil
- well aerated & well drained
- good texture & water holding capacity
- has a slope of 2-5% - for crop production (arable farming)
- moderate aeration
II - possible danger of erosion
- has shallow soil depth
- restricted drainage
- has a slope of 5-8% - suitable for arable farming with good soil management
- low fertility - intensive grazing (rangelands and pastures)
III - high danger of erosion - wildlife and forestry
- saline soils
- restricted root zone
- steep slopes of 8-12% - pastures and range
- poorly drained - wildlife production
IV - poorly aerated - woodland
- very severe erosion susceptibility
- severely saline
- wet lands - rice cultivation
- swampy areas - vegetables grown raised seedbeds
V - frequent stream overflows - crocodile & fish farming
- swamps close to rivers
- very steep slopes of 12-20% - for pastures/ grazing
- very severe past erosion - for woodlands
VI - rock out crops present - for forestry
- very shallow soils - for wildlife production
- poorly drained
- steep slopes of >20% - tree planting
- very shallow soils - for woodland
VII - rock out crops - for wildlife
- used for grazing or pastures
- sandy beach and river marsh - for recreation
VIII - rocky out crop present - for wildlife
- shallow infertile soil - for aesthetic purpose
- very steep slope >30%
AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY
It is the use of scientific knowledge to improve agriculture methods and production
Examples of agricultural technology in Botswana
- new sorghum varieties of crop seeds e.g. mahube and hybrids

- release of short season cowpeas variety ER7 and mug bean variety
- products recommendations on Pest control methods
- new livestock breeds suitable for Botswana - MUSI
- agricultural equipment suitable for Botswana e.g. Sebele planter, RIIC two-row planter, Makgonatsotlhe tool carrier
etc
USE OF FARMING SYSTEM AS A TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER APPROACH
Stage 1: station based research
- problems from farmers are collected and new technology is developed to try solve them
- the possible solutions are identified, designed, screened and evaluated
- The new developed technology is then tested on small scale at the research station. This could be a new resistant
variety field tests/trials done at the station (DAR or RIIC) or testing the developed/designed/modified implement
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Stage 2: on-farm research
- developed technology is tested on selected farmers’ fields

- farmers are allowed occasional visits to see how the new technology is performing
Stage 3: dissemination and monitoring of new technology adoption by farmer
- Vigorous advertisement of the technology through media (Television, newspapers, magazines, etc.)
- the developed technology is duplicated and made available to interested farmers
- the technology is then distributed through agricultural demonstrators and extension workers
- agricultural demonstrators teach farmers about the technology through workshops, focus groups and field
demonstrations
- the developed technology is distributed to the interested farmers
- it may be given at full price or at reduced price (subsidized price)
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MODULE 2 - PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH
Conditions Necessary for Plant Growth
a) Suitable temperature – for rapid metabolic processes/respiration/photosynthesis/enzymatic activity

b) Sunlight – for photosynthesis
c) Water/ moisture – for photosynthesis/dissolution of mineral ions/salts
d) Air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) – oxygen for respiration and carbon-dioxide for photosynthesis
e) Mineral salts (nutrients) – for formation of organic substances like proteins, amino acids, etc.
f) Genetic factors – for growth, resistance to pests & diseases, production and reproduction capacity
The Root
Types of roots
 tap root – has primary root growing vertically downwards and secondary roots branching laterally from it e.g. in
beans
 fibrous roots – has a mass of roots growing from the same point and may have lateral roots growing from them
e.g. in maize
 adventitious roots – mass of roots growing directly from the stem
Functions of the root
- hold/ support/ anchor the plant firmly in the soil

- absorb water and mineral salt from the soil
- store food in some crops e.g. sweet potatoes
- helps retain moisture in the soil
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A ROOT
Part Description Functions

Root hairs - microscopic epidermal cell projections - increases surface area for water and nutrients absorption
Epidermis - single cell thick outermost layer made of thin walled - protects inner parts of a root
cells - produces root hairs
- absorption of water and nutrients
Cortex - made of loosely packed thin walled parenchyma cells - storage of food and water
Endodermis - inner most part of the cortex - controls amount of water entering the vascular bundles
- has casparian strip on radial and cross walls - stores food
Pericycle - a row of cells around the vascular bundles - gives rise to lateral roots
Cambium - meristematic tissue found between phloem and the - gives rise to secondary phloem and xylem
xylem - results in increased root thickness
Phloem - consist of sieve tubes, companion cells and packing - translocates food substances from the leaves to other parts
tissue of parenchyma cells of the plant
Xylem - consist of xylem vessels, trachids (pits), xylem fibres - transports water and mineral salts
and parenchyma cells between vessels - supports and strengthen stem tissue
Pith - in some stems pith is hollow - storage of food and water
- made of parenchyma cells and found central most part
of the root
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INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A STEM
Part Description Functions

- single cell thick outermost layer made of thin walled - protects inner tissues from drying, infections and
Epidermis cells with wax (cuticle) covering the outer walls of mechanical damage
those cells - gaseous exchange in young stems
- has guard cells and stomata in young stem
- made of loosely packed thin walled parenchyma cells - storage of food and water
Cortex - strengthen stem tissues of young cells
- chlorenchyma cells photosynthesis
inner most part of the cortex made of packed - stores food (starch)
Endodermis parenchyma cells
Pericycle - a row of cells around the vascular bundles - gives rise to branches
- meristematic tissue found between phloem and the - gives rise to secondary phloem and xylem
Cambium xylem - results in increased stem thickness
- consist of sieve tubes, companion cells and packing - translocates food substances from the leaves to other parts
Phloem tissue of parenchyma cells of the plant
- consist of xylem vessels, tracheids (pits), xylem fibres - transports water and mineral salts
Xylem and parenchyma cells between vessels - supports and strengthen stem tissue
- in some stems pith is hollow - storage of food and water

Pith - made of parenchyma cells and found central most
part of the root
LONGITUDINALSECTION OF A ROOT
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Part Structure description Function
Root cap located at the terminal point of the root tip - protects apical meristem
made of simple parenchyma cells - lubricates meristemic passage through the soil
- controls root growth direction as it perceives gravity
Region of cell division Composed of young cells that are capable of - gives rise to many new cells
(apical meristem) dividing - adds cells to replenish the root cap
- add cells to the region of cell elongation
Region of cell Found 3mm from the root cap Cells lengthen and increase in size this pushes the root
elongation through the soil
Region of cell - located 1 cm from the root tip - forms different internal root tissues e.g. phloem, xylem,
differentiation - has dense growth of root hairs cortex etc
Comparison between xylem and phloem
Xylem Phloem
Transports water and mineral salts Translocates food from leaves to other plant parts
Made of non-living cells Made of living cells
Contents (water & mineral salts) move up the plant Food moves up and down the plant
No cross walls present in the xylem vessels Perforated cross walls present
Have tracheids, vessel elements and xylem parenchyma cells Has companion cells, sieve tubes and phloem parenchyma cells
Forms a star shape in a dicot root Does not form a star shape
Lignified Has no lignin
Comparison between monocot and dicot stem
Monocotyledon Dicotyledonous
A large number of vascular bundles A limited number of vascular bundles
Scattered vascular bundles on the ground tissue Concentrically arranged vascular bundles
No cambium between the xylem and phloem Cambium exists between phloem and xylem
No secondary stem thickening Secondary thickening can occur
No formation of annual rings Annual rings are formed due to secondary thickening
No distinction between phloem and xylem Cortex and pith can be clearly distinguished
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF
Part Description Function

Cuticle - thin waxy transparent water-proof non-cellular layer on - prevents excessive water loss
the upper and lower leave surface - prevents entry of pathogens
- protects inner leave tissues from mechanical damage
Epidermis - one cell thick tissue on the upper and lower leaf surface - helps maintain leaf shape
(upper and lower with cells arranged end to end - protects inner tissues
epidermis) - contains no chloroplasts - secretes the cuticle
- lower epidermis has stomata
Palisade mesophyll - made of closely packed cylindrically shaped cells - serves as a site for photosynthesis
/palisade layer containing many chloroplasts - chloroplasts absorb light energy
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Spongy mesophyll - made of loosely packed irregularly shaped cells with air - gaseous exchange between leave tissue and the
/spongy layer spaces between them atmosphere
- contain fewer chloroplasts than the palisade layer - site for photosynthesis
Chloroplasts - disc shaped organelles found in the palisade, spongy and - absorbs sunlight energy
guard cell cytoplasm - serves as an exact site for photosynthesis
Air space - inter cellular spaces found in the spongy mesophyll - for gaseous exchange
Stomata - perforations found mostly in the lower epidermis - allows gaseous exchange between the leave and the
atmosphere
Guard cell - bean shaped epidermal cells containing chloroplasts - regulate opening and closing of stomata
- inner walls are thicker than the outer walls - aids in gaseous exchange
- controls water loss from the leave
Xylem - transports water and mineral salts to the leave
Phloem - translocate food from the leave to other part of the plant
NB palisade layer is made of a group of palisade cells and spongy layer is made of a group of spongy cells
MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO, IN AND OUT OF THE PLANT
Active transport
Movement of mineral salts from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration through the expenditure
of energy
Absorption of minerals in plants
- mineral salts are absorbed through active transport

- root hair sap is more concentrated in solutes than the soil solution and through energy expenditure mineral ions
are absorbed against concentration gradient
- once inside the root hairs the mineral ions move from cell to cell by diffusion until they reach the xylem vessels
- they then move up the plant by root pressure and suction effect of the transpiration stream
- they then move from the xylem to the leaf tissue through diffusion
- carriers which combine with mineral ions and move back and forth conveying mineral ions across plasma
membrane from the soil solution into the root hair cells
Osmosis
- the movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration through a
selectively-permeable membrane
NB: Factors affecting osmosis are temperature, water potential and concentration of the substances
Movement of water into and in the plant
- the soil solution is less concentrated than the root-hair sap causing the water to enter the root hair cell by osmosis
- the root hair cell will have high water potential than subsequent cortex cells this causes water to move from cell to
cell (epidermis- cortex-endodermis-xylem)
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- this continues until water reaches the xylem
- water then moves up the plant by the root pressure and suction effect of the transpiration stream to reach the leaves
- water then move from the leave xylem to the leave tissues by osmosis along the concentration gradient
Diffusion
- The movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low along the concentration gradient
until they are evenly distributed
NB: Factors affecting diffusion are temperature, size of molecules and concentration of the substance
Gaseous movement into and out of the plant
Oxygen
During the night
- less or no oxygen is produced because of low rate of photosynthesis

- oxygen utilisation is increased due to high rate of respiration
- this causes a lower concentration of oxygen inside the leaf than outside (atmosphere)
- oxygen will then diffuse from the atmosphere through the stomata into the leaf
- carbon-dioxide is produced at a great rate because of high rate of respiration
- carbon dioxide utilisation is less due to low rate of photosynthesis
- this causes an up-build of carbon-dioxide leading to higher carbon-dioxide concentration inside the leaf than
outside (atmosphere)
- carbon-dioxide will then diffuse from the leaf through the stomata into the atmosphere
Carbon-dioxide
During the day
- carbon-dioxide is used at a high rate due to high photosynthesis rate and less is produce due to low rate of
respiration
- this causes a low concentration of carbon-dioxide inside the leave than outside (atmosphere) the leaf
- carbon-dioxide will then diffuse from the atmosphere into the leaf through the stomata
- oxygen is produced at a great rate because of high rate of photosynthesis and its utilisation is less due to low rate
of respiration
- this causes an up-build of oxygen leading to higher oxygen concentration inside the leaf than outside
- oxygen will then diffuse from the leaf through the stomata into the atmosphere
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Water vapour
- cell walls of leaf cells are continuously covered by a thin film of water vapour
- this vapour evaporates into the intercellular spaces
- water vapour the diffuses into the atmosphere through the stomata along the concentration gradient
- loss of water from the plants through the leaves is regarded as TRANSPIRATION
NB: stomata closure by guard cells greatly reduces water loss but does not prevent loss of water from the leaves entirely
Translocation
The transportation of soluble organic products of photosynthesis within the plant

OR
Movement of food materials within the phloem tubes from area of manufacture to other parts of the plant for storage or use
Only soluble substances can be translocated but insoluble forms are stored e.g. starch is stored but glucose can be translocated
within the plant.
Movement of food up and down in the phloem is possible at the same time
FOOD MANUFACTURE AND UTILISATION IN PLANTS
Photosynthesis
This is the process by which green plants manufacture (their own food) carbohydrates by combining carbon-dioxide and water
in the presence of sunlight energy absorbed by chlorophyll.
- water is absorbed from the soil by the roots and moves up the plant to reach the leaves through the xylem
- carbon-dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere into the leaf mesophyll
- chloroplasts absorb sunlight energy
- light energy splits water molecule into oxygen and hydrogen atoms
- carbon-dioxide combine with hydrogen atoms and mineral salts to form glucose, fatty acids and amino-acids
- the manufactured food is then translocated by the phloem to other parts of the plant for storage or use
Word equation
sunlight energy
Carbon-dioxide + Water Carbohydrates + Oxygen
Absorbed by chlorophyll
Chemical equation
sunlight energy
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O2 + 6O2
Absorbed by chlorophyll
Utilisation of food in plants
- growth and development - protection against pests and diseases

- respiration to release energy - fruit and seed formation
- storage for future use - tissue and cell formation and maintenance
Respiration
The breaking down of carbohydrates to release energy
OR
The oxidation of carbohydrates to release energy
- this takes place in the mitochondria

- it combines carbohydrates and oxygen to release energy, water and carbon-dioxide
- respiration can be aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) or anaerobic (in the absence of oxygen) or fermentation
- the anaerobic respiration releases ethyl alcohol, carbon-dioxide and energy
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Aerobic respiration equation
Word equation
aerobic
Carbohydrates + Oxygen Carbon-dioxide + Water + Energy
Chemical equation
aerobic
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Anaerobic respiration
Word equation
Glucose enzyme Ethanol + Carbon-dioxide +Energy

Chemical equation
C6H12O6 enzymes 2C2H5OH +2CO2 +Energy
FOOD STORAGE IN PLANTS
- Some plants have specialised food storage organs which acts as reserves for translocated food
- The storage organs usually enlarges
- in favourable conditions the stored food enables the plant to flower and produce seeds
- the food stored acts as reserves for drought periods
Plant Storage Organ Food Material Stored

Irish potato Underground stem tuber Starch
Sweet potato Root tuber Starch
Beetroot Root Sugar/Starch
Carrot Tap root Sugar/Starch
Sugar cane Stem Sugar
Onion Bulb (Fleshy leaves) Sugars
Maize Endosperm of seeds/grain Starch
Peas/ beans Cotyledon of seed Starch/proteins
banana Fruit Sugar/starch
TROPISM: is the unidirectional response of plant/ plant’s part towards an external stimulus
NB: this is by growing towards or away from stimuli
1. Geotropism/gravitropism - The growth response of plants to gravity
- positive geotropism – roots respond by growing towards pull of gravity

 this enables plants’ roots to absorb nutrients and water from the soil
 for plant support/ anchorage
 auxins accumulates on the side of the root towards gravity inhibiting growth on that side
 the side with less auxins will grow more causing a curvature of the root towards gravity
- negative geotropism – the plant’s shoots grow away from the from gravity
 enables shoots of germinating seeds to grow up through soil reach the surface
 enables plants’ leaves to absorb sunlight for photosynthesis
 the auxins will concentrate on the side away from sunlight promoting rapid growth on that side
 the side with less auxins will grow less causing a curvature towards sunlight
2. Phototropism – the response of plants to light
- positive phototropism – shoots respond to light by growing towards light

 auxins accumulates on the side away from the sunlight gravity promoting growth on that side
 the side with less auxins will grow less causing a curvature of the shoot towards sunlight
 this enables plants to receive sunlight for photosynthesis
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- negative phototropism – roots grow away from the light
 this enables plants’ roots to absorb nutrients and water from the soil
 for plant support/ anchorage
 auxins accumulates on the side of the root towards gravity inhibiting growth on that side
 the side with less auxins will grow more causing a curvature of the root towards gravity
3. Hydrotropism – the response of plant roots towards a water source in the soil.
 This enables the roots to absorb water and also mineral salts from the soil.
 auxins accumulates on the side of the root towards water source inhibiting growth on that side
 the side with less auxins will grow more causing a curvature of the root towards water source
4. Haptotropism / thigmotropism – the response of plants to touch.

 This is common with climbers as they have weak stems
 When climbers come in contact with any hard objects they coil around them with the help of tendrils
 Helps plants with weak stem to acquire support and also to reach for sunlight
 auxins accumulates on the side of the branches away from hard object increasing growth on that side
 the side with less auxins will grow more causing a curvature of the branches around the hard objects
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Sexual propagation – the production of new plants from seeds
Asexual propagation – the production of new plants from vegetative parts of a plant
COMPARISON BETWEEN SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
Sexual propagation Asexual propagation

- seeds used - vegetative parts used
- new plants not identical to parents - new plants identical to parent plants
- takes long to obtain mature plants - mature plants obtained faster
- quicker to raise a larger population - difficult to produce large numbers quickly
- plants not affected by similar pests and diseases to parents - plants affected by similar pests and diseases that
- there is genetic variation in those plants affects parent plants
- new plants have a lesser chance of survival as less food is stored - there is no genetic variation
in the seed - new plants have better chance of survival as
vegetative parts store more food than seed
Parts used for asexual propagation
Runners (stolons), rhizomes, corms, bulbs, root tubers, stem tubers, vegetative buds, stem cuttings, root cuttings, suckers,
tillers, tissue or cells
ASEXUAL PROPAGATION METHODS
Grafting
The unification of the scion of a different plant to the root stock of another plant of the same species
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Steps in grafting
o select desired plants of the same diameter

o select plants that are compatible probably from vigorously growing plants
o make a clean slanting/V cut on both the scion and the rootstock
o join the scion (shoot system) and the rootstock (root system)
o bind the graft union with a grafting tape to prevent excess water loss and also entry of water
o apply wax over the graft union to prevent pathogen entry and excess water loss or entry
o stake / support the plant to avoid lodging and for successful union
o after sprouting of the shoot remove the grafting tape
o used in citrus plants (oranges and lemons etc.) and in tea
NB: the scion and the root stock should be disease and pests free
Layering (simple layering)
The induction of a branch to develop its own roots whilst attached to the mother plant by burying it into the soil.
Steps taken in simple layering
- select a flexible branch from a desired plant

- make a wound/tongue at the node of the branch
- apply rooting powder/hormone at the wound
- bend the flexible branch into soil
- peg down the branch into the soil using pegs/peg
- cover the branch at the wound with a growth media
- keep the growth media wet/ moist
- cut the branch off the plant after it has developed its own root
- plant it as a separate plant
Sexual propagation
- The production of new plants from seeds
o There is fusion of male and female sex cells (gametes) to form a zygote
o This occurs in a flower
The maize flower
a) Maize Female Flower
o It is the cob
o Has central stalk with a large number of ovaries attached to it
o Has a group of long sticky style/stigma/silk hanging outside the cob
o Each strand of silk is connected to the ovule/ ovary
o The stick silk traps pollen grains from the wind
o Fertilized ovules develop into seeds of the cob also called the fruit
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Maize male flower
o It is the tassel
o Has no petals/sepals but has bracts
o Has long flexible filament
o anthers hang outside the flower/bracts
o Produce a large number of light pollen grains
Mechanism of pollination in maize
- Maize is wind pollinated

- Ripe pollen grains are blown from anthers hanging outside the flower
- Pollen grains are carried by air currents
- The sticky silk (style and stigma) traps pollens from the air
- Hence pollination has occurred
How self-pollination is naturally avoided in a maize plant
- The stamens (male flower/gametes) matures well before the stigma is receptive
How self-pollination is avoided artificially in maize
- Cut the stamens/the female flower(gynaecium)

- Cover the stamens/the female flower(gynaecium)
BEAN FLOWER
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Part Function (s) of the part
Petals - Brightly and sweet scented hence attracts insects which come to collect nectar at the flower base
Stigma - receives pollen grains during pollination
Style - connects the stigma to the ovary
Anther - produces pollen grains which carry male sex cells
Filament - supports the anthers
Ovary - produces the ovules which carry female sex cells
Ovule - site for fertilisation
- produces female sex cells
Receptacle - supports other flower parts
- attaches the flower to the flower stalk
Pedicel( flower stalk) - attaches the flower to the plant stem
NB – male parts of a flower are called androecium (filament, anthers, and pollen grains) and consist of ten stamens
- the female parts of the flower are called the gynaecium (stigma, style, ovary, ovules) consist of only one Carpel
- after fertilisation the fertilised ovules develop into seeds and the ovary develops into fruit
Mechanism of pollination in bean flower
- it is insect pollinated
- insects visits the flower attracted by bright coloured petal, sweet scent and nectar
- the mature sticky pollen grains stick to the body of the visiting insect
- as the insect visits the next flower the pollen grains from the insect’s body to a mature stigma
- this could be in the same plant’s flower (self pollination) or a different plant’s flower (cross pollination)
- hence pollination has occurred
Differences between wind and insect pollinated flowers
Part Insect Pollinated flower Wind Pollinated flower

Petals Large brightly coloured Small dull coloured
Stigma Enclosed inside the flower but no feathery Large feathery stigma hanging outside the flower
Filaments Stiff/rigid filaments enclosed inside the flower Long flexible filaments hanging outside the flower
Anthers Firmly attached to the filaments Large anthers loosely attached to the filaments
Pollen grains - Rough and sticky pollen grains - light and smooth pollen grains
- small quantities of pollen grains - large quantities of pollen grains
Nectar Presence of nectar absence of nectar
Scent Sweet scent/smell/ aroma Absence of sweet smell/scent/aroma
Fertilisation in a bean flower
o successful pollination occurs

o pollen nucleus divides into two nuclei
o forming a pollen tube nucleus and reproductive nucleus
o reproductive nucleus further divides into two male gametes
o pollen grain absorbs nutrients/sugar and water from stigma and swells
o pollen tube nucleus develops the pollen tube and the two male gametes follows behind
o the pollen tube passes through the style to the ovary
o pollen tube enters the ovule through an opening called the micropyle
o ovule nucleus divides 3 times to form 8 nuclei
o one of the eight nuclei forms the female gamete and two forms the endospermic/secondary nucleus
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o the remaining ovule nuclei serves as guide cells on either side of the ovum
o when the pollen tube reaches the embryo sac it breaks open to release male gametes
o one (primary) male nucleus fuses with female nucleus to form a zygote
o the other male nucleus fuses with the secondary female nucleus to form an endosperm
NB – the fertilised ovule will develop into a seed

- the seed will grow in size as seed filling occurs in the endosperm form storage
- the ovary will enlarge in size to become a fruit (pods, hard pericarp, fleshy fruits)
- after fertilisation the stigma, style, petals, stamens shrivel and fall off
- dehiscent fruit (ones that breaks open at maturity) and indehiscent (one that do not break open at maturity) are formed
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LAND PREPARATION AND CROP PRODUCTION
Land Preparation
- To make a given land area ready for planting or sowing.

