Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45

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Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng

Rock mechanics characteristic of complex formation and faster drilling

techniques in Western South China Sea oilfields
Hai-Yan Zhu a, Jin-Gen Deng a,n, Yu-Hong Xie b, Kai-Wen Huang b, Jing-Ying Zhao a, Bao-Hua Yu a
a
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource and Prospecting (China University of Petroleum, Beijing), Beijing 102249, China
b
Zhanjiang Branch Company of China National Offshore Oil Co., Ltd., Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: In order to increase the rate of penetration (ROP) and to reduce cost, we tested detritus for mineral
Received 20 July 2011 components to study the lithological characters of the deep-sea complex formation of Western South
Accepted 28 January 2012 China Sea oilfields. The prediction models of rock mechanics parameters were established based on the
Editor-in-Chief: A.I. Incecik
experiments results of the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), drillability, hardness, plasticity and
Available online 18 February 2012
abrasivity tests of cores sampled from the complex formation. We plotted profiles of rock mechanics
Keywords: parameters of 30 wells and three dimensional (3D) drillability planes using the log data to reveal the
Rock mechanics characteristic complex formations distribution and their rock mechanical properties. Then, the rock breaking
Complex formation mechanism of complex formation of cone and PDC bit are studied. According to rock mechanics
Faster drilling technique
characteristic of complex formation and adjacent well drilling data, we recommend the bit structure,
Western South China Sea
drilling methods and drilling parameters for the northern Gulf Basin (NGB) and Pearl River Mouth Basin
Bit optimization
Drilling method (PRMB) oilfields. The research results are used to guide the drilling work of Z-10-9-1 and Z-11-1-8AS1
well in the NGB and C-14-2-1 well in the PRMB, compared with the adjacent wells, the average drilling
footage and ROP increase by 98% and 117.8%, respectively.
Crown Copyright & 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction important to study the characteristics, distribution and breaking

China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) oil and gas
production in 2015 is expected to reach 16 million m3 of oil
equivalent in the Western South China Sea (WSCS) oilfields. To
achieve this target, there are large amount of drilling tasks every
year, for example, 30 exploration wells had been drilled in 2008.
However, more and more complex formations increase the
difficulties of exploratory drilling, which raises the cost rapidly.
During 2006–2009, the average ROP of a single bit of 30 wells was
only 3–4 m/h, the average footage was about 150 m and one third
of the footage was less than 50 m. Low ROP, severe wear and
frequent round trips were the greatest problems encountered in
drilling explorations of the NGB and PRMB. Operators adjusted
drilling parameters, replaced bottom-hole assembly, selected new
bit and used other means, but the effect was not that obvious as
expected. The main reason is the lack of understanding about the
formation characteristics which causes improper bit selection in
deep (2500–5000 m) compact glutenite and hard mudstone for-
mations. To reduce cost and increase drilling efficiency, it is very
n
Correspondence to: State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource and
Prospecting (China University of Petroleum, Beijing), 18# Fuxue Road, Changping,
Beijing 102249, China. Tel.: þ 86 10 89733911.
E-mail address: dengjingen@126.com (J.-G. Deng).
mechanism of complex formation in this region and find out the
internal mechanism and main factors of low ROP. So, the faster
drilling techniques for these oilfields can be correctly designed to
reduce the drilling cost and increase economic efficiency.
2. Rock mechanics characteristic of complex formation
2.1. Rock mechanics experiments of complex formation
The WSCS consists of the NGB, PRMB, Yinggehai basin (YGH)
and Qiongdongnan basin (QDN) (Fig. 1). The NGB locates between
the YueGui Paleozoic fold belt and the Hainan fold belt. Its
geographic coordinates are about 1081 000 to 1091 400 east
longitude and l91 450 to 2l1 300 of Northern Latitude. It is a main
Cenozoic sedimentary basin in the western part of the northern
South China Sea continental shelf. From the Eogene to Neogene,
the middle part of this basin is divided as northern sag and
southern sag called Weixinan sag by NE to SW trending Qixi
massif. The Weixinan sag, experiencing three times of tension
rifting and post-fault subsidence, is a half graben faulted depres-
sions with a fault in the northern side (Weixinan fault) and an
overlap in the southern side (Weixinan uplift). Many oil and gas
fields or hydrocarbon bearing structures have been discovered in
Weixinan sag (Guo et al., 2009) (Fig. 1, left).

0029-8018/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright & 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2012.01.031
34 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45

Fig. 1. Geological map and the locations of the NGB (left) and PRMB (right), and the study oilfields.

Table 1
Lithological column, sections and ROP of the NGB and PRMB.

Basin Formation age Formation Section Lithology Thickness (m) Rop (m/h)

NGB Neogene Denglj – Mainly sandstone with minor mudstone 299–390 25–60
Jiaow – A makeup of sand, mudstone and glutenite 310–455
Xiay – Mudstone interbedded with sandstone, glutenite 123–1335
Paleogene Weiz – A makeup of sand, mudstone and glutenite 287–1204 20–25
Liusg L-1st Sand and mudstone of varying thickness 82–624 11.7
L-2nd 64% Mudstone; 23% Sandstone; 13% shale; 0.5% glutenite 223–605 7.2
L-3rd 52% Mudstone; 34% Sandstone; 3% shale; 11% glutenite 132–393 5.9
ZRMB Neogene Aoh – Mainly mudstone with minor sand appearances 70–1220 30–60
Hanj – A makeup of sand, mudstone and glutenite 117–628
Zhuj – A makeup of sand and mudstone 560–1336 30.5
Paleogene Zhuh Z-1st Mainly mudstone with minor sand appearances 257–909 10.6
Z-2nd 34% Mudstone; 60% Sandstone; 6% glutenite 227–418 8.2
Z-3rd 48% Mudstone; 42% Sandstone; 10% glutenite 86–466 6.8
Enp – Sand and mudstone of varying thickness. 53–121 5.7