- It involves a number of pre-planting operations: land clearing, stumping and soil preparation.
Land Clearing: The removal of all or most of the vegetation and any other undesirable material from the garden site.
Destumping: Removal of tree stumps and their roots
Reasons for clearing the land and destumping
- To facilitate subsequent tillage operations

- To destroy pests and pathogens hidden in the existing vegetation or tree stumps
- To destroy existing vegetation to prevent future competition with crops for water, space, air and nutrients
- To create a clean environment around the planting area
- To increase land available for crop production
Soil Preparation (seedbed preparation)
Reasons for preparing the seedbed
- To control weeds
- To incorporate organic matter into soil for rapid decomposition
- To loosen up soil, thus improving aeration and water percolation
- To provide suitable soil condition for planting, seed germination and growth of plants
- To expose pests and pathogens to the atmospheric hazards and their natural parasites
Methods of soil preparation
Ploughing:
- primary tillage operation done to break up the soil for the first time and turn it under
- This burying trash and exposing fresh soil to the air.
- A depth of 25-30 cm would normally be enough.
- a mould-board/Chisel plough is used
Reasons for ploughing:
- Break hard pans thus improving root development and water penetration
- Facilitate subsequent tillage operations
- Improve organic matter content of the soil
- Control and minimize soil pests
Discing:
- The use of a disc plough or disc harrow breaking up clods and surface crust
- Improves soil granulation and surface uniformity.
- It is performed shortly after ploughing or at a later date after organic residues has decomposed
- It is done at a depth of 15-20 cm
Reasons for discing
- Break up large clods by cutting and grinding the soil

- Cut (chop) up surface trash
- Remove weeds that might have germinated immediately after ploughing
- Level the soil to obtain a medium tilth
Harrowing:
- It is a secondary tillage operation aimed at produced level soil of suitable tilth for a given crop;
- The soil is further granulated and smoothed in readiness for planting.
- Carried out using harrows e.g. spring tooth and spike tooth
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Reasons for harrowing
- To obtain a fine tilth

- To obtain a uniform distribution of water in the field
- To obtain a uniform planting depth
- To remove trash from the soil
DEFORESTATION
- Cutting of live trees at a faster rate than they are being replaced through planting new ones.
Undesirable effects of deforestation
1. Loss of Habitat for wildlife: When trees are cut, birds and other animals that inhabit trees become homeless and have no
food to eat forcing some to migrate while others fall prey easily to their natural enemies.
2. Increased rate of soil erosion by wind and water: Cutting don of tree leaves soil bare and removes the binding effect of tree
roots on soil resulting in increased rate of soil erosion.
3. Loss of soil organic matter, hence reduction of soil fertility as sources of organic matter (trees) are cut
4. Increased amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: Trees are carbon sinks that take in carbon dioxide and give out
oxygen to the atmosphere. Collection of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere above the normal level, causes the greenhouse
effect, which contributes to global warming
5. Extinction of plant species due to excessive land clearing paving way for crops
6. Loss of biodiversity: due to reduction in variety of life as trees are cut down
7. Ecological imbalance : as trees are cut it creates an imbalance in biotic and abiotic factors
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FIELD CROP (MAIZE) PRODUCTION
MAIZE
Class: cereal
Recommended maize varieties in Botswana
Kalahari early pearl, Potchefstroom pearl, R201, R20, R200, PN473, PAN 6549, SR52, SR503, CG4141.
Choice of suitable varieties
 Purpose for which it is grown

 Adaptability to climatic conditions
 Resistance to pests and diseases
 Resistance to stalk lodging
 How long it takes to mature
Uses of maize and its by-products
i) products
Grain/seeds – used for production of maize meal, corn flakes, meal rice, samp
- for production of industrial products such as glycerine, starch, beer
- used in animal feeds formulation
- can be eaten as green-mealies
- as livestock feeds
ii) by-products
a) cobs (without grain) – crushed cobs can be used as litter or mulch

b) bran – used as livestock feeds
c) stalks (stover) – used as livestock feeds
d) dried stalks and cobs- used as fuel for cooking
Climatic requirements
- as a summer crop it produces and grows well under 24 o C -30o C

- temperature below 10oC cause stunted growth and above 35oC reduce pollination and fertilization
- rainfall of about 500-900mm per annum
o irrigation can be practiced where rain is scarce
o flowering and grain filling needs more rain or water
o at the end less or no rain is required for grain drying
- light long sunny spells alternating with light showers ensures better maize growth
Soil type and pH requirement
- deep fertile sandy loam to loamy soil

- well drained and well aerated soil
- high humus content
- soil pH range between 5.2 – 7.5
Seedbed preparation
- ploughing to a depth of 20-30cm

- dicing to a depth of 15-20cm to obtain a medium tilth of the soil
- harrowing to a depth of 15-20cm for a fine tilth of the soil
- basal dress with
o super-phosphate at 200kg/ha
o 2:3:2 (22) at rate 300kg/ha
o Chicken manure at 4000kg/ha or 4t/ha
o Kraal manure at 8000kg/ha or 8t/ha
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Planting
a) planting time – summer/November/December/January

b) method of planting – row planting/broadcasting
c) seed rate – 17-35kg/ha
d) planting depth of 5-10cm
e) plant spacing of 90cm inter-row spacing and 25cm intra row spacing to give a plant population of 44000 plants
Fertilizer requirements
Basal dressing
- super-phosphate at rate 200kg/ha
- 2:3:2 (22) at rate 300kg/ha
- Chicken manure at rate 4000kg/ha or 4t/ha
- Kraal manure at a rate 8000kg/ha or 8t/ha
- Agricultural lime 500kg/ha after every three years
Top dressing
- limestone ammonium nitrate at a rate of 150kg/ha

- urea at a rate of 100kg/ha
- 2:3:2 (22) at a rate of 300kg/ha
NB: top dressing is usually done when maize is at knee height (45cm to 60cm). Split application is encouraged in light sandy
soils because they prone to leaching (that is, half application at knee high and another half just before tasseling.
Weed control
- Cultural control - (parasitic weed) witch weed is controlled by crop rotation

- Mechanical/physical - weeding by hoeing, hand pulling, or using inter-row cultivators
- Chemical control- use of atrazine and simazine as pre-emergence herbicides and (2,4-D), agroxona, MCPA as
post emergence herbicide
MAIZE PESTS
Stalk-borer
Class: boring pest
Life cycle
Has a four stage life cycle consisting of --Egg -- larva-- pupa—adult--
- female moth mates with male moth and lay eggs on the underside of the leaf sheath
- eggs hatch into larva ( caterpillar) after about 10 days
- larva feeds on plant material and then crawls up the plant into the funnel and feeds on the folded leaves
- the larva then bores down the funnel into the stalk where it feeds until it is fully grown
- mature caterpillars tunnels the stem and pupates in the tunnel and this stage lasts 10 days
- adult moth emerges through the hole into the stem
- 2-3 days after adult emergence mating occurs and the cycle starts all over again
Host plants
- sorghum, maize, and other members of the grass family
Damage caused
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- young larvae feeds on plant leaves resulting in holed and windowed leaves
- Dead heart in young plants
- Make tunnels on stem(stalk) making the plant weak
- Reduced yield in plants
- Bores into the stems and cobs
- Larvae feed on growing point from the centre of the plant
Control methods
- destroy crop residues after harvesting

- Field hygiene and or sanitation (timely removal of weeds, volunteer plants and crop residue)
- Crop rotation
- Spray inside the funnel with carbaryl / endosulfan/ thiodan
- Dust funnel with dipterex
- Practice winter ploughing to destroy the stubble
MAIZE DISEASES
Maize streak virus
Cause: Virus
Transmission: piercing and sucking pests e.g. aphids, leafhoppers
Mode of infection: virus enter plant through toxins secreted by pest when feeding
Symptoms:
- light green leaves with white to yellow streaks running parallel to the leaf veins/midrib
- Stunted growth
- Inflorescence may become sterile
- death of the plants
- Small and partially filled cobs
Control and prevention
- Use of close season

- Plant resistant varieties
- Practice early planting
- Use clean and certified seeds
- Field hygiene
- Use carbaryl/dimethoate / malathion to control aphids and leaf hoppers
SIGNS OF MATURITY IN MAIZE
Dry maize cobs are ready for harvesting hen you observe the following signs:
- Leaves are yellow

- Husks become dry and papery
- Grains are hard with glossy surfaces
- Grains can no longer be scratched with fingernail
- Cobs hang down
- Grains has moisture content of about 20%
Fresh cobs or green mealies - ready from 90-105 days after planting
Harvesting
- maize can be machine or hand harvested
- dry maize is harvested at 125 days after planting (3-4 months)
- green mealies are harvested at 90-105 days
- yields of maize range from 100kg/ha-5200kg/ha
- post harvesting the maize is dried naturally or artificially
Shelling
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The removal of grain/seeds/kernel from the central stalk
- Dried cobs are shelled by hand or a mechanical sheller

- Grain separated from dust, chaff and weed seeds through a winnowing machine
- Finally dried to safe moisture level for storage
Storage
- Shelled and dried maize grain is stored in bulk, in silos
- at small scale, storage facilities such as granaries, are used
Marketing
Fresh cobs
- can be sold fresh/cooked/ roasted to individuals or retailers
- Grain maize can be sold to individuals, BAMB, milling companies and local businesses
NB: Forces of demand and supply determine price for fresh cob maize. Import parity pricing policy is used by BAMB to
determine price for grain maize for farmers
Relevant Legislation
- Maize Milling Act of 1961 provides for control of maize milling and purchasing through issuing of
commercial miller’s license or restricted miller’s license
- Agrochemicals Act of 1999 provides for registration and licensing of agrochemicals
- Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board act of 1974 provides for the grading and classification of maize.
- Imported seeds come with phyto-pathological report
- Prohibition of use of some agrochemicals
SPINACH PRODUCTION
Class: leafy vegetable
Varieties: ford-hook giant, Lucullus, New Zealand, virofly
Uses of spinach
- source of raw material for food processing industries

- can be used as animal feeds (spinach leaves can be fed to rabbits)
- spinach leaves are used as food (cooked or in salads) (rich in Vitamin C, Iron, Proteins, Dietary fibre and Calcium)
- leaves are sold and bring income to the farmers
Climatic Requirements
- It produces well in temperature ranges from 15 0C-180C

- Spinach is a cool weather crop. It grows best during autumn, winter and spring.
- It is a hardy crop (resist light frost)
- If grown in summer, some shade need to be provided for the crop to give reasonable yield
Soil type Requirements
- Grows well in deep, fertile, moist and well-drained soils sandy loam soil
- Grows well in soil with pH range of 6.0-7.0
Seedbed preparation
- Plough site to a depth of 20-25cm

- disc the land to a depth of about 15-20cm
- Broadcast 2:3:2 (24) at the rate of 600kg/ha a week before planting
- Harrow the garden site to fine tilth
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PLANTING
Planting time
- March to April and August to September
Method of Sowing
a) Direct Sowing
- Drill Seeds about 1cm deep in furrows 30-45 cm apart then thin seedlings to about 25cm apart.
b) Indirect sowing
- Drill Seeds about 1cm deep in furrows 10 cm apart.

- thin out the spinach seedlings until they are 2cm apart and 10cm high
- Transplant on a cool day, in rows 30cm apart with 25cm between plants.
Seed rate and Spacing
- Seed rate: 5-9 kg/ha

- Spacing: 2cm between seeds at planting time
- row spacing (inter-row) is 30-45 cm and spacing between plants (intra-row) is 20-25 cm at final thinning
Fertilizer Requirements
Spinach is a heavy feeder: requires a lot of fertilizers
Basal dressing
- compost/broadcast kraal manure at the rate of 6t/ha or 6000Kg/ha

- 2:3:4(24) at rate of 600kg/ha squared
- 2:3:2 (22) at a rate of 800kg/ha
- Chicken manure at a rate of 4t/ha or 4000Kg/ha
Top dressing
- L.A.N at a rate of 140kg/ha a week after thinning after planting and repeat the treatment every 2-3 weeks.
- Side dressing or a ring method is used as a method of application
PESTS OF SPINACH
Aphid
Class: piercing and sucking pests.
Life cycle of an aphid
- The lifecycle of an aphid has three stages consisting of the egg---nymph---adult.

- Aphids’ life cycle has an incomplete metamorphosis i.e. the nymph stage resembles the adult.
- Aphids can reproduce both sexually and asexually
Sexual Reproduction
- occurs when the conditions are unfavourable (hot and dry)

- Male mates with the winged females
- Eggs are laid with protective shells (shells protects eggs against unfavourable conditions)
- When favourable conditions return the eggs hatch into nymphs which will then develop into wingless females
- The reproduction through the laying of eggs is called oviparity.
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Asexual Reproduction
- this occurs when the conditions are favourable (warm and wet)
- Females produce unfertilized eggs which hatch into nymphs while inside the females’ body. This called
parthenogenesis
- The females lay nymphs instead of eggs i.e. nymphs are born alive this is called viviparity
- The nymphs feed on plant sap and moults several times before they mature to become adults in a space of a week
- Adult aphids continue to feed on plant sap and females start to produce nymphs,
- When they get overcrowded some develop wings and fly away to colonize other plants.
Host plants
Spinach, Groundnuts, maize, sorghum, beans, sugar cane, cabbage, citrus plants etc.
Damage Caused
- Suck cell sap

- Reduced plant vigour and production
- Yellowing and distortion/curling/crumpling of leaves
- Growth of sooty mould which interferes with photosynthesis
- Transmits viral diseases
- Wilting and death of plants in severe infestation cases
- Cause lesions which leads secondary infection
Control and Prevention measures
- Spray using dimethoate (roger) 50% at the rate of 5ml/5L of water

- Spray using kerosene-soap emulsion/nicotine-soap solution
- Grow spinach with effective companion crops such as garlic
- Use of lady-bird beetles as natural predators
- Crop rotation
- Field hygiene/sanitation (timely removal of weeds, volunteer plants and crop residue)
- Plant seeds dressed with menazon (systemic)
DISEASES OF SPINACH
Leaf spot
Cause: Fungus
Symptoms
- Whitish blotches on leaves at the onset of disease
- Lesions/wounds latter develop into chlorotic then necrotic patches
- Small light brown circular sports with dark edges
- Sporolation on affected areas
- Death of older leaves
Control and prevention
- Use captan dust or Dithane

- Plant resistant spinach cultivars if available
- Immediate removal and destruction of affected leaves
- Crop rotation
- Proper crop spacing
- Avoiding over watering of spinach
SIGNS OF MATURITY
- Uniformly dark green in colour

- Fully turgid
- Firm and strong white stalk
- Crisp texture
- Large, edible size
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HARVESTING
- First harvest is about 40-60 days after planting and continues for 3-4 months.
- Cut the outer mature leaves with a sharp knife 4cm above ground level.
- Regular harvesting promotes production of new leaves.
- Twist and pulling of leaves is used when harvesting with hands
Yield of spinach: 7.5 to 16 tons/ha
MARKETING
- Leaves are tied in bundles and sold soon after harvesting when they are still fresh
- Sold to individual consumers, to supermarkets, schools and clinics, army barracks and vegetable traders.sold.
- Leaves are kept in plastic bags/ stood in cold water in a bucket/covered in wet sacks
STORAGE
- Spinach is very perishable and cannot be stored longer than 10-24 days.
- Rapid cooling to 0 degrees Celsius and placed under a relative humidity of 95-100%.
RECORD KEEPING FOR MAIZE AND SPINACH
1) A diary, in which important events are recorded on daily basis
2) Production records include all the day to day practices that goes in the production of spinach
- Labour use record

- Water and fertilizer use record
- Machine/tractor use record
- Field operations record per field
- Stock control records
3) Financial records
This deals with all the financial expenditures (cash outflow) and financial returns (cash inflow) in a business
- Income and expenditure record
- Sales record
- Record of debtors and creditors
- Profit and loss account
- Balance sheet
CROP PROTECTION
WEEDS
A weed is any plant that grows where it is not wanted. It is a plant whose growth interferes with that of the crop which the soil
is meant to raise.
DESIRABLE EFFFECTS OF WEEDS
- provides organic matter and mineral nutrients upon decomposition

- protects soil and crops against solar radiation
- provides ground cover hence minimizing evaporation and controls soil erosion
- serve as shelter for predators and other useful organisms
- provide mulching materials
UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF WEEDS
- some weeds harbour pests and pathogens

- compete with crops for water, air, nutrients and space
- some have allelopathy (produce toxic chemicals) which could kill crops
- some weeds are parasitic
- reduce crop yields and quality
- reduce crop vigour
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CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
- life cycle
- morphology
- method of dispersal
- habit of growth
- habitat of growth
LIFE CYCLE
a) annuals
- complete their life cycle in a year’s time/season

- These weeds will germinate; produce flowers and seeds in one year or growing season.
- These are commonly a problem in the arable land and are easy to control since they do not have food storage or
strong roots e.g. Black jack, upright starbur, morning glory, Mexican poppy, thorn apple, devils thorn etc.
b) biennials
- these complete their lifecycle in two years

- in the first year they germinate and produce leaves
- in the second year they produce flowers and seeds
- these are not common
- e.g. wild carrot, musk thistle,
c) perennials
- perennials do not die after reproducing

- these cause a great problem in arable crops
- herbaceous perennials can survive cold weather and dry season by developing underground food storage and or deep
root system
- woody perennials (bushes and trees) survive difficult conditions by shedding off their leaves e.g. Couch grass
MORPHOLOGY (LEAF SIZE/SHAPE)
a) broad leaved weeds
- All the broadleaved weeds belong to the group di-cotyledons

- the seedlings have a pair of seed leaves/cotyledons
- leaves are usually large and do not encircle the stem
- the veins of the leaves have a branched pattern
- these plants usually have tap roots
E.g. Mexican poppy, black jack, morning glory
b) Narrow leaved weeds
- Narrow leaved weeds belong to the group monocotyledons.

- seedlings have a single seed leaf / cotyledon
- the leaves are usually wide and encircle the stem
- the leaves have veins that run parallel to the midrib along the leave
E.g. Star grass, couch grass, Bermuda grass
METHOD OF DISPERSAL
a) water
- Irrigation water from rivers, dams, lakes can spread weeds through seeds and vegetative parts
- Running off water carries weed seeds
- Many weeds are spread through this method
b) wind
- light weighted seeds with wing like structures (pappus) makes it easy for them to be carried by wind to other areas
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c) animals
- when animals feed they ingest some weed seeds which will be passed in excreta and may latter regenerate into weeds
- weed seeds stick to the fur of the animals as they graze and will be dropped in other areas
eg. Black jack
d) man – spread weeds through clothes, shoes or vehicle tires
e) vegetatively
- During ploughing the weeds are chopped into small pieces

- ploughing is done these pieces spread into the field and these small pieces sprout into weeds.
f) By explosion(self dispersal)
- Plants that produce seeds in pods

- at night these pods contract and during the day they expand the pod
- ultimately the pods will burst open sending seeds flying into the air normally scattered around the plant.
Habitat
- according to where the weeds are found/found growing

a. Terrestrial weeds – found on dry land and very common in crop fields
b. Aquatic/hydrophilic plants – plants that resides in shallow and deep waters
Habit of growth – according to how they grow

a) Upright growth
b) Parasitic weeds
c) By means of stolons and rhizomes
COMMON WEEDS FOUND IN BOTSWANA
Common name Scientific name

Black jack Bidens pilosa
Thorn apple Ditura stramonium
Couch grass Digitaria scalarum
Star grass Cynodon dactylon
Mexican poppy Argemone Mexicana
Pig weed Amaranthus spp.
Witch weed Striga spp.
WEED CONTROL METHODS
1) CULTURAL CONTROL 2. MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL CONTROL

The use of good crop husbandry practices to minimize weed The use of physical means to control weeds e.g. tillage/digging,
interference with crops e.g. flooding, burning, crop rotation, cultivation, hoeing, hand pulling, slashing
proper spacing, timely/ early planting, use of clean planting
material Advantages
- avoids use of chemicals/herbicides
Advantages - all farmers can use it
- effective control of parasitic weeds - incorporates organic matter with the soil
- help prevent introduction and spread of weeds - no special skills are required
- easy to integrate with other weeds control methods - improves soil aeration and drainage
- Environmental friendly since no chemicals are used - improves water infiltration
- no special skills needed except in crop rotation
Disadvantages
Disadvantages - Its labour intensive
- its time consuming - may damage crop roots
- effective when combined with other methods - possible only in row planted crops
- requires farmers to have basic knowledge of crop husbandry - frequent cultivation exposes soil to agent of erosion
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3. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 4. CHEMICAL CONTROL
the use of living organisms to control weeds e.g. insects, the use of chemicals (herbicides) to control weeds
pathogens, animals, live mulch, cover crop and trap crops
advantages
advantages - low labour requirement
- avoids use of herbicides or chemicals - faster to control weeds than other methods
- makes use of natural resources - efficient weed control on a large area of land
- promotes integration of farming system - more effective in controlling perennial weeds
- some methods used promotes soil conservation and increases - weeds can be selectively controlled
organic matter in the soil - promotes minimum tillage
Disadvantages Disadvantages
- it is costly - pollution of the environment
- takes a long time to develop suitable biological agents - herbicides are expensive and needs special application equipment
- biological agent introduced may become pests - needs skills and knowledge to use
- needs a large population of control agents for effectiveness - harmful to sensitive crops
- biological agents introduced may fail/take long to adapt to the - weeds may develop resistance to herbicides if repeatedly used
new environment - may kill biological control agents
CROP PESTS
A pest in any organism that is harmful or potentially harmful to plants and animals.
Examples of crop pests include insects, nematodes, rodents, mites, birds, pathogens, and weeds.
Classification of pests
Pest group Mode of feeding Examples

Biting and chewing Mouth parts adapted for biting a chewing plant tissue. Grasshoppers, locusts, termites, beetles leaf
(mandibles) miners, caterpillars
Piercing and Mouth parts adapted into needle-like stylet/the proboscis Aphids, bagrada bugs, mealy bugs, scale
sucking with which they pierce plant tissue and suck plant sap. insects, leafhoppers
Boring pests Mouth parts specialized for biting and chewing but they Large/lesser grain borer, weevils, American
tunnel into the plant and remains inside where they bollworm, African bollworm
consume large volume of the tissue
LOCUST
It is a biting and chewing pest
Life cycle of a locust
- The lifecycle of a locust has three stages consisting of the --egg---nymph---adult--.

- Locusts’ life cycle has an incomplete metamorphosis i.e. the nymph stage resembles the adult.
- Fertilization occurs inside the female locust
- Female lays eggs in protective pods underground in soft soils
- In 30 days eggs hatch into nymphs that feeds and grows
- Nymphs moults 4-5 times and reaches maturity (adult stage) in 40 days
- After 45 days adult reaches sexual maturity the cycle starts all over again
Host plant
Attacks a wide range of crops mainly the grass family (gramineae) e.g. Maize, sorghum, millet etc
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Damage caused
- cuts and chew leaves and shoots

- reduce leaf surface area hence reducing photosynthesis
- complete defoliation of plants by swarms leading to severe crop loss
Control methods
- Biological control using reptile, birds, egg parasites

- Chemical control that is, spray swarms with carbaryl, aldrin
- Cultural control e.g. early planting, effective weed control, fertilizer application to ensure vigorous crop growth
NEMATODES
- These are microscopic wire-like worms living in the soil (cysts)

- There are also have specialized mouth parts for piercing and sucking
- A few of the species are parasitic to plants
Damage caused
- gall formation
- stunted root growth and plant growth
- reduced crop growth and yields
- wounds on the roots which may lead to secondary infection
- block xylem vessels
Control measures
- Crop rotation
- Use clean planting materials
- Plant resistant varieties of crops
- Quarantine and legislation
- Field hygiene/sanitation
- Fumigation /sterilisation/solarisation of the soil/planting media with formalin
- Land fallowing for several planting seasons
- Promote natural enemies like fungi, bacteria, protozoa etc
Rodents
This includes the rats, mice, moles, squirrels, chipmunks,
Damages caused
- ring barking of trees

- destruction of seedling
- unearthing and eating of planted seeds
- consume stored food/produce
- contamination of stored produce hence compromising its quality
- dig out and eat roots of root and tuber s of field crops
- eat fruits, grains and leaves of crops
Control measures
- use traps
- use rodent proof stores
- bush clearing around storages and field
- quarantine and legislation
- use of cats/snakes
- use of rodenticides
- use of baffles in storages
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PLANT DISEASES
Any deviation from the normal functioning of physiological anatomical processes OR it is a change in the state of the
organism which curbs the proper performance or functions of its parts.
Diseases are caused by pathogens like fungi, virus and bacteria.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASES
On the basis of causative agents
Causative agent Disease Class Examples

Bacterial Bacterial wilt of tomatoes, soft rot of vegetables, black rot of
Bacterial diseases cabbage
Fungi Damping-off of seedlings, downy mildew of beans, powdery
Fungal diseases mildew of beans, sorghum and maize smut, leaf spot of groundnuts
Virus Tobacco mosaic virus on tomatoes, cassava mosaic virus, maize
Viral diseases streak virus, groundnut rosette virus
Maize smut
Cause: fungus
Mode of transmission
o airborne spores are carried from infected plants by wind
o volunteer crops and crop residues
o pests/insects
o Contact from farm workers and implements
o irrigation water
Mode of infection
o through wounds on the plant and roots
o through the stomata
Symptoms/signs
o premature flowering
o seeds are unable to mature
o seeds are replaced by large grey sacs
o sacs contain dust-like material called spores
o increased tillering
o formation of galls at the base of leaves and tassel
o dust-like spores on the tassel
o tassel grows into a leaf-like growth
Control measures
o crop rotation
o remove/ uproot and burn/destroy infected plants
o use a close season up to 4 years
o seed dressing with mercury dust/ captan dust/ copper sulphate/ thrium
o field hygiene and or sanitation
o use of clean certified seeds
o use of resistant varieties
Bacterial wilt of tomatoes
Cause: bacteria (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Transmission: soil borne, irrigation water, crop residues, farm implements and tools
Mode infection: enters plants through wounds in the roots
Symptoms
o discolouration of the xylem vessels
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o milky/whitish slimy bacteria form in the xylem vessels
o wilting and death of affected plants
o chlorosis, necrosis and leaf shedding
o complete crop loss
Control and preventative measures

o crop rotation with none prone plants
o fallow land for several (seven) seasons
o remove infected plant and burn them
o use of resistant varieties
o sterilise clean tools and implements
o soil fumigation and solarization of planting medium
o use of legislative measures
FARM CHEMICALS (AGRO-CHEMICALS)
These are classified according to what they control/ target pest
Target pest Pesticide group

Nematode Nematicides
Insects Insecticides
Rodents Rodenticides
Aphids Aphicides
Weeds Herbicides
Mites and ticks Acaricides
Fungi Fungicides
Molluscs Molluscocides
Mode of action of pesticides
a) Contact pesticides
- act by physical contact with the body of the target insect

- are absorbed through the skin/ cuticle into the body of the insect
- these are dusted/sprayed directly on pest moving on exposed surface or the foliage
- these are less selective e.g. malathion, carbaryl, dipterex, pyrethrums etc
b) Stomach pesticides
- these are baits/sprays applied on plant tissues and ingested by insects

- these poisons the pests through digestive system
- These selectively control biting and chewing pests e.g. rotenone, malathion, carbaryl etc
c) Systemic pesticides
- these are applied and absorbed into the host plant

- the chemical is then translocated throughout the plant tissue by sap
- these selectively control piercing and sucking pest and boring pest when feeding e.g. dimethoate, menazon
d) Fumigants
- pesticide in a form of a tablet which releases poisonous gas that suffocates or poison the pest
- it is used to control pests in the soil, bulk produce buildings, import and export goods
- e.g. formaldehyde (formalin), iodoform, phospine, hydrogen cyanide, chloropicrin
Herbicides
Chemicals used to control weeds
a) selective herbicides
- kills specific type/kind of weeds and not harm others
- these can be applied when crops have established or post emergence of seedlings
- e.g. 2, 4 D and MCPA control broadleaved weeds. Dalapon and alachlor kill grass weeds (narrow-leaved)
weeds only.
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b) non-selective herbicides
- kills all type/kind of weeds

- these can be applied pre-planting or pre-emergence of seedlings
- e.g. glyphosate, paraquat, sodium chlorate
PESTICIDES FORMULATIONS
The form in which the pesticide is used. The pesticide material consist of active ingredient and inert material
ACTIVE INGRIDIENT: actual toxicant/poison/ chemical compound that is designed to kill the target pest
INERT MATERIAL: carrier/compound that contains/carries active ingredient
Pesticides formulations
Formulation Description
Sprays Wettable powders (WP), water soluble powders (WSP), emulsifiable concentrates (EC)(they form suspension,
solution or emulsion with water for spraying) e.g. malathion 50%
Dusts Formulated into dry, very fine powder for direct application e.g. carbaryl 1%
Aerosols Active ingredient is dissolved in an inert liquid under pressure. Pesticide is released as a gas at room temperature on
releasing pressure e.g. doom
Granules Active ingredient is formulated as small solid particles for direct application e.g. dipterex, cutworm bait
Fumigants Active ingredient formulated in a tablet form which releases poisonous gas that suffocates or poison the pest e.g.
hydrogen cyanide, formalin
KNAPSACK SPRAYER
Agricultural equipment used to spray chemicals (pesticides) on crops and animals
Parts of a knapsack sprayer and their functions
Part Function
Tank Container in which chemical is placed
Cap Seals the tank
Strainer Removes impurities from water
Delivery hose Carries chemical from tank to the lance
Handle Operates pump building pressure inside the reservoir
Pump Creates pressure inside the tank
Trigger Controls the release of spray through nozzle
Nozzle Atomize/ vapourises chemical to produce a spray
Lance Directs spray to target crop/animal
Maintenance of knapsack sprayer
- drain tank of any spray and wash thoroughly

- unblock the filter/strainer and nozzles
- drain the hose, lance and clean them thoroughly
- grease or oil moving parts
- wash rubber parts and store in a dry place
- replace worn out washers and old faulty valves
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Calibration of a knapsack sprayer
This helps determine the amount of chemical to be used in a given area
- select and measure a test area i.e. about 100 m2

- fill the tank with known volume of water (litres)
- spray test area at constant speed and height until completed
- measure amount of water remaining in the tank
- determine the amount of water used by subtracting the remaining water volume from the initial volume
- divide the water used by the test area size to get spray volume
Spray rate = initial volume (Vi) - final volume (Vf)

Test area
- multiply the spray volume by the size of the field to get the quantity of mixture
Volume needed = Spray rate x field area
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF FARM CHEMICALS
- kill beneficial organism (natural predators and pollinating insects)

- development of pesticides resistance
- pollution (ground water/soil/air)
- poison livestock and man
- disturbance of natural balance
- phyto-toxicity (poisonous to plants)
Precautions in handling and use of pesticide
- wear protective clothing (e.g. overalls, goggles, mouth mask)

- ensure correct dilution of chemical
- avoid eating, drinking, smoking when handling chemicals
- avoid tasting or smelling chemicals
- wash thoroughly after application
- ensure proper and safe disposal of empty containers and left over chemicals
- Avoid spraying on a windy day
- Read and follow owners’ instruction
Precautions when storing farm chemicals
- store out of reach of children

- store them in well labelled containers
- store keep them in a well ventilated place
- store in tightly closed containers
- store keep them in a cool dry place
- store keep them in secure/lockable cupboards
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Module 3 - Ornamentals
- These are plants that are grow to beautify the surroundings

OR
- Plants grown for their beauty and decorative uses
Types of ornamental plants
a) Pot (potting) plants – these are plants raised in containers (pots) during all stages of development. There are used to
decorate indoors. E.g. cacti, asparagus, daffodils, begonia, mother-in- law’s tongue
b) Bedding plants – these are plants grown in a nursery and later transplanted to a garden where they complete their
other stages of development. There are used to decorate outdoors. E.g. marigold, cornflower, petunias, pansy, salvia
c) Flower cutting plants – these are plants that are grown for production of cut flowers as they produce beneficial
flowers. When cut they last long in water without wilting. E.g. Rose, proteas, carnations
Roses
a) preparations of soil mixes
Soil mixes are a combination of different materials used for raising plants.
Soil mixes for roses
- Loam-based compost at ratio 1:1. (Only use a well decomposed compost / kraal manure/chicken manure/leaf mould)
- Peat-based compost at ratio 1:3. (only use a well decomposed compost / kraal manure/chicken manure/leaf mould)
- Loam based vermiculite at ratio 1:2
- Loam-peat-sand (river sand) mix at ratio 2:1:2
NB: super phosphate/ lime/charcoal/ bone-meal may be added as optional ingredients and only river sand is used not all kinds
of sand
Characteristics of good soil mixes
- well drained and aerated

- good water holding capacity
- should have high nutrient content/ be fertile
- good workability
- volume should remain constant when dry or wet
- should be firm to give enough support to plants
- should be free from weeds/ weed seeds, pests and pathogens
Planting
- mid spring – autumn i.e. September to May

- spacing of 40cm – 90cm inter-row and 25cm-75cm intra-row for all types of rose and 35-50cm for miniature roses
Sowing
- scatter seed on the seed tray thinly and press them into the soil
- water and cover the seed trays with clear glass or plastic
- the clear glass prevents evaporation hence one does not need to water
- after seedling emergence the glass/plastic is remove and regular watering will be needed
Hardening off
- This is the gradual change of seedlings’/plants’ environment to enable them to adapt to their final plot/surroundings OR
the acclimatization of seedling to a new environment.
- This is done by gradually increasing the number of hours the plant seedlings are exposed to harsh weather conditions
(sun/high temperature) until they can survive outside the nursery.
- The frequency of watering
- The amount of water supplied is reduced.
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Pricking out
- this is the transfer of from smaller trays to larger trays when they have developed two true leaves and are about 2-5 cm
in height
o this is done for proper spacing and provide them with more nutritious soil mixture
Steps of pricking out
- fill the new tray with loam-based compost (1:1) and press to remove air pockets
- remove seedlings from seed trays and separate their roots using a dibber
- touch only the leaves and shake off the extra/excess soil but do not tear/touch the roots
NB. Do not touch the stem as it will damage the xylem and phloem vessels
- make holes of about 1.5 cm in the new tray’s soil mixture using a dibber and place the seedlings
- firm the soil around the seedlings using your fingers
- the seedlings should be spaced at 5 cm by 5cm apart in new trays/one seedling per cell in celled trays
- water and place seedlings in a warm place but away from direct sunlight
Fertilizer requirements
-
Basal dressing with compost at 20 t/ha or 20000kg/ha or 2kg/m2
- Topdressing with 2:3:2 (22) at 500kg/ha or 50g/m2 a month after transplanting
- Foliar spray/application or fertigation using seagro/nitrosol
Transplanting
Transplanting is the transfer of plants from a seedbed/ nursery to their final site where they will mature in. this is usually done
after hardening-off
- prepare the flower bed and basal dress it using compost at 20 t/ha and water it well
- make holes in the flower bed using a hand trowel at 10-15 cm deep and 1-1.2m apart
- remove seedlings from trays, separate seedlings and place one seedling per hole with their soil around the roots
- the seedlings should be buried at the same depth as from its original tray or seedbed
- firm the soil around the seedlings (with hand or trowel) to remove air pockets
- transplanting is best done when temperatures are cool (morning, late afternoon or cloudy day)
- water the seedlings well i.e. heavily to prevent desiccation
Irrigation
- is the controlled application/provision of supplementary water to plants
Roses
- they are deep rooted and needs less frequent watering depending on the type
- in summer some may need watering only a few days for better growth, flower and flowering duration
Methods of irrigation
Sprinkler
- water is applied in the form of rain but in a circular motion

- sprinklers may be raised above the ground through vertical pipes
- this method require pressure (moderate/high) to operate
- can be used on sloppy ground
- makes it possible for fertigation of plants
- uniform distribution of water and easy to control volume applied
- encourages fungal diseases due to accumulation of water on leaves
- under warm and windy conditions there is high water loss during watering
- watering may not conform to non-circular seedbeds or nursery
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Timing and frequency of irrigation
Factors affecting moisture requirements
- weather (hot, cloudy, rainfall, cool weather, windy)

- length of the day (short and long days)
- previous irrigation/rain
- plant type (miniature/bushy)
- soil type (sandy, loam, sandy loam, clay, soil mix porosity & drainage)
- size of container for potting plants
Factors affecting frequency of watering
- condition of the plant

- feel of soil moisture
- use of soil moisture sensors
NB: roses are watered early morning or late afternoon. Early morning is recommended for winter to avoid frost bite to the
roses.
Pruning and training
Pruning – is the judicious/deliberate removal of unwanted (dead or diseased) plant parts

Training- intentional cutting of the plant to control the shape, size and direction of plant growth
Tools used for pruning
- Pruning saw, pruning shears, pruning knives, secateurs
Reasons for pruning
- To control plant size (hedges and shrubs)

- To remove weak, old, dead, diseased/ pest infested/unproductive parts
- To give plants definite shape or form (borders, to form hedges)
- To improve productivity and performance (for flowering, fruit and foliage)
- To keep plants small and juvenile
- To allow more air and light to reach plant centre
Pruning methods
a) Cutting/heading back (toping)
- Removing the terminal parts of the main trunk or branches in trees and shrubs
- Include pinching off the growing point and small amount of stem in herbs to encourage vegetative growth (bushiness)
b) Dead heading
- cutting back dead flowers
c) thinning out
- complete removal of branches from the main trunk
Topiary
It is the cutting of the ornamental shrubs into geometric shapes or shapes of birds, animals, etc by pruning leaves and branches
- intentionally done to create a desired shape

- plants with small twigs & leaves are best suited for topiary as they produce a dense crown e.g. dodonea
- hedges are the simplest form of topiary since it requires straight pruning of the side and the tops
- more skills are needed to shape shrubs into animals, cones, spheres, hemispheres and cubes
- higher skills are needed to make shapes such as animals, arch letters and abstract designs
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Proper use of pots
- choose the right kind and size of pot (depends on plant to be planted)
- clean and sterilize the pots (to control diseases and pests)
- provide the container with enough holes for drainage
- fill the pot with soil mix to 2.5-5.0 cm below the rim of the seed box or pot
- water before planting and allow contents to settle
- place pot on concrete benches off the ground to avoid sunburn, diseases and pests
- empty and clean pot/seed box not in use and keep in dry place
Pests and diseases
PESTS
Red spider mite
Class: piercing and sucking pests
Damage caused
- suck plant sap

- chlorosis and necrosis of plants’ leaves
- leaves appear to be covered with white stripes before turning yellow
- plants a covered with cobweb which often suffocate plants
- leaf loss/ fall
Control
- use a strong water spray to wash off mites from rosebushes

- spray with kelthane every 4-5 days in summer
- use garlic and onion as companion crops
- spray plants with pyrethrum and rotenone
- encourage growth of predatory mites
DISEASES
Powdery mildew
Cause: fungus
Symptoms
- leaves are covered with white powdery mould

- premature leave fall
- deformed and crumpled leaves
Control
- avoid planting roses in shaded areas

- remove and destroy the affected leaves immediately
- plant resistant varieties/ cultivars
- spray with benlate at first disease sign and then a week later
- proper crop spacing
- avoid over watering especially late afternoon
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Preparation of named ornamental plants for marketing
Ornamental
Rose (flower cuttings) Elephant ear (potting plant) Asparagus fern(bedding plant)
Cut roses with one third of the flower stalk; Clean and disinfect the pots; sterilize Clean and disinfect the pots; sterilize
prune extra leaves and thorns; wash/clean the planting medium; use clean water the planting medium; use clean water
with clean water; sort the roses according to to wash the plant off any dirt; prune to wash the plant off any dirt; prune
colour and or stem length; tie into bundles the extra and dying leaves; water the the extra and dying leaves; water the
and wrap bundles in spiral plastics packs; put plant; label the plant; price plant; plant; label the plant; price plant; load
the packs in a solution of Epsom salts or load in the truck; in the truck;
refrigerate the at 0.50C-1.50C, put name label
on the packs; put the price on the packs
MARKETING
- roses as cut flowers are sold to florist shops, retailers, wholesalers, supermarkets, directly to consumers, export
agencies
NB: these events creates high demand for roses; father’s day, Christmas, valentines’ day, wedding engagements, weddings,
funerals
LAWN MANAGEMENT
An area cover by intertwined closely cut turf grass
Importance of lawn
- for beautification/aesthetics
- cleanses the air of toxic substances( accumulation of harmful gases e.g. CO 2 )
- prevents soil erosion as it covers and stabilize soil
- reduces dust and mud in landscapes
- provide cushion and suitable ground for recreational activities
- provides a cool environment
- reduces glare
Grasses used for lawn production
Kikuyu grass, Swazi grass, Canada green, couch grass
Planting materials for lawn
Lawn can be sexually (from seeds) and asexually (from rhizomes and stolons)
- seeds, sprigs( stolons and rhizomes), plugs (sod cores/masses), sods or strips of sods
a) Sexual propagation of lawn
The seeds are planted in trays then transplanted to where the lawn is wanted
Land preparation steps
- fill large celled trays with loam based compost (1:1) and firm soil into the cells
- mix seeds with equal sand quantity, broadcast them lightly and evenly over the soil in the tray
- press seeds into the soil but do not cover them as they are too small to be buried deep
- irrigate the tray evenly with a fine spray of water
- place the tray in a well-protected warm place in a nursery
- ensure the soil never dries by continuously watering
- harden seedling when they are about 10 cm at about 3-4 weeks after sowing
- they are then transplanted to their final site at 15-20cm apart
- water regularly for seedlings to spread out and cover the area
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b) asexual propagation of lawn
- clear the land readying it for ploughing/ digging

- plough/dig to a depth of about 30 cm
- collect soil samples and send them for testing (acidity, nutrients, pathogens, humus, porosity)
- add compost/peat moss at a rate of 30-50t/ha and 2:3:2 (22)/3:2:1 (25) at 300Kg/ha
- disc the land to a depth of 10-15 cm to break clods
- harrow and level the land to a fine tilth (suitable for seeding/plugging/soddling/sprigging)
- fallow the land to allow weed to emerge then plough them under
- add LAN as a starter fertilizer before planting especially for plugging/soddling/sprigging
- cut rhizomes/stolons from old established lawn (15cm long) and plant them
MANAGEMENT OF LAWN
1) Planting time
- Beginning of the rainy season as it needs large amount of water to establish
2) Mowing
The horizontal cutting of lawn to a uniform height to maintain/create an attractive appearance
o A lawn mower is used (power driver mower or manual mower)

o A mechanical trimmer may also be used
Frequency of mowing
o Mow twice a week in summer on the lowest setting

o Mow once every fortnight in winter on the highest setting as the grass grows slowly
NB: if the grass is not mowed it grows high/tall rather than sideways leading to invasion of the lawn by weeds
3) Edging
The cutting of the sides of a lawn to make it look tidy
o It controls the growth of stolons/rhizomes from growing to where they are not wanted
o Half-moon edging iron and long-handled edging shares
Frequency of edging
o Approximately once per month in summer

o When the edges of the lawn become untidy/rhizomes or stolons over grow their area
4) Spiking
Piercing of holes in the lawn at regular intervals
o this is done using a hollow-tine fork and solid-tine aerator

 improves aeration and improve water infiltration
 enables fertiliser application to the lawn
Frequency of spiking
o spring and mid-summer
5) Scarification
The removal of thatch/ dead undergrowth from lawn
o spring-tine rake can be used to scarify the lawn

o It is done to done to
 Control pests and diseases
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 Improves air circulation and aeration
 Improves water infiltration
Frequency of lawn scarification
o Once a year in spring (August-October)
6) Irrigation
The artificial controlled application of water to plants
o Sprinkler irrigation is the best method of watering lawn
Frequency of irrigation
o Once or twice per week in summer if there is no rain

o Once a fortnight in winter
- Watering should be done to wet at least the whole root zone.

- Watering should be done early morning as lawn will need more water during the day and not late evening or at night as
water collects on the leaves which may result in fungal growth
7) Weed control
a) Mechanical methods
The use of hands/weeding tools/implements to physically uproot/eradicate weeds
Advantages
- avoids use of chemicals/herbicides

- simple and cheap to carry out
- incorporates organic matter into the soil
- improves soil aeration, drainage and water infiltration
Disadvantages
- Its labour intensive

- may damage plant roots
- soil cultivation exposes soil to agent of erosion
b) Chemical method
The use of herbicides to control weeds usually selective herbicides like 2, 4 D and MCPA to kill broadleaved weeds in
lawn
Advantages
o low labour requirement

o faster and effective in controlling weeds than other methods
o efficient and more effective in controlling broadleaved weeds
o promotes minimum tillage
Disadvantages
o pollution of the environment

o expensive to buy herbicides and special application equipment
o needs skills and knowledge to use
o may kill biological control agents for pests
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Pests of lawn
Termites
Damage caused: cut and chew leaves, stems and roots hence destroying the grass
Control/prevention
o removal of thatch(scarification)
o keep the lawn well watered
o apply stomach pesticides to affected areas (e.g. termiban)
Diseases of lawn
Brown Patch
Cause: fungus
Symptoms: brown, dried up, dead patches of grass up to one meter (1m)
: Individual affected grass/plant appear water soaked
Prevention and control
o avoid over watering the lawn

o scarify the lawn to improve aeration
o spiking the lawn regularly to improve aeration and inhibit fungal growth
o spray with fungicides (e.g. Karathane /Dithane m45/ ridomil)
LANDSCAPING
The modification/change of the appearance of an area for beautification/aesthetic purpose

Or
The art of arranging/ modifying land features (biotic and abiotic) for aesthetic purpose
Landscape Designing
It is the planning-installation of plants, rocks, stones, wood and-their maintenance
TYPES OF LANDSCAPES
Cemetery, park, waterfront, rockery, garden, formal landscape, civic space, playground
CEMETERY
It has;
- trees that provides shade to people and also acting as wind breakers
- fence to protect cemetery from entry by unauthorised people and animals
- rocks which are used in pavements and around tombs
- flower beds and shrubs for beautification of the cemetery
- toilets/ablution block for the visitors to use for refreshing
- benches for the visitors to sit on during visits
- pavements/ pathways to direct the movement of the visitors
- car park/parking lot where visitors park their cars during visitation and funeral activities
- tombstones for identification of the deceased burial place
PARK
It has;
- lawn for beautification and cushion in resting areas
- flower beds and shrubs for beautification
- trees that provides shade to people and also acting as wind breakers
- pavements/ pathways to direct the movement of the visitors
- ponds to hold aquatic animals like fish and aquatic plants
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- plants planted in asymmetric style and cut into geometric shapes for beautification
- seesaws, swings, waterslides, sliders and other play equipment for children
- benches for the visitors to sit on during visits
- car park/parking lot where visitors park their cars during visitation
- toilets/ablution block for the visitors to use for refreshing
- fence to protect the park from entry by unauthorised people and animals
- waterfronts and fountains for beautification and soothing effect with the reflections from still water, sound of running
water and sparkle of a fountain
Examples of hydrophilic plants papyrus, cyperus, mimulus, kaiphofia
MATERIAL AND THEIR USES IN LANDSCAPING
Stones/rocks/pebbles – pathways, pavements, driveways, rockery making, fence walls, fountain making, patio floors
Asphalt – car parking lots, pathways, patios
Bricks/slabs - pathways, driveways, patios, parking lots, wall fences, raised seed beds
Concrete – walkways, driveways, patios, pavements, terraces/steps, making pots
Wood – provide support for plants (trellising &staking), make benches, fences, tables, header boards and planter boxes
Clay – making pots
Plants – as hedge, provide privacy, reduce glare, decorative purpose etc.
Water – in fountains, in waterfronts, concrete mixing, watering of plants etc.
USES OF PLANT LIFE IN LANDSCAPING
- Reduces glare
- Screen out unsightly(unpleasant) areas
- Provides privacy
- Controls erosion
- Provides shade and habitat for other organisms
- Beautifies the environment
- Act as windbreakers
- Lawn can be used to reduce or control dust
- Cleanses air of toxic substances
Effects of landscaping on the environment
- Beautifies the environment

- Creates areas of recreation
- Increases areas for sheltering wildlife
- Protects the soil from soil erosion
- Extinction of indigenous plant species
- Increased water consumption or usage
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MODULE 4 – ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
Stockman-ship
- the skill or art of care and handling (looking after) of livestock animals
a) qualities of a good stockman
- assess the health condition of animals

- knows all daily, monthly and yearly routine operations (vaccination, de-worming etc)
- keeps the live stock house clean and free from foreign materials
- ensures proper feeding and watering of animals
- assesses productive and cull unproductive stock
b) animal handling (boilers)
- noise/whistle when approaching the house to alert them

- open the door slowly to avoid startling them
- never make sudden movements inside the house
- avoid flapping empty bags/plastics/ containers
- provide adequate feeds/ feed ad-libitum/clean water
- regular vaccination against diseases like Newcastle and coccidiosis
- provide adequate ventilation
- provide a footbath at the door
- clean/ regularly cleaning of the feeders/drinkers/water troughs/ house
- disinfect the house/feeders and drinkers
- regularly/routine check for sick, lame, chickens not feeding and cull unproductive ones
c) catching birds
o best done in the evening/ night when roosting in their perches
o keep hands low and grab the legs/shanks quickly
o Use a catching hook to catch them by the legs/shank
o Hold the chicken firmly by both wings and the other hand holds the feet/shanks/legs to avoid it from
struggling and hurting itself
o Do not over crowd them in crates when moving them
o Ensure proper crates ventilation
o Protect them from heat during transportation to avoid heat stress
o Reach the destination prior darkness for familiarization with the environment
d) Record keeping
- Systematic entry of information and keeping it for future use
Purpose of records keeping
- For future budgeting and planning

- For deducing profits and losses made so as to make proper adjustments on expenditure
- For acquisition of loans from financial institutions
- For comparison with other farmers and or enterprises within the farm
- To trace the history of the enterprise
a) Production records
- Information involving all the inputs and out puts used in a farm
o Input records
 Feeds records
 Vaccination records
 labour records
 mortality records
o Output records
 Numbers of birds sold
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 Amount of manure sold
b) Financial records
- Information involving all the money earned ( income) and money spent(expenditure)
Rearing of young broilers chicks from day old
- Care and management of day old chicks until they develop true feathers (2-4 weeks) is called brooding
- Artificial heat/ warmth is provided to chicks using different brooders like Mbawula system, gas broober, infrared
lights, drum system, electric brooder etc.
o When heat is inadequate chicks huddle together
o When it is too much they move away to the extremes of the brooding unit
o An even spread in the brooding unit indicates adequate heat
Management of young chicks during brooding

- Assist chicks to drink during arrival by dipping their beaks in water
- Place them near water troughs
- Place feeds on papers laid on litter/in chick feeding troughs
Preparation for the arrival of young chicks
- clean the house/utensils/feeders and drinkers

- disinfect the house/utensils/feeder and drinkers and leave it empty for two weeks
- Cover the floor with litter to a depth of about 20cm
- Set up the feeders and the drinkers
- Set up the brooding unit and install the brooders
- Light/test the brooder at least 24hrs before their arrival
- Ensure that the house temperature reaches 25oC -35oC
- Ensure that there is adequate supply of food (broiler starter mash)
- Ensure adequate supply of drugs and vaccines (stress pack at their arrival and Newcastle disease vaccines)
- Fill feeders and drinkers with clean/fresh feeds and water
Nutrition and feeding practices

a) Nutritional requirements
- Carbohydrates and fats

o Provides animal with energy with fats providing 2-3times more energy
o Adds weight in older chickens
- Proteins
o For building of new muscles and repair of worn out tissues and cells
- Vitamins
o For growth promotion
o Act as catalysts in metabolic processes
o Blood clotting (vit. K)
o Bone formation and muscular activity
- Minerals
o Constituents of bone, teeth (beak), blood
o Components of milk, meat, eggs
- Water
o Needed for digestion, excretion, food absorption, blood plasma formation and maintains body
temperature
b) Broiler feeds
- Broiler/chick starter mash

o Finely ground for easy digestion
o Given to chicks from 0-3 weeks
o High in protein (21-24%), minerals and vitamins for rapid growth /body building
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- Broiler finisher mash
o Coarsely ground
o Given to chickens from 3-6 weeks of age
o Lower in proteins(18-20%) and high in energy as chickens are more active
- Broiler post finisher mash

o Low in protein as their metabolism does not need high proteins
o Given at 6-8 weeks to boost kill/table weight
c) Feeding practices
- Feeding at ad-libitum (food should be available at all times)
- Feeding should be done twice a day
- Feeding troughs and drinkers should be placed in such a way that feeds and water cannot be contaminated
- Water and feeding troughs should be cleaned at all time and fresh food water be provided
d) Rations
- Maintenance ration
o Keeps animal alive without gaining or losing weight
- Production ration
o Provided in addition to maintenance ration for an animal to produce more products such as meat, milk,
eggs etc
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Reproduction in Animals
- Process by which male and female animals produce young ones of its kind
- When animals reach sexual maturity they produce gametes/mature sex cells which are viable
- Cattle reach sexual maturity at 9-20 months
- Sexual maturity depends on type of animal, health and feeding of the animal
Reproductive system of a bull
Part Function
Scrotum - Protects the testes
- Supports sperm production by regulating testes temperature
Testes - Produces sperms and testosterone
Epididymis - Stores sperms until they have attained maturity
Vas deferens / sperm - Transports sperms from the Epididymis to the urethra
duct
Prostate gland - Produces alkaline fluid which removes acid from the urethra to avoid sperm mortality
Cowper’s glands - Produces a mucus that neutralises the urethral tract and also make the sperms actively motile
Seminal vesicles - Produces seminal fluid which is essential for sperm motility and health
Ampullary glands - Secretes a fluid that mixes with the sperms from the epididymis
Urethra - Transports sperms from the vas deferens to the penis

- Passage of urine from the urinary bladder
Penis - A copulatory organ for deposition of sperms into the vagina
- Urinary organ for passing urine to the exterior
Sheath/prepuse - Protects penis from injury and keeps penis moist
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Reproductive system of a cow
Part Function (s)

Ovary - Produces an ovum (female sex cells)
- Site for oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin
Vagina - copulatory organ
- site for sperm deposition during mating
- birth canal during parturition
Cervix - seals the uterus prevents entry of foreign during pregnancy
- passage for sperms during mating
- passage for foetus to the vagina during parturition
Uterus/womb - site for implantation
- protects and facilitates feeding of foetus during pregnancy
- site for progesterone during pregnancy
Fallopian tube/oviducts - site for fertilization
Infundibulum/funnel - receives ovum from the ovary and directs it to the oviduct
Vulva - covers the entrance of the vagina and directs the penis during mating
Oestrus cycle
- period between one heat period and the beginning of another which is 21days in cows/ cattle
Oestrus
- Occurs between day 0 to day 1 of the Oestrus cycle
- A period when an animal is on heat
- Animal shows signs of heat
- Marked by high levels of oestrogen
- Follicular stimulating hormone levels decrease
- Last for 18-30 hours
Metestrus
- Occurs between day 2 and day 4 of the oestrus cycle
- Has high levels of progesterone
- The levels of oestrogen reduces
- Formation of the corpus luteum
- Maximum uterus development
- No signs of heat e.g. Does not allow bull to mate with it
- Ovulation occurs
- Lasts for 31/2 days
Diestrus
- Takes place when the animal is not pregnant / have not conceived
- Lower levels of progesterone
- Increasing levels of oestrogen
- Regression of the corpus luteum
- Development of the Graffian follicles/ egg follicles
- Uterus returns to normal size
- It is an inactive stage before the next proestrus i.e. No signs of heat
- Last for 14 days
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Proestrus
- It comes just before the animal is on heat
- Marked by high levels of follicular stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone
- Oestrogen levels increases
- Egg follicles increase in size
- Vaginal walls thicken
- Secretory glands activity increases
- Uterine wall increases in vascularity
- Last for 2-3 days
Ovulation
- the rupturing of the Graffian follicles to release to release ovum
- luteinizing hormone stimulates rupturing of the Graffian follicles
- ruptured follicle develops into corpus luteum (yellow body) which releases progesterone
- progesterone stops heat and maintains pregnancy
- if fertilization does not occur corpus luteum degenerates
Signs of heat
- Clear mucus discharge from the vulva
- Swollen/slightly inflamed wet vulva
- Cow mounts other cows and stands when mounted by other animals
- Cow becomes restless and bellows
- Frequent urination
- Loss of appetite
Fertilization
- Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote
- This occurs in the oviduct
- the zygote undergoes cell division and progresses to the uterus
- the embryo is enveloped by amniotic membrane with amniotic fluid which protects foetus from mechanical damage
Pregnancy
- The time when the young one is growing inside the mother’s uterus
- The time from conception to parturition is called gestation period
- Gestation period of a cow is between 280-285 day
Hormones
- Chemical substance produces in certain parts of the body and transported through blood to cause changes in other
areas of the body
Site of Function in a cow (female) Function in a bull (males)

Name of Hormone Production
Follicle - Stimulate development of the Graffian follicles - Initiates growth of testis
stimulating Pituitary gland - Stimulate oestrogen secretion - Induces production of
hormone (FSH) sperms
Luteinizing Pituitary gland - Initiates ovulation by inducing rupturing of follicle - Stimulates testosterone
hormone (LH) - Stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone secretion by testis
Graffian - Stimulates onset of heat - Insignificant (absent) in a
Oestrogen follicles of the - controls oestrous cycle bull
ovary - Stimulates development female secondary sex traits
- Development of libido in females
- Maintains pregnancy - Insignificant (absent) in a
- Stops oestrous cycle and stops heat bull
Progesterone Corpus luteum - Prepares the uterine wall for embryo implantation
of the ovary - Inhibits the release of luteinizing hormone
- Promotes growth of alveoli for lactation
- Insignificant (absent) in a cow - Stimulates libido in males
- Stimulates development of
Testosterone Testis male secondary sex
characteristics
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Reproductive system of a hen
- Has a single ovary containing developing ova at various stages
- A hen reaches maturity 4-5 months
Functions of parts
Ovary
- Releases the egg yolk
Funnel/Infundibulum
- Receives the egg yolk
- Site for fertilization
- Yolk stays here for 15 minutes
Magnum
- Receives egg yolk from the funnel
- secretes and deposited egg white (albumin) around the egg yolk
- secretes and deposited chalazae to the egg
- Egg stays here for 3hours
Isthmus
- Secretes and deposits shell membranes around the albumin
- Egg stays here for 11/2 hours
Shell gland (uterus)

- Adds water and mineral salts to the egg
- Deposits calcium shell on the egg membranes
- Egg stays here for 18-20hours before it passes to the vagina
Vagina
- receives sperms during mating
- passage for egg during laying
Cloaca
- oxytocin hormone activates the cloaca muscles to contract to release the egg
- NB only when there is light then oxytocin will be released to influence laying
Vent
- Exit of the reproductive and digestive system
- Site for sperm entrance
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Reproductive system of a cock
Cloaca
- Copulatory organ in a cock since it does not have a penis
Testes
- Production of male sex cells (sperms)
- Production of male sex hormone (testosterone)
Vas deferens (sperm duct)

- Transports sperms from the testes to the cloaca
- The papillae in the cloaca produces seminal fluid which mixes with the sperm
DIGESTION IN ANIMALS
- breaking down of food particles into smaller particles for easy swallowing and absorption
- Can either be
 physical (mechanical digestion)
 chemical (enzymatic digestion)
 by micro-organisms (microbial digestion)
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A NON- RUMINANT (PIG)
MOUTH
o Food ingestion
o Food chewed and broken into small particles
o Food mixed with saliva secreted by salivary glands
o Salivary amylase (ptyalin) in saliva will breakdown starch into maltose
o Saliva lubricates food
OESOPHAGUS
o Moves food bolus from mouth to stomach by peristalsis
STOMACH
o Food is churned by means of stomach walls contraction
o Gastric juices are added from the stomach walls (mucus, hydrochloric acid, rennin and pepsin)
o The hydrochloric acid stops the action of the salivary amylase (ptyalin)
o activates enzymes and creates an acidic environment for enzymatic digestion and kills pathogens
o Pepsin breaks down protein into peptides
o Rennin coagulates milk in young animals
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SMALL INTESTINES: are made of the duodenum and the ileum
DUODENUM
o Pancreatic juices are added into the duodenum
o Pancreatic juices contain amylase, trypsin and lipase
 Amylase breaks down starch to maltose
 Trypsin breaks down proteins to peptides
 Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
o Bile from the liver is added to the chime
 Bile emulsifies fats for easy digestion by lipase
 Bile neutralizes acidity of food coming from the stomach
ILEUM
o Intestinal walls produce intestinal juices with enzymes (peptidase, sucrose, maltase and lactase)
 Peptidase converts peptides to amino-acids
 Sucrase converts sucrose to fructose
 Maltase converts maltose to glucose
 Lactase converts lactose to glucose and galactose
o A site for food absorption i.e. glucose, inorganic salts and amino acids
o Has finger like projections(villi) which increases the surface area for food absorption
LARGE INTESTINES: are made of the caecum, colon and the rectum
CAECUM
o Microbial digestion of cellulose occurs
o Fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins and other products are produced and absorbed
COLON
o Water is absorbed from the waste material
RECTUM
o Temporarily stores waste materials before excretion
ANUS
o Opening through which waste is expelled
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A RUMINANT (COW)
MOUTH
o Food ingestion
o Food chewed and broken into small particles
o Food mixed with saliva secreted by salivary glands
o Saliva does not contain enzymes
OESOPHAGUS
o Moves food bolus from mouth to stomach by peristalsis
RUMEN
o Consists of finger-like projections
o Temporary storage of food
o Contents are churned and mixed up by muscular contractions
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o Microbial digestion on cellulose occurs (by bacteria, fungi, protozoan) to produce volatile fatty acids
o Fatty acids are absorbed through the rumen walls
o Micro-organisms release amino acids, vitamins and large volume of gases like carbon dioxide and methane
o The gases are released by belching if not they cause bloating which may lead to animal death
RETICULUM
o receives food from the rumen
o separates course materials from finely ground materials
o coarse materials are regurgitated (brought back to mouth for further chewing) i.e. chewing the cud
o finer food materials passes to the omasum
OMASUM
o re-chewed food from the mouth goes straight to the omasum
o the food is ground to a fine consistency by contraction of the walls
o food is strained by absorption of excess water to leave a semi solid paste
ABOMASUM (TRUE STOMACH)

o Food is churned by means of stomach walls contraction
o Gastric juices are added from the stomach walls (mucus, hydrochloric acid, rennin and pepsin)
o activates enzymes and creates an acidic environment for enzymatic digestion and kills pathogens
o Pepsin breaks down protein into peptides
o Rennin coagulates milk in young animals
SMALL INTESTINES: are made of the duodenum and the ileum

DUODENUM
ILEUM
 Lactase converts lactose to glucose and galactose
CAECUM
COLON
RECTUM
ANUS
o Opening through which waste is expelled
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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A HEN
Beak
- Used for pecking food and the food is swallowed whole
Oesophagus
- Food passes to the crop by peristalsis
Crop
- Temporarily stores food, moisten and softens it
Proventriculus (stomach)
- Produces gastric juices i.e. weak hydrochloric acid and enzyme pepsin for protein digestion
Gizzard (ventriculus)
- Grit (small stones) are found here
- Grit helps in grinding/ physical breaking down of food due to gizzard muscle contractions
Duodenum
ILEUM
Caecum
Colon
Cloaca
Vent
Opening through which waste (faeces and urine) are expelled
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SUMMARY OF THE DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
PART SECRETED JUICE ENZYME ENZYME FUNCTION

MOUTH Saliva Salivary amylase Starch Maltose
(Ptyalin)
(only present in non-
ruminants)
STOMACH Pepsin Proteins Peptides
(ABOMASUM) Gastric juices Rennin Coagulates milk protein
Neutralizes acid in the chime
LIVER Bile None Emulsifies fats
Amylase Starch Maltose
PANCREASE Pancreatic juices Trypsin Protein Peptides
Lipase Fats fatty acids and glycerol
Peptidase Peptides Amino acids
Maltase Maltose Glucose
ILEUM Intestinal juices Sucrase Sucrose Fructose
Lactase Lactose glucose and
galactose
Differences between the ruminants and non ruminants
Ruminants Non-ruminants
Chews the cud Do not chew the cud
Poly-gastric (have four stomach chambers) Mono-gastric (one stomach)
Has no Ptyalin in the saliva Has ptyalin in the saliva
Cellulose digested in the rumen and caecum Cellulose digested in the caecum for those that eat plant material
ANIMAL HEALTH
Diseases
- Any deviation from the normal functioning of the body systems and anatomy indicate an animal is sick
Features of a healthy animal
- Upright, alert and responsive to touch

- Clear and bright eyes
- Glossy or shiny skin coat
- Temperature, pulse rate and respiration rate should within an admissible range
- The excreta should be neither too watery or too watery
- Normal posture when standing and laying down
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Animal diseases
Classification of animals’ diseases basing on causative agent and host animals affected
Cause Disease Causative agent Host animal (s)

Viral diseases Foot and mouth Virus Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs
Rabies Cattle, goats, dogs, cats
New castle Poultry e.g. chickens
Swine fever Pigs
Protozoan diseases Trypanosomiasis Protozoa Cattle
Coccidiosis Poultry e.g. chickens
Ricketsial diseases Heart water Ricketsia Cattle, sheep, goats
Bacterial diseases Tuberculosis bacteria Poultry, cattle, sheep, goats
Mastitis Cattle especially dairy animals
Botulism Cattle, sheep, goats
Contagious abortion (CA) Cattle, sheep, goats, donkey
Anthrax Cattle, mammals
Contagious Bovine Pleuro- pneumonia (CBPP) Cattle
Nutritional diseases Aphosphorosis Lack of phosphorus Cattle, donkey
Rickets lack of calcium Cattle, poultry
Piglet anaemia lack of iron Piglets
Methods of preventing livestock diseases

o Control of external parasites which could act as disease vectors e.g. ticks
o Isolation of sick animals to prevent infection of the healthy ones
o Maintaining good hygiene by regular cleaning and disinfecting the house, drinkers and feeders
o Separation of young stock from old stock to avoid old stock transmitting diseases to the young stock
o Control vermin (rats, mites, wild birds)as they may transmit diseases
o Proper housing protects animals from harsh weather
o Feed animals with an adequate, fresh, clean balanced ration and water
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE
Cause – virus
Host animals – cloven hoofed animals i.e. cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, impala, etc
Mode of infection – inhalation and ingestion of remains from infected animals
Mode of transmission
o secretions from bursting blisters, milk, urine, saliva, nasal discharge and excreta from sick animals
o abattoir waste and people movement
o bull semen
o airborne up to about 100km
Symptoms
o blisters in the mouth, tongue, udder and hoof coronets
o loss of appetite
o rapid loss of weight leading to death
o rapid loss of milk production
o lameness due to wounds in the coronet
o loss of hooves
o fever of up to 40-410C
o abundant strings of saliva hanging and dripping from mouth/ excessive salivation
Control and Preventative measures

o kill/slaughter infected animals then burn and burry the carcass
o burn and bury carcasses of dead infected animals
o routine vaccination of animals
o reported suspected cases to the authorities like the police, veterinary offices etc
o use of cordon fences to deter movement of animal and animal products from infected areas
o avoid mixing livestock with wild animals especially buffalos as they are natural carriers
o isolation of infected animals from the others
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Parasite of livestock
- parasites are organisms which depend on other living organism for shelter and food
Types of parasites in animals
i) internal/ endo-parasites - round worms, liver fluke, tape worms
ii) external/ ecto-parasites - ticks, mites, tsetse fly, fleas, lice
Internal /endo-parasites
Liver fluke
- a flat bodied worm that lives in the liver of a host animal

- these are common in swampy graze lands or pastures
Host animals
- all grazing animals e.g. goats, sheep, cattle
Life cycle of a liver fluke
- adult liver fluke lives and lays eggs in the liver of a primary host (cow)
- eggs are passed down the bile duct to the intestines and passed out in faeces
- when it becomes wet the eggs hatch and the swim about for up to two weeks
- the larvae bores through the skin of certain snail species and feeds on snails as secondary host
- the larvae then leaves the snails and swims on grass stems and plants
- they then form cysts (resting stage)
- when the infested grass is fed upon by animals the cysts will hatch in the intestines
- the cyst burrow through the intestinal walls to reach the liver
Damage caused by liver fluke
- haemorrhages of the liver and anaemia

- swollen abdomen and pain in acute cases
- loss of appetite and acute weight loss due to blood sucking
- animal becomes dull and depressed
- death in a few days may follow
- diarrhoea with blood stains/blood
- death in severe cases especially young animals
Prevention and control of the liver fluke
- drain all wet and swampy areas

- keep grazing animals from grazing in the swampy areas
- spray the snail infested areas with copper-sulphate
- drench the animals with anthelmintics
External/ ecto-parasites
Ticks
- blue tick (Boophilus microplus)
- bont tick (Amblyoma hebraem)
- red-legged tick (Rhipicephalus evertsi)
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Damage of caused by ticks on cattle
- cause irritation on the skin of the animal

- suck blood causing animals the animal to be weak
- transmit diseases like heart water, east coast fever, red water
- cause wounds which might be an entrance for pathogens
- reduces the hide value of cattle
Life cycle of a one host tick
- tick sucks blood from the host animal until it is engorged (full of blood)
- it drops from the animal and lays eggs on the grass
- eggs hatch into six legged (larvae) nymphs which waits on grass for the next host
- on the host nymphs moult several times before maturing
- once they mature they have eight legs
- the adult ticks mate and continue sucking blood from host
- when full of blood the female drops to the ground and the cycle starts all over again
Prevention and control of ticks
- dip/spray animals with acaricides e.g. arsenic-trioxide to kill ticks

- controlled burning of pastures to control tick population
- cultivation of the pastures to reduce tick population by burying them
- use of natural enemies(predators) known to feed on ticks
GAME FARMING
- Keeping of wildlife in small enclosed areas in the wild to semi or fully domesticated state
- Requires high capital input, expertise and managerial skills
- e.g. ostrich farming, crocodile farming, etc
Game ranching
- where animals are managed in large open areas with peripheral fences but without internal fence
- this occurs mostly in wildlife management area near game reserves or privately owned game reserves
- e.g. Mmokolodi
Game and livestock ranching
- where livestock together with wildlife species are kept under good husbandry in a fenced area
- found in freehold and leasehold farms/ranches
Examples of game animals found in Botswana
Roan antelope, impala, springbok, buffalo, kudu, crocodile etc
Importance of game farming
- source of foreign exchange – through exportation of game products e.g. live ostrich, ostrich eggs, meat and skins
and tourism
- source of tourist attraction- for game viewing and trophy hunting
- conservation of endangered species – for buildup of population of conserved game species such as water bucks,
rhinos e.g. Tuli-block and Khama Rhino sanctuary
- source of employment – such as game rangers, extension workers etc
- source of raw materials – such as ostrich egg shells, ostrich and crocodile skins
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Ecological principles considered when selecting a game farm
i) size of the area
o large farms ensure better survival of animals than small ones which could be easily overgrazed
o size of area al so determine level of management (intensive, extensive and semi-intensive)
ii) carrying capacity
o Maximum number of animals that an area can support without causing degradation of the land
o This determines the number of animals and kind of animal species the farm can support
o Carrying capacity is not constant as it depends on range condition, plants composition and climate
o It can be increased for a given animal species or combination of game animals by veld management
iii) Population of animals
o Size of area, carrying capacity, size of animal and level of veld management determines the number of game to
be kept
iv) Ecosystem concept
This is made of two components;
a) Biotic factors – consist of all living things (animals, plants micro-organisms)

b) Abiotic factors – consists of all non-living things (soil, rocks, water, climate etc)
- Biotic and abiotic factors interdependently affect each other in various ways
- They are essential for life preservation in an area
- A change in one ecosystem aspect causes a ripple(wave) effect on the whole system
- A change will cause a disruption in the ecosystem equilibrium which will need about 20 – 30 years to correct
themselves
- The recovery time is considered when evaluating the impact of management policies on the ecosystem balance
Flow of energy
Sunlight energy plants (producers) herbivores (game animals) carnivores/omnivores
- All energy for life comes from the sun

- Plants convert sunlight energy into carbohydrates
- Plants are the eaten by herbivores
- Carnivores/omnivores(mainly people in game farming/ranching) eat the herbivores
- If one aspect of this flow is disturbed a ripple effect is created
- Farmers should ensure good plant growth for game production
Habitat and geographical preferences of common game animals
Name of animal Habitat preference Geographical area

Impala, Kudu - Bushveld and savanna with available close-by Tuli block
- Prefer green in summer; pods and twigs in winter
Buffalo - Tall grassveld, forest savanna and open grassland with high Chobe area
Roan antelope quality grasses, water and shade
Springbok, Eland - Short grassveld and shrubs (prefers grass and leaves for food) Kalahari
Capture of game animals
Reasons for capturing /immobilizing game animals

- To transport them to other areas
- To collect samples e.g. blood, sample, mucus, parasites
- For examination and diagnosis of diseases
- For vaccination and treatment of wounds
- Marking for future recognition e.g. ear notching, branding etc
- To collect measurements e.g. length, weight
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Game capture methods
- Dart guns and game capture drugs

- Cross bows and game capture drugs
- Capture nets
- Movable capture corrals
Dart guns and game capture drugs

- A dart gun with telescopic sight and adjustable gas chamber is used to fire darts
- The firing distance for darts ranges from 5m-100m
- The darts are filled with two types of capture drugs immobilizers and tranquilizers
- Immobilizers (M-99) make the animal dizzy/unconscious and tranquilizers make the animal docile
- The dart is fired from a distance which injects the drug into the animal’s body on impact
- The animal is usually shot on the hind leg, rump, shoulder and occasionally on the neck
- Normally animals are shot from a helicopter (deep forest) or a moving vehicle (along the road)
- The animal will start gaiting, becoming dizzy and docile
- This method is ideal for capture dangerous animals, rare species and only when a few animals are the captured
- And antidote like M-50/50 can be administered to awaken the animal at the end
Advantages of dart guns and capture drugs

- Safe and economical in capture of rare and valuable animals (endangered species)
- The most ideal method if small number of animals is to be captured
- Safest method of capture, handling, loading and transportation of large and or aggressive animals
- Very useful method for removing aggressive and injured animals from holding pen or transport crates
- An antidote can always be used to avoid death of animal in case of an overdose
Disadvantages of dart guns and capture drugs

- Strict control of game capture drugs by ministry of health and related government departments
- Skills needed in handling darting equipment, immobilising drugs and immobilised animals
- Shots usually scatter animals in a herd or group
- Game capture equipment is usually expensive
OSTRICH FARMING
Breeds of Ostrich
- Doboshane
- African black
- Australian blue
- Kenyean red neck
Importance of ostrich farming

- Kept for meat and eggs
- Feathers and egg shells for decoration
- Skin for making shoes, belts etc
Benefits of ostrich meat over beef

- Has low cholesterol level
- less fat content/ lean meat
- Has high iron content than beef
- Has more protein than beef
- Soft, tasty and tender meat than beef
- Less instance of diseases therefore safer to export than beef
Methods of rearing ostriches
Extensive method
- Birds are allowed to roam in large open fenced area to prevent them from escaping
- Birds depend on natural vegetation for survival
- Birds find their own nest and hatch eggs laid
- Chicks are brought up by natural parent
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Advantages
- Low feeding costs
- Low labour requirements
- Less or lo44w skill requirements
Disadvantages
- Low productivity and hatchability
- Birds and eggs may be eaten by predators
- Difficult to control parasites, diseases and breeding
- A large area of land is required
Semi-intensive method
- Birds kept in medium sized paddocks of up to 40ha
- Birds freely breed and lay eggs
- Some of the eggs are collected from nests and incubated and some are left to be hatched by birds
- Birds are supplemented with feeds but get most of their food from the range
Advantages
- Low feeding costs
- Low labour requirements
- Lower mortality rates than extensive method
- Higher productivity than extensive method
Disadvantages
- Difficult to control parasites, diseases and breeding
- Birds and eggs may be eaten by predators
Intensive method
- Birds are kept in paddocks and zero grazed (all feeds supplied)
- Two or three birds are kept in paddocks/pens of 0.2-0.5ha
- Trees to provide shade are left during clearing
- All eggs are collected and hatched artificially
Advantages
- High productivity and hatchability
- Birds are protected from predators
- Easier to control parasites, diseases and breeding
- Low mortality rate
Disadvantages
- High feeding costs
- Expensive to operate
- Needs skilled man power
Incubation of Ostrich Eggs
i) Natural incubation – where eggs are cared for by the parent until hatching
ii) Artificial incubation – care of eggs in artificial incubators until they hatch
Procedure in artificial incubation of ostrich eggs
i) Egg collection
o should be done once per day (morning /late afternoon) after they have been laid
ii) Cleaning and fumigation

o Clean dirty egg by scrubbing using a brush
o Fumigate with formalin (formaldehyde)
iii) Storage of eggs

o Before incubation the eggs should be stored in a cool place at 75-80% RH but not for more than 10days
iv) Pre-heating of eggs

o Should be kept at room temperature (25 0C) for at least 12hours
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v) Cleaning and fumigating the incubators
o Scrubbing and cleaning of the incubators
o Fumigating with formalin (formaldehyde) before incubation
vi) Incubation (temperature and relative humidity)

o 350C-360C but should not vary by ± 0.50C
o 40-42%RH of the air
o Ensure proper ventilation to keep carbon-dioxide levels less than 0.5%
vii) Egg turning

o Automatic incubators turns eggs 24 times a day
o Manual incubators eggs are turned 2-3 times a day
o The air sac should always face upwards
o In the last week eggs are transferred to the hatchery and should not be turned
viii) Incubation period

o eggs starts to hatch after an average of 42days
Marking of birds in captivity
- this helps marks birds for identification and prevent theft and wild birds illegal harvesting
- department of wildlife and national parks (DWNP) helps farmers with equipment and skills for marking of birds
- microchips are tiny electronic pellet like apparatus that stores large information (e.g. date of birth, breed, farmer’s
name etc)
- new information and old information read using a microchip reader
- the microchip is inserted under the skin of the ostrich’s name using specialised apparatus
- the chip remains in the animal’s body the whole life of the animal
Advantages of microchips
- large information can be stored

- are not easily removed or changed by thieves
- controlled by DWNP hence not easily available therefore preventing illegal capturing of wild birds
- cause no stress/ irritation/damage to bird birds’ skin
Disadvantages
- equipment used is expensive

- requires technical to use and insert one
Government efforts towards game farming development in Botswana
- financial assistance for people beginning or expanding their ostrich farms through CEDA, young farmers’ fund
- construction of an ostrich abattoir for farmers to sell their birds at better rates
- agricultural extension workers provide guidance on rearing and ostrich management
- DWNP provides assistance in the marking of birds
- Teaching of farmers in rural training centres about ostrich farming
- Teaching of ostrich farming in secondary schools’ curriculum
Legislative measures for sustainable use of game and endangered species

o These were meant to govern the wise use and conservation of wildlife
a) Wildlife Conservation Policy of 1986

o Outlines rules of sustainable use and importance of wildlife
b) Elephant Management Plan of 1991

o Guides DWNP in the management and conservation of elephants
c) Ostrich Management Policy of 1994

o Guides the use and monitoring of wild ostrich for research, hunting and collection
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d) CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)
o Botswana became a member in 1997
o It controls worldwide trade in endangered plant and animal species
RANGE AND PASTURE MANAGEMENT
Range - plants that grow naturally on an area of land and are used for grazing and browsing by animals.
Rangeland - an area of land covered by natural vegetation such as grasses and other plants suitable for animal
grazing and browsing
Pasture – a fenced area with planted grasses/fodder crop and maintained by man for livestock grazing
Range management – use, care and management of the grazing land to obtain optimum animal production
Factors affect range management in Botswana
a) Rainfall
o Vegetation is influenced by rainfall availability
o Low rainfall causes less plant growth which leads to reduced carrying capacity of the land
o High rainfall causes less plant growth which leads to increased carrying capacity of the land
b) Soils
o Most the soils in Botswana are deficient in phosphorus content and low in organic matter
o This leads to poor soil fertility and poor water holding capacity
o These will lead to poor plant growth hence affecting carrying capacity of land
c) Temperature
o Excessive heat will lead to poor plant growth, wilting and death of plants leading to low carrying capacity of
the land
d) Human activities
o Communal grazing leads to overstocking therefore over grazing leading to long tern degradation of land
o Veld fires destroy the vegetation that is meant for animal grazing and browsing
Composition of range in Botswana
a) Grasses
o Various species with different grazing value are found on the rangelands
o These are the main food provider for grazing animals (grazers)
o E.g. guinea grass (Panicum maximum)
b) Forbs
o Also called herbs
o These are broadleaved non woody plants
o Leguminous ones are of high value to animal and some may be of little value to animals
o E.g. silver leave desmodium
c) Browse
o These are perennial woody plants, trees, shrubs and bushes
o These are main source of food for browsers
o E.g. umbrella thorn (acacia tortilis)
d) Bare ground
o These are areas where no plants grow and are prone to erosion
o These could be due to overgrazing, foot paths or pests damage
e) Occasionally standing water

o Where stagnant water often stands after rains and provide sites for animal watering
Types of natural vegetation of Botswana
a) Shrub savanna
o few trees but many scattered shrubs and mainly acacia species
o found mostly in the south western part of the country
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b) wood land
o made of mostly tall trees and shrubs with ground cover of a mixture grasses
o some of these trees and shrubs offer a browse for animals in dry season
o found in the north central part of the country
c) forests
o consist of mainly of tall trees with little ground cover
o found in areas of high rain fall and fertile soils
o found in the northern part of the country
d) grassland savanna
o vegetation cover is mainly a mixer of grasses, sedges and herbs with none or a very few scattered shrubs or
trees
Concepts of range management
ix) Forage – any plant material fed to live stock e.g. hay, silage, crop residues, range / pasture grasses
ii) Livestock unit (LSU) is a mature animal with a live weight of 500kg
1 cow/donkey/horse= 1LSU, 6goats/sheep=1LSU, 1 bull= 1.5LSU, suckling calves=0LSU
iii) Stocking rate

o the amount of grazing land per livestock unit usually expressed as hectare per livestock unit (ha/LSU) or
o the number of livestock units kept per hectare (LSU/ha)
iv) Carrying capacity:

o the correct stocking rate for a particular area which result in the sustained optimum production without causing
range damage
o carrying capacity is expressed in ha/LSU or LSU/ha
o the carrying capacity of an area is determined by climate, soil type, type of vegetation available, season etc
v) Overstocking: is when the stocking rate in a given area exceeds carrying capacity of the land.
vi) Under-stocking: is when the stocking rate of a given area is lower than the carrying capacity of that area.
vii) Overgrazing
o occurs as a result of overstocking for an extended period of time
o this leads to severe defoliation of grazing and browsing plants hence range land degradation
viii) under-grazing
o when the grass is not fully grazed, it becomes old and looses all nutrients
o selective grazing leads to only less palatable species remaining
ix) mixed species grazing

o where different animal species of animals are allowed to graze in one area
o usually grazers are mixed with browsers for full range utilisation e.g. goats and cattle
x) decreasers
o these are the more desirable/preferred grasses by animals
o they are tall, more palatable and highly nutritious grass species
o these decrease with grazing pressure
o e.g. kikuyu, guinea grass etc
xi) increasers
o these are the less preferred/less desired grasses by the animals
o they are short, less palatable and less nutritious grass species
o they increase with grazing pressure
o e.g. couch grass, love grass etc
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xii) invaders
o these are non-desirable/non-preferred plant species
o they are of no nutritional value to animals
o they are unpalatable plant species
o They normally take over when decreasers and increasers are weakened due to grazing pressure
o e.g. umbrella thorn, sporobolus spp. Etc
xiii) poisonous plants

o these causes harmful effect to animals/ man when ingested(eaten) due to their toxic effect
o these can kill animals when eaten in large quantities
o e.g. thorn apple, devil’s thorn
Relationship between carrying capacity and stocking rate
- two units are used for carrying capacity and stocking rate that is, LSU/ha or Ha/LSU
- these are calculated using the formulae below;
Carrying capacity/stocking rate = total livestock units OR area of land
Area of land total livestock units
The interpretation for comparison between the two is dependent on the units
Using Ha/LSU Using LSU/Ha

CC > SR – overstocking CC > SR - understocked
CC = SR – correctly stocked CC = SR – correctly stocked
CC < SR –understocked CC < SR – overstocked
Extensive Range Management

- animals are allowed to roam and graze in open unfenced areas
- this is a traditional way of looking after livestock
- herd boys guide animals to grazing areas during the day and kraal them at night
Advantages
o low production costs
o no limit to the number of animals one can keep
o animals roam to find food for themselves
Disadvantages
o Selective grazing is common
o Difficult to control pest and diseases
o Difficult to control breeding
o Animals are not protected from predators
How man can destroy the range lands
Damage Prevention
Uncontrolled veld burning Making fire breaks, avoid burning the veld
deforestation Afforestation, avoid cutting down trees
overstocking Correct stocking rate, fence the range
Bush encroachment Control invaders
Improvement of rangelands using indigenous species

- Planting of grass with high graze value locally available as they are adapted to the local climate
- Grass seeds are broadcasted over the original grass layer and left to germinate when rains begin
- Examples of such grasses are guinea grass and couch grass
Ways to prevent range and range land destruction

- practice correct stocking rate
- provide adequate water point that are evenly distributed to avoid undue concentration of livestock around watering
points
- Practice improved grazing systems to optimize the use of available resources.
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- Prevent rapid spread of the woody species /bush encroachment
- Practice supplementary feeding of livestock during the dry season to reduce overgrazing
- Store excess forage as hay or silage
INTENSIVE PASTURE MANAGEMENT
- pastures are fenced to control livestock movement

- pastures are maintained in good condition to provide livestock with quality feeds throughout the year
- pastures can be improved for better food to livestock hence better growth and production
Methods of improving intensive pastures
i) fencing
o keeps livestock within the grazing area and prevents other farmer’s animals from entering
o farmer is able to control his animals’ movement and give other areas time to recover
ii) fertilizing
o increases the grass quality as it replaces the lost nutrients in the soil
o nitrogen fertilizers (LAN, urea) can be added for vegetative growth and phosphorus fertilisers
(superphosphate) for good root development
iii) irrigation
o usually done in the dry season if water is available for irrigation
o irrigation increases forage yield hence better feeds for animals
iv) re-seeding
o land can be ploughed and planted with better varieties of grasses/ legumes, more nutritious, fast growing and
palatable
v) bush control
o remove invaders and poisonous plants that compete with fodder for water, nutrients and space
vi) even distribution of watering points

o should be enough and well spaced to prevent over grazing around watering points
Types of grazing systems

- A good grazing system involves manipulating livestock and forage to obtain optimum production at low cost
Rotational grazing
- a system in which a pasture is divided into paddocks (camps) that are grazed by animals in succession
- A paddock is grazed for a given period of time then it is left to rest and recover as a herd of animals is moved to
another paddock.
Advantages
o Allows for a rest period for the pasture plant species to recover
o Easier to control parasites and diseases
o Pasture grasses are periodically allowed to mature and produce seeds
o Reduces danger of selective grazing
o Easier to group animals according to type, breed, sex and age
Disadvantages
o Requires highly skilled management o make it successful or profitable
o Involves higher expenditure on fencing and reticulation of water
o Requires extra labour to maintain the larger infrastructure
Strip grazing
- Paddocks are divided into narrow strips of pastures using a movable electric fence for day to day grazing
- The electric fence gives animals a slight shock when they come in contact the fence
Advantages
o Selective grazing is greatly minimised
o Grasses are eaten at their highest grazing value
o A movable back fence prevents premature grazing of the re-growth
o Easier to control breeding, parasites and diseases
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Disadvantages
o Involves large capital outlay for additional fencing
o Requires high standard of management
o Requires even distribution of soil moisture throughout the year
Zero grazing
- a system in which animals are not allowed to graze in paddocks
- forage is harvested from the pastures and brought to them in a kraal or shed
Advantages
o livestock can easily be inspected for parasites and diseases
o pastures re-grows quicker due to no trampling by animals
o high stocking rate can be achieved in a small area
o type of feed can be changed as the farmer wishes
o selective grazing and overgrazing are prevented
Disadvantages
o Its labour intensive as manure has to be removed regularly from the shed
o Animals may get paralysis due to lack of exercise
o Requires high standard of management
o Requires high capital investment
Creep grazing/ feeding

- The practice of feeding young livestock with high value food in a sectioned-off part of the indoor environment to
prevent from gaining access to the food
Advantages
o Increased weaning weight
o Better conservation of the pastures
o Reduced mortality rate after weaning
o Accustoms calves to gain feeding so that they wean easier
Disadvantages
o High labour and feeding costs
o Labour intensive
o Creep fed calves utilise little pasture hence waste of forage
o Overgrazing of areas around creep feeders
o Creep feeds intake maybe variable with calves
Methods of fodder preservation

o Fodder crops are plants grown to feed livestock
o Such plants may be grasses, cereals and legumes
o Good fodder should have high yields, continuous fast growth, high nutritive value, easy to harvest and
remove for other crops
Grasses Cereals Legumes

Buffalo grass, Rhodes grass, star grass, couch Millet, Sorghum, Maize, Bulrush Lablab, Lucerne, Cow
grass, guinea grass peas/ beans, etc
a) Hay making
o Fodder crop is preserved by drying

o Fodder is cut whilst still green and fresh just before flowering (after flowering it is less nutritious)
o Fodder is dried in the sun for a day or two and turned for even drying
o When it is dry to touch it is collected into bundles/bales
o The bales are kept in a cool dry place away from the sun
o If not well dried the hay will rot/ not be palatable and less palatable
o If well kept it can last for up to 5years still
o Ensure availability of water when feeding hay as it is dry
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b) Silage making
o The fodder crop is preserved by fermentation

o Fodder is cut whilst still green and fresh just before flowering (after flowering it is less nutritious)
o The fodder is cut into small pieces
o The cut pieces are placed in an airtight pit/silage heap/ plastic bag/ silo
o The material is compressed to remove extra air and then covered with airtight plastic
o Silage activators maybe added to speed up the fermentation process
o Allow material to ferment for 3-4months
o Bacteria found naturally in crops ferments complex carbohydrates(cellulose) into simpler sugars
o Fatty acids and alcohols are also produced which preserves the grass
o Depending on material used after weeks or months the silage will be ready to feed to livestock
o When silage is ready it will be greenish yellow, have a slight acidic taste with a pleasant aroma (smell)
o Normally fed to animals in winter as it is warm and moist
o It last in stores for a few months before it begins to spoil and becomes unsuitable for feeding
Details on a named pasture grass
Kikuyu grass
Detail (s) Description

Form and habit of - It is tufted (all branches emerging from one point)
growth - Has fibrous roots and stolons
Soil and climatic - Well drained and aerated soils
requirements - Soils with good water holding capacity
- Warm temperatures with well spaced rainfall/ irrigation
Persistence (length of - Is a perennial grass
growth)
Fertiliser treatment - Basal dressing with superphosphate at 150Kg/ha for new pasture
establishment
- Top dressing yearly with LAN at 100Kg/ha to stimulate new growth
Planting time and - beginning of the rainy season by broadcasting of seeds
method - plant at seed rate of 2.5Kg/ha
- it take about 2-3 years before grasses a well established
Nutritional value - highly nutritious before flowering
- high in carbohydrate content
- nutritional value decrease after flowering
Details on a named pasture legume
Lucerne
Detail (s) Description

Form and habit of growth - bushy and deep rooted
- has many tri-foliate leaves
- has small purple flowers
Soil and climatic requirements - well drained soils
- cool climate crop
- require rainfall about 450mm/year
Persistence (length of growth) - a perennial plant
Fertiliser treatment - basal dressing with superphosphate at 400Kg/ha
- liming of the soil can be done in acidic soils
Planting time and method - beginning of the rainy season by broadcasting seeds on well
prepared soil
- plant at a seed rate of 10Kg/ha
Nutritional value - highly nutritious before flowering
- high in protein content
- nutritional value decrease after flowering
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MODULE 5 PRINCIPLES OF GENETICS
CROP AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Genetics – the study of how traits are transmitted from parents to offspring
Gene – a unit of inheritance which determines inheritance of particular trait/traits
Alleles – alternative forms of genes occupying same locus of a point on homologous chromosomes
Chromosomes – a tiny threadlike nucleoprotein structures consisting of genes
Homozygous – having identical alleles for a given trait
Heterozygous – having different alleles for a particular trait
Dominance–ability of an allele to express itself in the presence of an alternative allele in a heterozygous state
Dominant – trait of an allele observed in a heterozygous genotype
Dominant allele – an allele that fully expresses itself in a phenotype of a heterozygote
Recessive allele – an allele that can only express itself in a phenotype of a homozygote
Genotype – genetic makeup of an organism or cell
Phenotype – appearance of an individual in a given environment
Complete Dominance – where only one of the two alleles for a given trait is fully expressed in a phenotype of a heterozygote
Incomplete Dominance – where the heterozygote is an intermediate in phenotypes
Co-dominance - where two alleles for a given trait are independently expressed in a heterozygote
Hybrid (crossbreed) – organism produced from crossing parents of different breeds but same species
Haploid – containing a single set (half) of chromosomes
Diploid – containing two sets (complete set) of chromosome
Monohybrid – crossing organisms of different in only one trait of interest
Identification of chromosomes, alleles and genes in a cell
CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS
- Division of somatic (body) cell to produce two identical daughter cells to the parent cell.
- It is a multiplication division of somatic cells to produce two diploid daughter cells
- Cells with diploid number of chromosomes are produced
MITOTIC PROSESS
- chromosomes appear in the cell nucleus

- chromosomes replicate themselves (make identical copies of themselves) forming chromatids
o chromatids remain attached to each other by centromeres
- the nucleus membrane dissolves away/disintegrates
- chromatids lie along the cell equator/centre
- each pair of chromatids separate and move to opposite cell poles
o the movement is by means of spindles
- the pair curl up again (with the other divided chromosomes) to form two nucleus
- the cell membrane and cytoplasm invaginates into two equal parts
- nucleus membrane is formed around each group of chromatids to form new cell chromosomes
- two identical cells to parent and each other are produced
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MEIOSIS
- the reduction division of cells to form haploid daughter cells

- cells produced are different to parent cells
MEIOTIC PROSESS
It has two stages 1st and 2nd meiotic process
1st meiotic stage

- homologous chromosomes appear in the nucleus
- homologous chromosomes pair up and split into chromatids
- homologous chromatids cross-over each other
- homologous chromatids pair up and arrange themselves along the equator
- homologous chromatids separate and move to opposite poles
- the cell membrane and cytoplasm invaginates and two new haploid cells
o NB the chromatids are still attached at the centromeres
2nd meiotic stage
- Chromatids pairs in each cell align themselves in the middle of the cell along the poles
- Chromatids of each pair in each cell separate and move to opposite sides of the cell
- A nucleus membrane forms around each group of chromatids
- The cell membrane invaginates each daughter cell
- Four daughter cells are produced each having a different gene combination
Comparison between mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
- Occurs in production of somatic/body cells - Occurs in production of sex/gametic cells
- Produces two diploid (2n) daughter cells - Produces four haploid (n) daughter cells
- Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cell - Daughter cells are genetically different from parent cell
- Daughter cells are genetically similar to each other (no - Daughter cells are genetically different from each other (have
variation) variation)
- Undergoes one stage of cell division - Undergoes two stages of cell division
MONOHYBRID CROSSES
This is a genetic cross with emphasis on one kind of trait of interest like seed coat, animal coat colour, milk production, pod
shape, seed size, presence of horns or not, plant height, flower petal colour etc…
Steps taken in genetic crossing
- Choose letter to represent the alleles in the crosses

- Write the phenotype and the genotype of the parents
- Determine the gametes from the parental
- Enter possible gametes in the upper and left side of the punnet square/ use a line chart
- Write alleles in the appropriate boxes of the punnet square
- Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring
- Determine the phenotypic and genotypic ratios
The dominant genes/alleles are represented by a capital letters e.g. GG, recessive genes/ alleles are represented by small
letters e.g. gg, heterozygous genes/ alleles are represented by dissimilar letter e.g. Gg
EXAMPLE
1. If a homozygous horned goat was mated with a homozygous polled goat. The allele for horned is dominant over the allele
for polled. Determine the phenotype and genotype of their first-filial (f1) generation. What are the phenotypic and genotypic
ratios?
Homozygous dominant gene = H

Homozygous recessive gene = h
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Parental genotypes
o Horned goat = HH
o Polled goat = hh
2. If an F1 generation female in 1 above is mated with a homozygous horned he goat what will be the phenotype, genotype of
their second-filial (f2) generation. What are the phenotypic and genotypic ratios?
3. If the F1 generation in 1 above are mated amongst themselves what will be the phenotype, genotype of their second-filial
(f2) generation. What are the phenotypic and genotypic ratios?
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VARIATION
- difference in characteristics/ traits/ features between individual/organisms of the same species

OR
- existence of differences in traits of individuals in a population of organisms of the same species
- E.g. no animals of the same breed would carry exactly the same traits. Some are good beef/milk producers while
others are bad beef/milk producers, we have good layers and bad layers. Good fruit producers in plants/ high yielding
crops and low producers etc.
- The phenotype shows the variation in plant and animal species
PHENOTYPE = GENOTYPE + ENVIRONMENT

- Sources of variation in animals and plants are the genotype (genetic variation) and the environment
Genetic Variation
- These are variations due to differences in the genetic make-up of organisms

- This is heritable and enables plant and animal breeders to come up with new animal and plant breeds
Sources of Genetic variation
- Crossing over/ genetic recombination- exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes during meiosis
- random assortment – segregation of genes for different traits rearrangement of chromosome during meiosis
- fertilisation - the joining of maternal & paternal chromosomes during sexual reproduction
- use of recombinant DNA to correct some genetic defects/ making of GMOs
- mutation - change of chromosome, gene arrangement and sequence DNA coding (somatic and germ cells)
o chromosome mutation – changes in the structure of the chromosome and gene sequence but not the genes
themselves
- Gene mutation – chance alterations in the sequence of DNA coding for parent e.g.
o deletion some genes can be accidentally deleted in the DNA of an organism
o inversion a genetic strand is inverted instead of the normal sequence in the chromosome
o insertion- where a portion of a chromosome has been deleted from its normal position and inserted in
another chromosome
o translocation where a strand from another chromosome is added to a normal chromosome
o duplication part of the chromosome strand replicates itself but still remain attached to the mother
chromosome
- Epistasis - where the effect of one gene is dependent on the presence of one or more genes (modifier genes) that is
dominance and recessiveness.
NB: i) Deletion - genes D and E are gone

ii) Inversion - genes DEF are inverted to make FED
iii) Translocation/ insertion - additional genes NMO have been added to the normal strand
iv) Duplication – genes CDE have been copied twice
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Environmental Variation
Environmental Animal Plant

factor
Animals in areas that receive high rainfall Plants grown in areas that receive high rainfall have
Moisture have ample forage and water hence grow, ample moisture hence seeds germinate, grow, and
produce and reproduce better than those that produce better than those that are planted in areas of
live in areas of low rains and poor forage low rains and poor forage
Animals in areas that are too hot feed less Plants in hot areas lose a lot of water through
hence grow and produce less than those in transpiration and grow mostly stunted with deep roots
Temperature areas where they are moderate temperatures and mostly small leaves whilst plants in areas of
high/optimum rain grow tall with big leaves
Diseases Animals that ail/ infested with parasites often Plants that often affected by diseases/ infested by pests
Pests/Parasites grow poorly and produce less than the healthy often grow poorly and produce less than the often
ones healthy ones
Animals in areas with fertile soils and good Plants grown in areas with poor soils have nutritional
Soil fertility forage often suffer less from nutritional deficiency symptoms hence grow poorly and produce
diseases hence better grow, production than less but plants grown in fertile soils grow healthy and
animals in areas with soils deficient in fertility better and produce more
Feeding levels animals fed well with quality feeds grow, Plants that are well supplied with correct fertilisers and
produce and reproduce better than animas that amounts grow better and produce more than plants that
are poorly fed are not supplied with correct nutrients amounts
The plants’ and animals’ level of production, weight, behaviour, size, shape and other features are usually influenced by the
environment and animal genotype
BREEDING
- the development of new animals/ plants with improved traits through selection and controlled mating
Importance of breeding
- increase yield of products such as grains, milk, meat, wool, eggs etc
- develop new breeds (animals) and varieties (crops)
- develop resistance to adverse climatic conditions, pests and diseases
- increase yield per unit area or per animal
- maintain a pure line for desirable traits in animals/plants
- to attain high quality produce
SELECTION
- Continuous process of choosing individuals as parents for the next generation based on heritable desired traits
Selection principles
- based on traits that can be passed to the next generation

- Based on important production traits (e.g. milk, beef, etc)
- Fertility is an important trait to ensure regular reproduction
- Based on the breed and various characteristics
Selection methods / bases for selection
i) Pedigree selection - selection based on ancestral performance rather than individuals’ quality
ii) Progeny selection – selection based on the performance of the offspring
iii) Mass Selection – selection based on individual merit
iv) Family selection – based on the performance of the close relatives such as full/half siblings
v) Pure line selection – continuous breeding and selection for desired traits to maintain a genetically homogeneous
population
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Breeding Methods
Cross Breeding
- Mating of two or more different breeds (pure breeds) of the same species e.g.
BRAHMAN BULL X TSWANA COW
½ BRAHMAN ½ TSWANA
Advantages of cross breeding
- results in hybrid vigour (heterosis)

- combination of desirable traits from both parental in the offspring
- undesirable traits are masked by dominant genes from other parental
- new breeds are developed
- increases genetic variation in offspring (heterozygosity)
Disadvantages of cross breeding
- needs purebred males from that of females

- to get desired hybrid it needs skills and knowledge
- hybrids do not breed true to type
- pure breeds are expensive to acquire/buy
HYBRIDIZATION - This is usually cross breeding in plants
- pure lines/varieties of plants with desired traits are crossed ( Elliot et al page 167)
- select/ isolate superior plant combinations of traits and discard undesirable plants
- once plants can be vegetatively propagated through successive selection and breeding selection is stopped
Advantages & disadvantages are similar to those of crossbreeding
Inbreeding
- mating of closely related individuals of the same species e.g. sire and daughter , brother and sister, mother and son
Advantages of in breeding
- source of pure lines for cross breeding and hybridisation

- reduces genetic variation (increases homozygosity)
- concentrates desirable traits in the progeny
Disadvantages of in breeding
- reduction on heterosis (hybrid vigour)

- may lead to concentration of undesirable traits in the progeny
- exposes hidden traits in crossbred animals
Upgrading
- a form of cross breeding in which inferior crossbreed females are backcrossed to purebred superior male breed for
generations
- the crossbred females f1, f2, f3, f4,…….fn are mated with the same bull
- every successive generation the traits of an inferior breed are halved and replaced by desired traits
- after the eighth generation the upgrade is almost a pure breed e.g. of an upgrade
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Biotechnology
- The application of biological organisms and systems/ processes to manufacturing and service industries
Genetic Engineering
- The modification/alteration/change of the DNA of an organism using recombinant DNA technology
NB: recombinant DNA (rDNA) is a form of artificial DNA that is created by joining two or more DNA molecules from
different sources/species/organisms
Development of biotechnology
- From Organism Level (at an entire animal/plant/micro-organism) Cellular Level ( cells from large organism
are manipulated) Molecular Level ( where genes in the DNA can be accessed, manipulated and utilised)
a) Traditional Biotechnology
- operates at organism level (manipulation of an entire animal/plant/micro-organism) and at cellular level ( cells from
large organism are manipulated)
Examples of traditional biotechnology in agriculture
- plant and animal breeding - fermentation technology - artificial insemination

- vegetative propagation - multiple ovulation and embryo transfer - vaccines production
b) Modern Biotechnology
- Operates at molecular level whereby individual genes for given traits are transferred into target organism. E.g. use of
recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology
Examples of modern biotechnology in agriculture
- Transgenic animals - transgenic plants

- genetically modified plants resistant to insects, herbicides and drought
- rDNA vaccine production technology
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Instances of application of biotechnology in agriculture
a) sour milk production (Madila)
- starter culture of lactic bacteria (Lactobacillus/ Lacto-coccus starter cultures) to milk

- lactose in the milk is broken down to glucose and galactose
- glucose and galactose are metabolised to lactic acid
- lactic acid coagulates milk proteins to make continuous solid curd (fat, water and water soluble material)
- milk is then converted to sour milk to preserve the valuable nutrients
Advantages of the use of biotechnology
- Increased crop and livestock production

- Preservation of fodder (silage)
- Production of vaccines for livestock diseases
- Better use of agricultural waste e.g. as in biogas production
Disadvantages of the use of biotechnology
- Ethical and moral concerns e.g. in gene transfer

- Risk of creating super weeds
- Risk of triggering allergic reactions in humans
- Limited to single gene trait
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MODULE 6 ECONOMICS
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
It is an applied social science that deals with choice and utilisation of technical knowledge and scarce resources in the
production of food, fibre and their distribution to consumers.
TYPES OF ECONOMY
1. MARKET ECONOMY
- also called free enterprise capitalist/ private enterprise capitalism

- production is done by capitalistic method
- land, farms, industries, factories, mines are owned by individuals or companies
- enterprises compete freely to make profit for self enrichment
- the government does not interfere with the competitive running of the enterprises
- the prices are set by the market force (demand and supply)
- availability of the goods in the market (supply) and buying power (demand) causes the change in price
- production resources are controlled by the owners/individuals
- common in the USA
2. PLANNED ECONOMY
- All enterprises are owned and controlled by the state

- also known as collectivism or command economy
- people are not allowed to set up their own businesses
- Production resources are controlled by the state
- The production is basic needs orientated
- The prices are set by the state/government
- There is no competition as it is not encouraged
- Profits are used for development of infrastructure for the benefit of all/ for provision of basic needs
- the state is the only entrepreneur where people work for the state for salaries & or wages
- common in cuba
3. MIXED ECONOMY
- some aspects of production are controlled and supported by the state

- individuals and companies own businesses and compete freely
- has traces of capitalism methods of production
- producers are free to choose what to produce but the state controls production of harmful goods
- less income inequality by the role played by government
- government supervises the monopolies that maybe existent
- common in Botswana
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
These are the scarce resources that are used in the production of goods and services. LAND, LABOUR and CAPITAL.
1. LAND
o this includes all the natural resources used in production of food, goods and services
o land is a fixed asset and its supply is fixed and cannot be increased
o land availability varies with population growth and technological advances
o can be leased and its payment is called rent
2. LABOUR
o is the human resources for provision of both physical and mental efforts in goods production
o labour availability is affected by;
 population size
 average working hours per day
 workers’ capabilities and output
 wages
 % ratio of population in labour force
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3. CAPITAL
o these includes the money, machinery and buildings used to produce other goods
o money is used to purchase machinery, materials for buildings constructions an payment of labour force
o money could be acquired from banks as loan and paid back with interest
4. ENTREPRENEURSHIP
o the ability to make decisions in setting up a business, produce goods or services with decisions made
involving risk bearing and management control
o someone who runs a business for profit making is called an entrepreneur
DEMAND
Is the quantity of goods/commodity consumers are willing and able to buy/ purchase at a given price, time, form and place.
THE LAW OF DEMAND
It states that when the price is high the quantity demanded is low and when the price is low the quantity demanded is high.
Demand curve
Demand schedule
Price of rice (Pula) Quantity demanded (Kg)

10 20
20 15
40 5
50 2
When price rises from P1 to P2 the quantity demanded reduces from Q1 to Q2 and when the price drops from P2 to P1
quantity demanded will increase from Q2 to Q1.
OR
Based on the demand schedule when the price of rice increases from P10 to P50 the rice quantity demanded reduces from
20Kg to 2Kg and when the price of rice reduces from P50 to P10 the quantity of rice will increase from 2Kg to 20Kg.
Determinants of demand
a) change in consumer income: an increase in income will cause an increase in demand and a decrease in
income will cause a decrease in demand
b) population size: an increase in population causes an increase in demand and a decrease in population leads
to decrease in demand
c) taste and preference of the consumers: consumers buy what they like
d) price of substitute goods: a change in price of goods that can be used in place of another causes a change in
demand for the substituted goods e.g. jam and butter
e) price of complimentary goods: these are goods that are jointly demanded therefore a change in price of
one cause a change in demand of another e.g. bread and butter
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Elasticity of demand
- the responsiveness of demand to the change in price

- this is the % demand change in response to the % change in price
- it is also regarded as the measure of the slope/gradient of the demand curve
ED = QD2 –QD1 X P1
QD1 P1- P2
Elasticity of demand can be interpreted in three ways, that is;
a) Ed = 1 is unitary elastic : an increase in price by one unit cause a decrease in demand by one unit and vice versa
b) Ed > 1 is elastic : a slight increase in price causes a great change in quantity demanded
c) Ed < 1is inelastic : a % change in price does not cause a significant change in % change in quantity demanded
d) Ed < 0 is perfectly inelastic: a % change in price causes a 0% change in quantity demanded
e) Ed < ∞ is perfectly elastic : a % change in price causes an immeasurable change in quantity demanded
EXAMPLE: taking figures from the demand schedule above where rice price changed from P10 to P50 the rice quantity
demanded reduces from 20Kg to 2Kg
ED = 2-20 X 10
20 50-10
= -18 X 10
20 40
= -180
800
= -0.225
This means that the elasticity of demand is in-elastic since the answer acquired is less than one.
Supply
Supply is the quantity of goods that producers offer to the market for sale at a given price, form, and time.
Law of supply
It state that as the price rises quantity supplied increases and when the price reduces the quantity supplied reduces.
Supply curve
When price rises from P1 to P2 the quantity supplied increases from Q1 to Q2 and when the price drops from P2 to P1
quantity supplied will reduce from Q2 to Q1.
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Supply schedule
Price of rice (Pula) Quantity supplied (Kg)

10 2
20 5
40 15
50 20
Based on the supply schedule when the price of rice increases from P10 to P50 the rice quantity supplied increases from 2Kg
to 20Kg and when the price of rice reduces from P50 to P10 the quantity of rice supplied will reduce from 20Kg to 2Kg.
Determinants of supply
- market price : when the market price is high the quantity supplied will be high and vice versa
- number of sellers in the market: the higher the number of seller in the market the higher the supply and vice versa
- cost of production : when cost of production is high less will be supplied and vice versa
- government polices : subsidies cause and increase in supply and when taxation is imposed less will be supplied
- price expectation : if there is an expected price increase in the future suppliers will supply less and vice versa
- weather : favourable weather conditions increases supply and vice versa
Elasticity of supply
- the responsiveness of supply to the change in price

- this is the % supply change in response to the % change in price
- it is also regarded as the measure of the slope/gradient of the supply curve
ES = QS2 –QS1 X P1
QS1 P1- P2
Elasticity of supply can be interpreted in three ways, that is;
a) Ed = 1 is unitary elastic : an increase in price by one unit cause an increase in supply by one unit and vice versa
b) Ed > 1 is elastic : a slight increase in price causes a great change in quantity supply
c) Ed < 1is inelastic : a % change in price does not cause a significant change in % change in quantity supplied
d) Ed < 0 is perfectly inelastic: a % change in price causes a 0% change in quantity supplied
e) Ed < ∞ is perfectly elastic : a % change in price causes an immeasurable change in quantity supplied
EXAMPLE: taking figures from the demand schedule above where rice price changed from P10 to P50 the rice quantity
demanded reduces from 20Kg to 2Kg
ES = 20-22 X 10
2 50-10
= 18 X 10
2 40
= 180
80
= 2.25
This means that the elasticity of supply is elastic since the answer acquired is more than one.
THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS
It states that if a variable input is constantly increased while all other inputs are held constant a point is reached where an
additional variable input does not yield/give out an extra output or output starts to decline.
E.g. when urea is added to a maize field the yields will increase with the amount/ increase in application rate until a point is
reached where an additional increase in application rate or amount of urea will lead to a decline in yield.
At stage 1 as the urea is increased from 0kg-20kg the output increased at an increasing rate from 0-50kg. This means each
additional input (1kg) of urea produced 2.5kg. At stage 2as urea increased from 20-40kg the output increased at a decreasing
rate from 50kg-80Kg. this means that an additional 1Kg of urea produces at least 0.6Kgof output.
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Opportunity cost
This is the value of foregone alternative
This is applied in making decisions to take action amongst many choices in enterprise running and combinations to acquire
highest economic returns. It helps in the best possible use of limited resources by giving up an alternative possible use; that is,
the lost opportunity.
e.g. if a farmer has only one bag of urea which could be used in either maize or sorghum production and a farmer chooses to
raise sorghum instead of maize then it means he has forgone or lost the opportunity of raising maize. That lost opportunity of
raising maize is called opportunity cost.
Market price
- This is also called the equilibrium price

- This is where the Quantity demanded is equivalent (equal) to Quantity supplied
- This is where the demand curve meets the supply curve
- At equilibrium price there is no market surplus(excess) nor market deficit (shortage)
- This is a price at which the goods sent to the market are all bought on that particular day without deficit or excess
- The market price is determined by the forces of demand and supply
When the price is at P1 suppliers send less to the market but consumers demand more as there will competing for the
minimum goods available in the market therefore there will be shortage which will cause the price to rise until it reaches
where all goods will be bought without deficit or excess in the market. When the price is at P2 suppliers send more to the
market with anticipation of marking profit but at high price consumers demand less. This causes the suppliers to compete
amongst themselves to get rid of excess supply. This will force the price down towards equilibrium price.
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Risks and uncertainty
Risk - unforeseeable and unavoidable hazards which can be estimated and insured against based on past experiences
Uncertainty - unforeseeable and unavoidable hazards which can be estimated and insured against
Risks Uncertainty
- can be estimated/ predicted based on past experience -cannot be estimated/ predicted
- can be insured against - can not insured against
e.g. theft, accidents, pests and diseases, crop failure, fire e.g. change in government policies, obsolesce due to
damage. technological changes, price fluctuations, change in demand,
earthquakes, wars and coup d'état, labour inavailability
Complementary goods
- These are goods that compete for the same resources

- use the same resource at the same time
- an increase in the production of one causes an increase in the production of another
- These occur when one product produces an input used by another. E.g. intercropping maize and beans; beans fix
nitrogen in the soil which is needed by maize and an increase in beans output will cause an increased output of maize.
Supplementary goods
- These are goods that do not compete for the same resources
- They use the same resource but at different times.
- An increase in ones output do not cause an increase in the other and vice versa. E.g. cropping at different seasonal
times like growing of maize in summer or rainy season and growing wheat in winter
Substitute goods
These are goods that can be used in place of another. E.g Urea can be used instead of Limestone Ammonium nitrate.
FARM RECORDS
Production records: these are all detailed physical entries of input s and output in the daily running of different farm
enterprises for the production of goods and services.
e.g. - crop records (area planted, yields, planting and harvesting time, seed rate, fertilizers used etc),
- Livestock records (numbers, mortality, births, sales, slaughtering, purchases, veterinary and health records, and breeding
records)
- labour records (number of workers, permanent and casual labour)
- Machinery records (tractors, truck, fuel used etc.)
- Stock control records (received and used fuel, fertilisers, seeds, feeds, etc.)
Financial records
This deal with all the cash in-flow and cash out-flow farm or income and expenditure of farm transactions.
e.g. depreciation, sales account, purchase account, debtors and creditor’s account, balance sheet, profit and loss account, assets
and liability account, etc.
Fixed costs
Costs that do not vary or change much from year to year; e.g. regular labour, depreciation of buildings and machinery, rent,
machinery repairs and maintenance
Variable costs
Costs that vary in proportion to any changes in scale of production; e.g. casual labour, seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, feed
staff, stock purchases etc
These vary more with the level of out-put
Total cost
This is the sum of fixed and variable costs. This includes all the sales and receipts in a farm.
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Depreciation
It is the rate at which the value of an asset reduces; the value of machines, farm buildings reduce with passage of time.
Gross margin
- The amount of money that remains after subtracting/deducting the total variable costs
- It is usually expressed per hectare and per head for livestock.
- Convenient in finding out how successful an enterprise is
- The gross margin information is used for planning/ budgeting on the farm
- It is also regarded as gross profit.
GROSS MARGIN = TOTAL OUTPUT – TOTAL VARIABLE COST
NB: for the crops the gross margin can be calculated per bag per unit area by dividing the gross margin with the size of the
land. For the animals the gross margin maybe calculated for each head by dividing the gross margin with the number of
animal.
Steps in gross margin calculation
- calculated yield per hectare

- multiply yield per hectare by price per bag
- this gives gross output per hectare
- Calculate total variable costs and divide them by number of hectares
- Subtract variable costs from the gross output
E.g. the information below on broilers was collected from Lorraine’s poultry farm on 29 December 2012. Use this information
to calculate the gross margin.
Purchases price sales price

15000 day old chicks 2.00 ea broilers sold 14900 30.00 ea
190 bags starter feed 82.00 ea 500 Kg manure 90.00/50Kg
200 bags grower's feed 84.00 ea
100 broiler finisher 85.00 ea
70 bottles lasota drug 11.50 ea
Calculations for total output and variable inputs
Purchases Price (P) Subtotal (P)

15000 day old chicks 2.00 ea 30000
190 bags starter feed 82.00 ea 15580
200 bags grower's feed 84.00 ea 16800
100 broiler finisher 85.00 ea 8500
70 bottles lasota drug 11.50 ea 805
Total 71685
Sales Price (P) Subtotal (P)
broilers sold 14900 30.00 ea 447000
500Kg manure 90/50Kg 900
Total 447900
This could be calculated in this way
GM = TOTAL OUTPUT - TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS

= P447900 - P71685
= P372 315
0r this way per animal
GM = 447900 – 71685
14900 15000
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= P30.06 /bird – P4.78/bird
= P25.28/bird
THE BALANCE SHEET
- It is a statement of the financial position of the business at a given time.

- It shows the value of all the assets (crops, livestock, buildings, machinery, cash in hand, liabilities value (loans, feeds,
debts) as well as net capital (owners’ equity/net-worth)
Balance sheet terminology
Solvent – when the value of asset value exceeds or equal to liabilities
Insolvent (bankrupt) – when the value of assets is less than the value of liabilities
Assets – any property/possession of value that belongs to the business. Or all what the business owns and has value
- current assets – this are assets that change with day to day running of a business e.g. cash at hand, debtors, crops,
feeds
- fixed assets – these are assets that cannot be readily converted into cash e.g. land, machinery, buildings etc
Liabilities – financial debts or amounts which business is legally bound to pay

- current liabilities – debts that that should be paid within the accounting period e.g. debts payable
- long term liabilities – debts which do not have to be paid immediately e.g. long term loan
Owner’s equity/net capital/net-worth: the amount of money that remains after paying all the debts of a business.
E.g. balance sheet of Nkaditswa’s farm as of 30th December 2011
Assets Pula Liabilities Pula

Current assets current liabilities
cash in hand 5000.50 debts payable 4000.50

cash at bank 9950.70 bank overdraft 5000.60
recievable debts 4649.50 tractor depreciation 1200.89
12 heifers 14000.90 depreciation of buildings 2000.30
5 calves 8000.66
remaining seeds 400.99
remaining fertiliser 600.98 long term liabilities
value of crops 4000.99
bank loan 30000.50
interest on loan 600.00
fixed assets TOTAL 42802.79
value of buildings 30000.50 NET CAPITAL 59804.18

tractor value 20000.80
land value 6000.45
TOTAL 102606.97 TOTAL 102606.97
NET CAPITAL = TOTAL ASSETS – TOTAL LIABILITIES

IF LIABILITIES > ASSETS BUSINESS IS BANKRUPT OR INSOLVENT
IF LIABILITIES ≤ ASSETS BUSINESS IS SOLVENT
PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT
- this is done at a particular time of the year during the production period (financial year) to check the success of an
enterprise
- the information is used to either change production strategies or drop the enterprise all together if great losses are made
- only the production factors are included, that is, items involved in production (inputs and outputs/ expenses and returns)
- that is, it measures the viability of a business
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e.g. Profit and loss account of Thapelo’s farm as at 30th December 2013
Expenditure/expenses Amount (P) Returns/income Amount (P)

Seeds 1 200 1000kg crops sales @ P120/Kg 120000
fuel 10000 30 cattle sale @ P3500/head 105000
land cultivation 5000 debts recievable 2000
tractor repairs 6000
fertilisers 4000
vaccines 1220
transportation costs 4000
debt paid 5000
cattle feeds 10000
TOTAL 46 420 TOTAL 227 000
NET PROFIT = TOTAL RETURNS - TOTAL EXPENDITURE

= P227000 – P46420
=P180580
This means that the business is viable.
NB: if one gets a negative answer when calculating the profit/loss then the business is not viable.
AGRIBUSINESS AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Financial assistance for agribusinesses by farmers is done by both governmental and non-governmental organisations e.g.
CEDA, ALDEP, NORAD, UNDP, CUSO, NDB and other commercial banks
SKILLS AND RESOURCES NECESSARY TO START AN AGRIBUSINESS
a) initiative – resourceful and alert to opportunities

b) attitude – positive outlook towards people with friendly interest in a pleasant and polite manner
c) leadership - aspire confidence and loyalty in employees and business associates
d) responsibility – will and capable of assuming complete responsibility for operation and business’ success
e) organising ability – logical arrangement of fundamental business issues
f) decisiveness – quick and accurate when making required decisions
g) perseverance – steadfast in working towards targeted goal
h) physical energy – high level physical energy
i) industrious – capable of working hard for a long hours
Organisational structures
- this enable the firm to achieve its aims

- it relies on “formal’’ and “informal” organisational structure
- many companies are organised in the form of a pyramid
- the top most person has the most authority and is at the top of the chain of command
- each person in the pyramid is responsible for the person immediately below them
- in a formal set up the official lines of communication are followed by employees to carry out management decision
- it helps define responsibilities and ensuring that tasks are not duplicated but coordinated between functions with
organisation
- formal organisation chart shows the relationships through which the firm intends to work
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- informal links can also exist in a formal structure
o when workers organise social events can have a beneficial effect of motivating workers
o but can also create mistrust and ill feelings when workers meet outside to discuss aspect of firm’s operations
- functions found in an organisations vary depending on their size
- there are four types of formal organisational structure and businesses may have more than one
o line organisation
o staff organisation
o functional organisation
o committee organisation
FORMS OF BUSINESS OWNERSHIP OR ORGANISATION
Sole Proprietorship
- an unincorporated business owned and run by one person

- the business owner here is called a sole trader or sole proprietor
- owner provides all capital needed to form, run and expand business
- owner has unlimited liability for the debts of the business
- business is small, has few employees, capital and machinery
- business income is taxed as personal income
- receives all profits and losses
- makes all decisions related to the business
Advantages Disadvantages
- fast decision making by one person - expansion is limited by lack of capital
- easy to form - unlimited liabilities
- require small capital investment - high chances of failure due levels of operations
- owner receives all profits - success depends on managerial skills of the owner
- owner give business all attention for effectiveness - end with death or retirement of the owner
Partnership
- unincorporated business owned and managed by two to twenty members
- capital for the business comes from the partners
- decisions of a partner on behalf of partnership binds all others
- individual partners cannot be sued but judgement is upon the partnership
- partners have unlimited liabilities as they are all responsible for the debts of the business
- partners have unlimited liability for the business debts
NB: - Banks acting as partnership are not allowed to have more than ten partners, deed of partnership govern the rights of each
partner or the partnership act is assumed which provides for equal sharing of profits.
- Deed of partnership sets out the rights of each partner if partnership deed is not there partnership act is assumed to govern
the partnership and profits are shared equally.
- capacity to grow and develop into a larger business - lack of continuity of business if a partner dies
- more capital is available due to partners’ - possible conflicts between partners
contributions - decision making is delayed as several persons are
- expenses and management of business are shared involved
- more efficient business management as there is - generally unlimited liability as each partner is equally
pooling of expertise responsible for settling of business debts
- easy to form as unanimous agreements can change - limited capital for expansion as source of finance is
objects and constitution limited to partner
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Company
- incorporated business owned by private shareholders (two to fifty people) with limited liabilities
- business and legal entities are distinct from its shareholders
- objectives and limits of its power is defined by memorandum of association
- company is run by board of directors selected by shareholders
- it is controlled by shareholders in proportion to their shareholding
- the capital is divided into shares which must be sold privately
- when registering with the registrar of companies its name must include Limited (Ltd)
NB: - public limited companies allow the public to buy shares from it, owner have limited liabilities, publishes annual
accounts, only trades with certificate of trade, shares freely transferable and controlled by board of directors.
- Private limited company’s shares are not sold to the general public, shares are not readily transferable, may not publish its
annual accounts, under control of shareholders, and may start trading upon incorporation…
- a solvent company has a permanent existence despite - high accounts auditing fees by accountants
large shareholder’s death of or sells shares - proper accounts books, register of shareholders,
- presents opportunity to small investors to invest in big of charges, of directors, of secretaries and a
companies minute book must be kept
- shareholders pay personal tax on their income from - difficult to form as there are complex
the company procedures to follow
- it is subject to legal and government regulations safe - limited companies are subjected to complicated
guarding interest of shareholders, people and government regulations
organisation dealing with the company - limited liability makes it difficult to get credit
- shareholders have limited liabilities as it is - once shares are sold they are permanent for as
- exists as a separate taxpayer so it pays taxes on its long as the company lasts
declared profits audited accounts
Co-operatives
- this is a non-profit voluntary organisation in which members associate on the basis of equal rights to obtain economic
and social benefits
- it is a registered association of 10 or more people with common economic needs
- benefits particularly people of limited means
- members are paid limited shares on their share capital
- control is by democratic means ( one man one vote principle)
- equitable distribution of surplus or savings to avoid one member gaining at the expense of others
- promotes spirit of self-reliance self help and mutual help - needs skilled management which is usually
- they are service oriented for the members rather than profit scarce in developing countries
- free education and training for cooperative members and - people are likely no to work as hard for
officers by BCD education and training section cooperative as they would for themselves
- reduce overhead cost enables cooperative to operate at low cost - conflict between the ideal of all members
- members have easy access to credits, savings and loan facilities having equal say and the practical needs
from Botswana Cooperative Bank for one competent decision maker
MARKETING
The performance of all business activities involved in the flow of goods and services from point of initial production until they
are in the hands of consumers.
Marketing functions
These are major specialized activities performed in accomplishing the marketing process.
a) Exchange functions
Involve activities that deal with the transfer of title to goods. They involve price determination because no product can be
exchanged without putting value to it.
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i) Selling – goods title transfer from seller to consumer through use of price. It involves physical presentation of
goods, advertising and promotional strategies.
ii) Buying and assembling – involves finding the source of supply, purchasing and assembling of goods
b) Physical functions
These entails all the activities involved in handling, movement and physical change of the actual commodity itself.
i) Storage – ensure that goods are available at the desired time for consumers, processing and transportation,
and also protects produce from damage or deterioration.
ii) Transportation – ensure that the goods are made available at the proper place. It includes loading,
unloading and products stacking for shipment
iii) Processing – involve the change of the basic form of the good to the form desired by the consumers. It
involves drying, milling, baking slaughtering, canning, bottling, brewing, fermenting etc.
c) Facilitating functions
Facilitating functions ensure the smooth implementation of both the exchange and physical functions. It is not involved the
exchange of title and handling of goods.
i) Standardization: it involves the measure of product quality and quantity.
a. Grading : sorting out of products into grades on the basis of standard criteria or parameter e.g. grade 1,2,3,4
of eggs
b. Weighing : acquiring of the mass per volume of products
c. Packaging: enclosing product units in individual packages
d. Packing: assembling similar sized product units into shipping containers for protection against damage,
theft, ruining on its way to the market.
ii) Financing - provides money to fund marketing activities from buying to sale of the produce to the consumer.
iii) Risk bearing (insurance) – cover marketing risks by taking up insurance to avoid complete produce or produce
loss’ costs
iv) Market intelligence – involves collecting, interpreting and disseminating a huge variety of data for smooth
running of the marketing process.
Market research
It is the systematic collection of information, its analysis and decision orientated information about markets.
- Farmers use its information to select agricultural enterprises, change production plans and decide market strategies.
- Regulates the product flow and prices of food in the food industry
- Improves market operational efficiency
NB one could say market research refers to the gathering, recording, analyzing and interpreting of all facts relating to the
transfer and sale of goods and services from the producer the consumer.
Typical market research questions
i) Who is the buyer?

ii) Why do they buy?
iii) What products compete with your products?
iv) What are the advantages and disadvantages of your product compared to those of other competitors?
v) What is your market share?
vi) What is the nature of demand i.e. prices elasticity of demand.
Market research process
1. defining the problems and research objectives
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2. developing the research plan
Data sources Methods of data collection

Research approaches Observation, focus group, survey
Research instrument Questionnaire
Sampling plan Sampling unit& sample size
Contact methods Telephone, mail, personal
3. Collection of data and information.

4. Analysis of information- extracts findings from the data by tabulating and developing frequency distribution,
averages and means are computed.
5. Presenting the findings – researcher presents the findings to the management in a simple manner.
Advertising
Any paid from of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by identified sponsor. The objective is
to direct persuasive communication to target buyers and public by creating demand for a product.
Or
It can be defined a telling/informing people what a business has to sell so that they want to buy their goods more than they do
those of its competitors.
Why advertise
a) Informative advertising
- create demand for a new product or services

- inform customers/ potential customers news use of product, price change, how product works
- make customers aware of new and old products and the company itself
b) persuasive advertising
- persuade customers to switch to your product

- persuade customers of the products’ superiority
- To inform customers of incentives for buying a given product e.g. buy one get one free
- To increase the company’s profitability in the long run
- To increase or maintain market share of a product
c) To remind
- To keep consumers thinking of the product
This could be done through the use of media sources like radio, television, newspapers, phone, email, or direct mail.
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MODULE 7
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
The science and practice relating to manufacture; use of agricultural machine, implements and buildings; soil and water
management; farm power use and processing of agricultural products
Importance of agricultural engineering
- Increased output (yield) per unit area

- Increased rate of working (work rate)
- Faster and efficient processing of agricultural products
- Modification of extreme environmental conditions is made possible
- Improve pests and disease control methods e.g. use of cordon fences
IRRIGATION
Is the controlled application of supplementary water to crops during to growing season
Effects of irrigation on crop quality and yield
- Can lead to water logging and increased soil salinity hence reduced crop yield and quality
- Uncontrolled irrigation may lead to leaching and soil erosion leading to poor crop yields and quality
- Results in planned and reliable crop production program
- Enables extended periods of crop growth resulting in higher yields e.g. in tomatoes and some leafy vegetables
- Makes it possible to grow crops in arid and semi-arid areas
Types of irrigation
There are three types surface, sub-surface and overhead irrigation
a) Surface irrigation
o Water is allowed to flow over land/ ground surface to wet cropped area e.g. furrow irrigation or flood
irrigation
Furrow irrigation
o Water flows from a water source into a main channel along the ground surface through the furrows in a
cropped area
o Furrows are gently sloping away(3% slope) from the water source into the cropped area
o Gentle slope allows water to flow through furrows without causing erosion as in-case of steep slopes
o Water moves flows along the furrows by gravity
o Water flow is controlled from the main water source
Advantages
o It is less labour intensive
o It is cheaper to install than the overhead irrigation system
Disadvantages
o Difficult to control the amount of water applied
o Soil erosion may occur in steep areas
o Regular clearing of furrows due to siltation
b) Sub-surface irrigation system
o Water is allowed to flow through perforated pipes laid under the ground to wet the root zone of a cropped area
o The small holes allow water to ooze/trickle/ drip from them hence trickle/drip irrigation
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Trickle/ drip irrigation
o Water is allowed to flow through perforated plastic hosepipes laid along the crop rows and connected to a
water source with pressure
o Each hole on the pipe allows water to drip slowly besides each plan at the root zone in right amounts
Advantages
o Water saving as little amounts are applied at a time

o Less evaporation as water is applied only close to the plant
Disadvantages
o Expensive to install due high cost of plastic pipes
o Require more labour during installation
c) Overhead irrigation
o Water is applied in the form of rain by rotating sprinklers mounted on vertical pipes
o Water passes through sprinklers under high pressure from water source
Advantages
o Easy to control the amount of water applied
o Uniform distribution of water over required area
o Makes fertigation possible
Disadvantages
o Strong winds reduce their efficiency
o Requires skilled personnel to maintain the system
o Encourages fungal diseases due to water accumulation on leaves
o Warm and windy conditions leads to high evaporation losses of water
DRAINAGE
o The artificial means of removing excess/surplus groundwater or surface water
Advantages
o Increase aeration for root respiration and development

o Reduced occurrence of root/fungal diseases and aquatic weeds
o Easy to control livestock parasites e.g. liver fluke
o Increased land area for farming as more land is reclaimed
Disadvantages
o High risk of soil erosion especially in steep areas

o Drainage pipes and furrows reduces cropping land
o Furrow and drainage pipes hinder cultivation operations and livestock movement
Effects of waterlogged soils on crops
o Poor aeration leading to shortage of oxygen in the soil hence poor root respiration and growth
o Poor seed germination due to low soil temperature and limited oxygen supply
o Increased occurrences of root diseases
o Increased growth of weeds adapted to waterlogged conditions/ water-loving weeds
o Death of crops sensitive to water-logging conditions
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Drainage methods
a) Subsurface method (tile/French/underground perforated pipes/ pipe drains)
Underground Perforated pipe method Tile/Stone drains/French drain

- Ditches of 100 cm deep are dug - Ditches of 100 cm deep are dug
- Back fill with stones to layer to about 50cm - Ditch is back filled with large stones to about 50
- Perforated pipes are laid in the ditches cm
- The pipes should be sloped away from the drained land - Small stones are then placed over the lager stones
- Stones are placed around the pipes - A metal sheets is place over the stones
- Metal sheet is place over the stones - Then the soil is placed over the metal sheet
- Then the soil is placed over the metal sheet - The drains should be sloped away from the
- Water seeps from the surroundings into the pipes drained land
through the perforations - Water seeps from the surroundings into the drain
- Water flows through the pipes by gravity to a and flows away by gravity to a waterway
waterway - French drain does not interfere with the field
- This pipes interfere with the field operations operations
- Do not encourage erosion but encourage leaching - Do not encourage erosion but encourage leaching
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i) Tile/stone drains ii) Perforated pipe method
b) Open ditch method
o Broad ditches are dug at 1m deep

o They are shaped into a U/V shape
o They are dug at about 100m apart along the slope
o Water seeps and flows into the ditches due to gravity
o Water it take to a waterway/river/stream where it will cause no damage
NB: in low lying areas where other methods are not suitable water is pumped away
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FENCING
An upright structure that forms an effective barrier to humans and livestock movement
Reasons for fencing
o Keeps out intruders and wild animals from the farm

o Define boundaries hence avoiding disputes
o Paddocking makes it possible to separate livestock according to age, sex, health status, and type
o Help in efficient control of parasites, pests and diseases
o Help control breeding in livestock
Types of fences
Fence type Use of the fence

- Suitable for docile animals used to handling
Plain wire fence - Suitable for sheep
- Usually used in combination with barbed wire
Barbed wire fence - Used for confining larger animals like cattle
Woven wire fence - Suitable for confining small stock and poultry
Electric fence - Used in strip grazing in a permanently fenced area
- Useful in confining cattle, sheep and wild animals
Post and rail fence - Used in collecting yards, kraals and crushes
Live fence (hedge) - Used as boundary fence
- Used in vegetable gardens as windbreaks
Stone/concrete wall fence - Suitable for small enclosure e.g. stores, vegetable garden etc.
Wooden fence - Used in farm houses and vegetable gardens
Trench fence - Effective with perimeter fence to prevent wild animals from getting into the farm
Types of fencing materials
Name of Use (s) Advantage Disadvantage

Material
Timber (wood) - Cheaper than metal - not lightening resistant
Posts - Readily available in many areas - easily destroyed by fire
Droppers - Ease of workability - easily attacked by termites and fungus
Rails - Rarely injures animals unless treated
Metal posts Posts - resistant to fire/termites/fungus/lightening - expensive to buy
Rails - very durable - rusts easily in humid areas
- ease of erection - less secure in sandy areas
Concrete posts Fencing - very durable - very heavy compared to wood
posts - can be made on site if materials are - very expensive
available
- resistant to water, rust, termites and fire
Live posts Form hedge - creates an attractive feature in land scape - labour intensive in planting and
- serves as wind breaks maintenance
- cheap and easy to establish - can encourage weeds and vermin
- thorny plants wound animal skins
Barbed wire Fencing - effective in restraining larger livestock/game - can wound skins of livestock/game
lines/strands - durable if protected from rust - break at barbs when overstrained
- termites/fire/fungus/lightening resistant - difficult to erect due to barbs
Plain wire Fencing - easier to erect than barbed wire - less visible to livestock and game
lines/strands - more elastic than barbed wire - often stolen to make snares
- termites/fire/fungus/lightening resistant
Woven wire Fencing - effective in controlling poultry/small stock - prone rusting
walls - durable and more attractive - to form an effective barrier the lower
- termites/fire/fungus/lightening resistant part has to be buried into the ground
- quick and easy to install - more expensive compared to other
forms
Stone & Fencing - very strong and durable - needs skilled labour (masonry)
Concrete blocks walls - insect, fire and fungus resistant - expensive
- forms effective barrier to game/livestock - bulky to transport
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Treatment of fencing posts
- for protection from weather, insect, fungus, rot and rust
- to increase their life span
- wood is treated with preservatives e.g. creosote, coal tar, tanex, paint, metallic salts etc
Wooden posts treatment methods
1. Superficial treatment method

o this involves dipping, spraying painting and brush application
o well-seasoned dry posts with clean surfaces are used
o two coats of paint are applied
o first paint coat is applied and left to dry then the second one is applied
2. Soaking treatment method
a) Cold treatment
o peeled seasoned posts are wood is put in a tank/ old oil drum with preservative
o wood is left to soak for three days to allow drawing of chemical into conducting tubes
o wood is then removed from the preservative and drained off excess preservative
b) Hot treatment
o peeled posts are submerged in a suitable preservative in an oil drum
o The contents (preservative & posts) heated to nearly boiling point for 2hours
o The posts are allowed to cool in the preservative
o After heating the cells will shrink during cooling drawing up the preservative
3. Sap displacement treatment (end diffusion)

o The posts have to be soaked at least an hour after cutting before the sap dries up
o Freshly cut posts are allowed to stand with their end bottom in the preservative
o After 10 days the posts are turned to place the other end in the chemical
o As the sap in the wood dries out the chemical is drawn into the pole
4. Pressure treatment
o Peeled wooden posts of desired size are tightly packed horizontally in a cylinder
o The steel cylinder is filled with desired preservative at high pressure
o The preservative is forced into the wood through conducting tubes
Metal treatment post
- These are treated against rust by painting or galvanising
Construction of a cattle wire fence
Materials and equipment needed
 Strainer
o larger and stronger posts for corners, gates,
o They are usually 2.4 m long and 15 – 25 cm in diameter
 Standards
o Holds wire between strainers
o They are usually 2.1 m long and 10 – 15 cm in diameter
 Struts
o for bracing/supporting strainers
o They are 2.4. m long and 10-12.5 cm in diameter
 Droppers
o Holds wire between the standard posts
o Avoids sagging by ensuring the wire strands remain evenly spaced
o These may not be fixed in the ground
o They are usually 6 cm in diameter
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 Fencing wire, staples/U-nails, soft-wire, concrete, hinges, pegs, strings
Steps in construction of a wire fence
- Locate the corners using pegs

- Clear the fencing area wide enough allow enough working space
- Mark the positions of gate, strainers and standards using pegs
- Dig holes for post at proper depths and diameter
o Strainers 90 cm deep and 60cm wide
o Standards 60 cm deep and 30 cm wide
- Set corner posts, gate posts and other strainers at marked positions and firmly fix them in a straight and vertical
position
- Brace corner posts, gate posts and strainers with struts
- Position standards every 4-15 m
o 4 m if droppers are not used
o 15 if droppers are place between any two standards
o Standards are not braced
- Firm around posts/ apply concrete (allow concrete to set before straining the wire)
- Fix wires on posts
o Start in a corner with the top wire and work down
o Pull the wire tightly using a wire strainer
o Staple the wire on to the standards
o Four strands of barbed wire are usually sufficient
- Fix the droppers
o Use soft wire to tie droppers to each wire strand
- Hang the gates
Construction of a corner in a wire fence
- Dig the corner most post to a depth of 90 cm

- Dig vertical braces at a depth of 60 cm
- Install wooden horizontal braces at the top between the corner post and the vertical braces
- Install a straining wire which is normally strained using a piece of wood by twisting it
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FARM ROADS /EARTH ROADS
Importance of farm roads
- Facilitates transportation of farm inputs

- Facilitates transportation of farm output from the farm to the market
- Facilitate movement of draft/draught animals
- Facilitates movement of machinery and workers within the farm
- Provides access for visiting agricultural veterinarians and demonstrators
Factors considered when siting a farm road
- Topography – steep /hilly/mountainous should be avoided as it will be expensive to construct a road in such areas
- Soil type – clay areas should be avoided as it is easy for machinery to sag into the soil when it is wet and has poor
drainage
- Parts of the farm to be linked to the road ( loading and off-loading areas, animal and crop storage houses)
- Presence of difficult spots (swamps, hills, big rocks, soft ground, low lying areas) should be avoided
- Natural drainage – areas which clears off rain water easily are preferable
- Mode of transport to be used
Construction of an earth road/ farm road
- Land surveying - to determine the road line (avoiding difficult areas)

- Setting the centre line, width of the road way and side drains using pegs
- Clearing and stumping of the road line ( trees, grasses, stones, rocks, etc. ) for easy road construction and drying
- Grading of the road using a grader (self-propelled or tractor drawn)
o The road crest should be made 15 cm above the original ground
o Road surface should slope from the centre to the sides by 5-7% from water shedding into side water drains
o Road width should be about 4m
- Drainage
o Side drains are made on either sides of the road to collect water off the road surface
o Mitre drains are constructed (20-250 m apart) to carry water away from the road
- Construct an invert/culvert/bridge where the road crosses a water course(river or stream)
- Grids
o Made of metal/ iron bars fixed 15cm apart
o It is placed across the road width over a trench dug at 50-80cm deep
o Act as a livestock barrier
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o Serves an alternative for a gate
Farm roads/earth road maintenance
- Regular clearing of storm water drain (debris and weeds)

- Regular grading of the road to maintain its shape
- Frequent covering of potholes
- Clearing the road sides
- Resurfacing of the road with gravel / soil
Repairing of earth roads/farm roads
- Super elevation of the road to prevent water flowing over the road
- Provision of extra water drains for faster drainage
- Provision of more mitre drains and water diversion channels
- Construction of culverts and inverts
- Reduce heavy machinery movement as heavy machines damage the road
- Consider natural drainage
- Avoid low lying areas
Farm buildings
Factors to consider when selecting a site for farm building
- Security – enterprise buildings should be close to farmer’s house as they are prone to theft
- Availability of water – for easy animal watering, crop irrigation, crop processing, human consumption and cleaning
- Topography – gentle slopes are preferable for free flowing of water and reduced construction costs
- Orientation – east west orientation to avoid direct sunlight into the house yet maximum sunlight
- Distance to other buildings - buildings of animals that are noisy/with bad smell should be place far from farm housed.
- Drainage – well drained area has less flooding and water logging hence discourages parasites and pathogen breeding
Reasons for housing livestock
- Protection from adverse weather conditions (heat, rain, cold etc)

- Protection from predators and thieves
- To control breeding
- To control parasites and diseases
- Facilitates separation of livestock according to sex, age, type etc
- Increase production and yield
Poultry house
Desirable features of a poultry house
- Rough concrete floor – to avoid slipping of chickens which might cause injuries
- Concrete floor – for ease of cleaning
- Well ventilated – allows regulation of temperature and humidity inside the house, removes bad smell from the house
- Adequate space - to avoid overcrowding which may lead to egg eating and cannibalism
- Adequate light – light encourages egg laying in layers and acts as a natural disinfectant
- Secure- have lockable doors for thieves and predator proof
- Should have a foot bath – helps with control of diseases from outside the house into the house
- Smooth walls - to avoid build-up of parasites and pathogens
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Construction of a poultry house
Walls
- The lower/offcut walls should be 1m on the length of the house

- A wire mash should put over the lower/offcut walls up to the roof i.e. up to 1.4m for ventilation
- Width/breadth walls should be solid/continuous up to the roof
- Should plastered and smooth to prevent hiding of pathogens and parasites
Floor
- Made of concrete with a rough surface
Roofing
- A flat/ gabble roofing with a good overhang of 80cm (prevents entry of water into the house during rain)
- Corrugated iron sheets/aluminium sheets/thatch/ tile can be used for roofing
Door
- Should be a secure/tight fitting lockable door
Dimensions
- Width/breadth should not exceed 10m

- The length be any convenient length
Orientation
- House should be in an east-west orientation to prevent direct entry of sunlight into the house
Footbath
- At the entrance to control diseases
Adequate space
- Should have ample space for the birds (10 birds per m2 in deep litter )
Maintenance of a poultry house
- Repair/ replace roof if there a leakages

- Seal cracks on the wall to avoid breeding areas for pests, pathogens entry of vermin
- Fire hazard precaution – clear fire breaks around at least 3m the house
- Clean and disinfect the house before arrival of the next batch of birds to avoid diseases spread
- Erect blinds to prevent strong wind and rain bearing winds from gushing through the house
- Litter should be put on the floor about 20cm for cushioning, moisture absorption and warm
ANIMAL HANDLING FACILITIES
Crushes
A narrow passage through which animals a driven to restrain them for different activities like examination, vaccination
branding etc.
Importance of crushes
These are used in;
- Hand spraying to control external parasites

- Milking
- Blood, mucal and faecal sample collection
- Artificial insemination
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- Vaccination and drenching of animals
- Hoof trimming, dehorning and disbudding
- Pregnancy tests and castration
- Clinical examination
- Marking of animals (branding, ear notching, ear tattooing etc.)
Types of crushes
a) THREE POST CRUSH - this holds only one animal at a time
b) FOUR POST CRUSH - this holds only one animal at a time
c) STRAIGHT CRUSH - A crush for holding many animals at a time
d) MOBILE CRUSHES – crushes usually used to move livestock to other area/ used in areas where normal crushes are
not availabe
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Construction of a cattle crush
- Measure out and clear an area of about 1.2 m by 2m continuous with the cattle race
- Measure positions of post holes
- Dig holes for posts at 60 cm deep and diameter 30 cm
- Compact the cattle race and apply a 10 cm thick concrete
- Insert the treated gum poles (12cm thick & 2.4m long) into the holes
- Fix head bail at the end and sliding gate/tail bar at the race entrance
- Anchor posts using concrete to a depth of 60cm
- Fix rails on the posts using bolts and nuts through drilled holes
- To prevent animals from turning back or jumping out but easily move in the race it should have the following
dimensions
o 1.5m – 1.7 m long for each animal
o 1..5m 1.8m high
o Up to 1m in width
Dip tank
A farm structure used in the control of external parasites in animals by immersing them in an acaricide
Description of the operation of a dip tank
A dip tank is made of collecting pen, entrance race, dipping tank, exit ramp and draining race
- Collecting Pen
o Where animals collects before from pastures before dipping
o a funnel shaped area continuous with the entrance race
- Entrance Race
o Has two or more foot baths to wash animal hooves prevention soiling of the dip wash
o It is a 12m long passage with a concrete floor
- Jumping Place
o A narrow steep flight of short steps usually 40 cm above the dip wash level for maximum dipping
o Its where one animal at a time plunges into the dipping tank
- Dipping Tank
o Made of the swim bath and the exit ramp
o The swim bath is 4.6-5 m long and 1.6 m deep
o Animals swim to the exit ramp
o The dip tank is fully roofed to reduce evaporation and acaricide dilution by rain
- Exit Ramp
o It is 8m long
o Has staircases to enable animals to climb out of the dipping tank to the draining race
NB this is part of the dip tank
- Draining Race
o A 15 m fenced passage with a smooth, water tight floor which slopes towards the dip tank
o Excess chemical on the animal bodies drains and flows back to the dip tank
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Advantages of dip tanks
- Suitable for large number of livestock

- Animal’s body is fully covered by the acaricide
- Dip wash can be used again
- Cheap to run if owned communally
- Low labour requirement
Disadvantages of dip tanks
- Requires an expert to monitor dip wash condition and strength (concentration)

- Difficult to maintain the strength of the dip wash (due to contamination by rain and dirt from animals)
- High initial construction costs
- Large quantities of water are needed
- Young, sick and heavily pregnant animals cannot be treated
- Time consuming to empty and fill the dip wash
Spray Race
A confined space in which livestock are sprayed with acaricides under high pressure delivered through a series of pipes
- A tunnel with concrete floor and side walls at 6m long and 1m wide
- The walls, roof and floor are networked with pipes having 25-30 nozzles
- The acaricide is released as a dense spray at high pressure exposing on animals passing through
- A centrifugal pump/electric motor circulates the fluid
- The discharged chemical on the tunnel floor and from draining race is led back to the sump and re –used
Advantages of a spray race
- Cheaper to install than a dip tank

- Easier to change the chemical than in dip tank
- Fresh dip wash can be made every day
- Suitable for small numbers of animals
- Can be used for sick, pregnant and young animals
Disadvantages of a spray race
- Nozzles tend to get damaged by cattle horns and hooves

- Nozzles may get clogged/ blocked leading to unsatisfactory spraying
- Less efficient spray coverage of animal body
- Extra maintenance needed for the pump, engine and nozzles
- Source of power needed to run the pump
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FARM WATER SUPPLY
Uses of water in a farm
- Domestic consumption (human drinking, washing, cooking etc.)

- Livestock watering
- Irrigation of crops
Farm water sources
- Streams - rivers - water reservoirs - wells - swamps - lakes

- Boreholes - ponds - springs - dams/weirs - water tanks - rain harvester water
Water treatment in the farm
For human consumption/drinking/domestic purpose
Boiling
o Water is allowed to sedimentate /allow dirt to settle
o Water is then filtered into a clean container
o Wash the drum and put water into the clean drum
o Boil the water for 20 minutes to kill the pathogens and parasites in the water
o Allow the water to cool whilst in a covered container
o Put the water into a covered container and the water is safe for human consumption
NB- Other methods include distillation especially for salty water.
METHODS OF FARM WATER STORAGE
Barrel tank
- Water is collected from the roof tops using gutters

- The water is directed to the tank for storage
- Tank size needed can be estimated by multiplying the roof surface area by annual rain
(TANK CAPACITY = ROOF AREA x ANNUAL RAINFALL AMOUNT)
- After the tank is filled the gutter needs to be disconnected from the tank to avoid contamination
- After the first rains the roof tops needs to be cleared of dirt (bird droppings, soil, leaves and dead insects)
- The tanks can either be on the ground or below the ground
- NB for tanks below the ground energy will be needed to pump the water
ALDEP tanks
- A Ministry Of Agriculture initiative through Arable Land Development Programme

- Tanks of 14000 L capacity are used with diameter of 2m and depth of3m
- The tank is usually dug into the ground
- The tank is covered with cement reinforced chicken wire fence and sand plaster
- A thresh floor is used as a catchment area
- First rains are harvested enabling the farmers to move to the lands and stay there throughout the growing season
- Water is normally used for watering livestock
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Dams
- Made by constructing a wall across a watercourse e.g. stream/ river

- The dam wall is wider at the bottom to withstand water pressure as it increases with water depth
- The earth dam wall is made of an impervious clay to prevent water seeping through the dam
- The inner side of the dam is covered by rocks to prevent erosion by wave action
- The outer wall should be covered with grass to prevent rain erosion
- A water spillway/ overflow pipe is installed to maintain water level in the reservoir hence preventing flooding and
washing away of the dam
- Downstream below the water spillway a concrete slab is installed to prevent erosion
FARM MECHINERY
Farm tools – simple hand operated (powered) devices for performance of farm asks/duties. E.g. spade, rake, burdizzo,
drenching gun
Farm implements – larger farm devices designed to perform farm duties/tasks usually animal/ tractor drawn or not self-
powered. E.g. harrow, ridge maker, trailers, carts, mould-board plough, disc plough
Farm machinery – machines are larger devices which are self-powered using fuel (petrol/diesel) and have many moving
parts. E.g. tractors, trucks, combined harvester
Mode of action of a four stroke engine
Terms used in engine operation
Cylinder- an air tight chamber which guides pistons and where fuel combustion takes place
Piston –produces strokes when moving from bottom dead centre to top dead centre and vice versa
Inlet valve – allows entry of air-fuel mixture or air into the cylinder
Exhaust valve – allows exhaust gases
Crank shaft – transmits power to the fly wheel’
Cam shaft – has cams that operates the valves
Spark plugs – produce spark to ignite the fuel
Fuel injector – delivers atomized diesel into the cylinder
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PETROL ENGINE OPERATION
NAME OF STROKE STROKE DESCRIPTION

- Piston moves downwards
- Inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is
INDUCTION STROKE closed
- Air-fuel mixture is drawn/enters into the
cylinder
- Piston moves upwards

COMPRESSION STROKE - Both inlet and exhaust valve closed
- Air-fuel mixture is compressed and its
temperature rises to about 3780C

- Both inlet and exhaust valve closed
- Spark plug produces a spark that ignites the
POWER STROKE air fuel mixture
- Power produced is transmitted to the
crankshaft

- Inlet valve is close and exhaust valve open
EXHAUST STROKE - Burnt gases escape the cylinder through the
exhaust valve
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Diesel engine operation
NAME OF STROKE STROKE DESCRIPTION
INDUCTION STROKE - Piston moves downwards

- Inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is
closed
- Only air is drawn/enters into the cylinder
COMPRESSION STROKE

- Both inlet and exhaust valve closed
- Air is compressed and its temperature rises to
about 3780C

POWER STROKE - Both inlet and exhaust valve closed
- Fuel injector pump sprays an atomised into
the cylinder
- Fuel is ignited by extremely high
temperatures causing an explosion
- Power produced is transmitted to the
crankshaft

- Inlet valve is close and exhaust valve open
EXHAUST STROKE - Burnt gases escape the cylinder through the
exhaust valve
- End of exhaust stroke makes beginning of a
new cycle
Difference between patrol and diesel engines
Patrol engine Diesel engine

- Has a carburettor - Has an injector pump
- Has spark plugs - Has fuel injectors (nozzles)
- An electrical spark ignites air fuel mixture - Heat resulting from compression ignites fuel
- Air –fuel mixture compressed during compression stroke - Only air is compressed during compression stroke
- Has low power output - Has high power out put
- Produces less noise - Produces a lot of noise
- Produces little smoke - Produces a lot of smoke
108
ENGINE SYSTEMS AND THEIR MAINTENANCE
Water cooling system
Made of radiator, water hoses, water pump (impeller pump), water jackets, thermostat, fan and fan belt, temperature gauge (on
the dashboard)
- Impeller pump sucks water through the bottom hose from the radiator
- Water circulates the within the engine block and head cylinder through water jackets
- Hot water from water jackets goes back to the radiator for further cooling
- Thermostat controls water temperature in the engine
- Hot water enters the radiator from the top and passes through radiator fine tubes
- The fan draws air through radiator fins cooling water in the radiator before draining to the bottom tank
- Radiator tubes and fins increase the surface area for water cooling in the radiator
Maintenance of water cooling system
- Top radiator water before using the tractor

- Ensure correct tension of fan belts for efficiency of the fanning system
- Remove dirt and rubbish from the radiator fins
- Ensure proper lubrication of the water pump
- Repair leakages in the system
- Fit all pipes tightly to avoid leakages
NB: proper maintenance if the system ensures proper water cooling and efficient running of the engine
Lubricating system
Importance of lubricating system

o Prevents wear and tear of moving parts
o Reduce friction between moving parts and increase engine efficiency
o Seals moving parts
o Cools the engine by taking away some heat form the engine block
o Bathes the engine of dirt, dust, soot and metal chippings
The system is made of oil sump, oil pump, oil filters, oil ways (galleries)
- Oil sump collects oil after it has gone through the engine. It acts as a reservoir for oil
- Oil pump sucks oil from the oil sump and pumps it around the engine through oil ways
- Oil filters cleans dirt from the oil as it leaves the oil pump
- Oil ways carry oil at required pressure to all bearings. Oil passages in the cylinder block, pistons, connecting rod, cam
shaft, crank shaft, valve and main bearings
- Dip stick checks the oil level in the in the oil sump
- Lubricants (oil and grease) reduce friction movements between two moving surfaces in machinery
Maintenance of the lubricating system
- Using a dip stick check the engine oil level daily and top up if necessary
- Change oil per manufacturers’ instructions
- Change oil filters regularly
- Use oil with the correct viscosity per manufacturers’ instructions
- Drain oil when still hot to avoid it from sticking on the sump walls
109
- Avoid using contaminated oil in the system
Electrical system
 Battery – stores electricity for starting the engine and for lights
 Alternator – charges the battery and generate electric current for ignition coil
 Ignition coil – steps up the voltage of the battery from 12V to 1000V
 Condenser – store electric current for a while before passing it to the distributor
 Distributor – supplies high voltage current to the spark plugs
 Spark plugs – produce electric sparks which ignites fuel mixture in the cylinder
 Starter motor – starts the engine (drives the small pinion which drives the fly-wheel hence starting the engine)
 Voltage control box – adjusts battery charge and disconnects when engines stops
 Lights – produce light powered by generator/battery
Maintenance of the electrical system
- Check the electrolyte level in the battery and top up with distilled water/ sulphuric acid if necessary
- ensure tight connection of the battery terminals if not tighten them
- clean battery terminals with a wire brush to remove corrosion
- coat the terminals with grease to prevent corrosion
- keep the starter motor tightly secured and replace worn out carbon brushes
- keep all connections tight and ignition coil top clean
- keep wires in the voltage box tight and clean
Tractor routine checks
- check the engine oil level using a deep stick and top up if need be
- check the tyre pressure and inflate/deflate as require
- check if all lamps/lights and indicators are functional
- check the battery electrolyte level and top up with distilled water/ battery water/ sulphuric acid
- check water level in the radiator and top up as needed, also check for leakages
- check fan belt tension and cracks, put to correct tension and replace if need be
- clean or replace air filter if needed
- check fuel level and add more as needed
- tighten loose bolts and nuts and replace broken ones
Checks during tractor operation
- check the engine temperature through the temperature gauge

- check the fuel level in the tractor through the fuel gauge
- stop operation and check oil level if the oil lamp is continuously on
- if the engine temperature is too high stop operation and check coolant and radiator water level and leakages
- if lights are not working check if alternator is working and check battery terminals
110

Agiculture Notes

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Agiculture Notes

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MODULE 1 - TRENDS IN AGRICULTURE

HUNTING AND GATHERING

Impacts of Hunting and gathering on the environment

- limited human population growth

- marked the beginning of food production

Impacts of Domestication on the environment

- increase in animal and plants species

Why domesticate animals and plants

- to produce food near home

Impacts of shifting cultivation on the environment

- lead to deforestation due to cleared land for crops

- shift cultivation gave way to settled Agriculture

Impacts of Settled Agriculture on the environment

- overstocking leading to overgrazing of land

- food production is for the market ( for sale)

Impacts of Commercial farming on the environment

- extinction of some animal/plant species due to loss of habitat

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT AND ANIMAL GROWTH

These include temperature, wind, humidity, frost, rainfall and light

Humidity – is the percentage moisture content of the air.

Effect of humidity on animals and plants Modification

- high humidity encourage cannibalism in chickens

Effect of rain fall on animals and plants Modification

erosion compaction and erosion

Effect of temperature on animals and plants Modification

Wind –movement of mass of air, at high or low velocity (speed)

Effect of wind on animals and plants Modification

Frost – these are extreme temperature beyond 0oC

Effect of frost on animals and plants Modification

- Food intake is increased to provide energy for warm and water

Effect of light on animals and plants Modification

- Discolours white coated rabbits and fades coloured coats of rabbits

Photo period: this is the daily cycle of light and darkness

Effect of photoperiod on animals and plants Modification

- Affects bulbing in plants (onion) reduce day length

HYDROLOGIC (WATER) CYCLE

Communal land tenure

- Cost of production is low since amenities on land are shared

- Land cannot be sold or bought

Leasehold under communal land tenure

- 50 years common law lease for over 6400haTGLP ranches.

- Land is owned by the state (government)

- Ensures equitable land distribution to the citizens

- Takes long for land allocation and resolution of land disputes

Leasehold under state land

Deed of fixed period of state grant

- Lease renewal application should be done 15 years before expiry date

- Can be converted to FPSG

Free hold land tenure

- Land is privately owned by individuals or organizations (churches, person, company, etc)

- Land can be sold or bought

- Tenants may be exploited through rent by land lords

Leasehold under freehold land

Class Characteristics Uses

It is the use of scientific knowledge to improve agriculture methods and production

Examples of agricultural technology in Botswana

- new sorghum varieties of crop seeds e.g. mahube and hybrids

USE OF FARMING SYSTEM AS A TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER APPROACH

Stage 1: station based research

- developed technology is tested on selected farmers’ fields

Stage 3: dissemination and monitoring of new technology adoption by farmer

Conditions Necessary for Plant Growth

a) Suitable temperature – for rapid metabolic processes/respiration/photosynthesis/enzymatic activity