The PRMB is a Cenozoic sedimentary basin in the condition of
shallow sea and bathyal continental shelf and aktian. Its geo-
graphic coordinates are about 1051 to 1221 east longitude and l61
to 251 of northern latitude. From the Tertiary period, this basin
has experienced the rift and sag evolution stages. It has ‘‘west–
east differentiation and north–south dissimilitude’’ tectonic fra-
mework, and sedimentary characteristic of first terrestrial deposi-
tion and later marine deposition; the northern uplift of the PRMB
(Hainan uplift) is generated by a glided fracture zone during the
extension of the continental shelf; the southern sag (Zhu II
depression) is a subsidence zone brought by fracture glided
activity (Yu et al., 2009) (Fig. 1, right).
In this paper, we mainly study the NGB and PRMB based drilling
data of wells shown in Fig. 1. We obtain the lithological column and
sections related to different formations of the two basins by seismic
and logging data of 30 wells (Table 1). The L-1st and L-2nd sections of
the Liusg formation and Z-2nd and Z-3rd sections of the Zhuh
formation are composed of compact siliceous cemented sandstone,
mudstone, shale and glutenite. Their ROP is respectively lower than
the other sections, so, we study these sections in this paper.
2.1.1. Mineral components of the detritus
The L-2nd section consists of numerous mudstone, some
sandstone, brownish gray shale, a few gravels and siderites.
Fine-medium sandstone and mudstone are interbedded in the
L-3rd section, and the percentage of glutenite in this section is
11%. The PRMB formation is sandstone interbedded with mud-
stone. The diameter of the gravels in the complex formations is
2–7 mm.
We used X-ray diffractometer (D/MAX 2500) to test mineral
components of their detritus (Dekov et al., 2007). The results of
studying 10 wells in NGB shows that: (1) There are 18.2%–52.9%
of quartz and 35.6%–62.8% of clay minerals in the formation;
(2) Some parts of the L-1st section has a big proportion of siderite
and some pyrites, for example, siderite is up to 39.8% in Z-11-7-4
well and 13.8% in Z-11-2-3 well; (3) There is also a few siderites
in the L-2nd section; (4) The main compositions of the L-3rd
section are quartz and clay minerals which are easy to drill. The
results of studying 9 wells in PRMB shows that: (1) The quartz is
31.2%–62.5% and the clay minerals are 18.3%–38.6%; (2) The Z-1st
and Z-2nd section have siderite of 5.7% and 18%, respectively.
 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45 35

Table 2
Results of rock compressive strength test.

Well Depth (m) Section Lithological character Confining pressure (MPa) Collapsing strength (MPa)

Z-11-7-4 2188.5 L-1st Pelitic siltstone 0 204.266

2188.5 L-1st Pelitic siltstone 30 483.054
Z-12-2-3 2937.8 L-2nd Silty mudstone 15 112.281
2937.8 L-2nd Silty mudstone 30 146.205
2937.8 L-2nd Silty mudstone 45 177.53
2937.8 L-2nd Silty mudstone 60 198.83
Z-11-2-2 3159.1 L-3rd Fine sandstone 0 74.744
3159.1 L-3rd Fine sandstone 20 162.252
3159.1 L-3rd Fine sandstone 40 207.39
C-11-2-1 3570.7 Z-2nd Pelitic siltstone 0 33.656
3570.7 Z-2nd Pelitic siltstone 30 227.302
C-10-2-1 3347.8 Z-1st Medium sandstone 0 23.019
3347.8 Z-1st Medium sandstone 30 178.055
C-9-2-3 3985.9 Z-2nd Fine sandstone 0 58.769
39859 Z-2nd Fine sandstone 15 161.203
3985.9 Z-2nd Fine sandstone 30 293.607

2.1.2. Rock compressive strength test

We got 31 rock samples in NGB from the depth of 2188–
3303 m (Liusg-formation) and 23 rock samples from 3341–
3986 m (Zhuh-formation) in PRMB. Testing cores were standar-
dized whose diameters were 25 mm and 38 mm, slenderness
ratio was 1.8 to 2.0 (Tan et al., 2010). We measured their strength
through the UCS and triaxial test (Table 2).
Liusg-formation is soft to medium in strength. The brownish-gray
mudstone has plasticity under confining pressure, its collapsing
strength, yield stress and plasticity increase with confining pressure.
The fine sandstone in the Liusg-formation is hard and brittle. The
compact mudstone is plastic under confining pressure, and its
strength was slightly lower than sandstone (Fig. 2). Zhuh-formation
is medium to high in strength, but its strength increases rapidly under
confining pressure. The sandstone strength is higher in the Zhuh-
formation than it in the Liusg-formation under the same confining
pressure.

2.1.3. Rock hardness experiment

Rock hardness was measured by Brinell hardness test. Rock
plasticity coefficient was calculated by the expression:
Et
KP ¼ ð1Þ
Ee
where KP is the rock plasticity coefficient; Et is the total power
used for rock breaking; Ee is the elastic deformation power before
rock breaking. Results indicate that the rock hardness and
plasticity coefficient are consistent with the rock strength
(Table 3). Rocks in the Liusg-formation had some plasticity. Silty
mudstone in the L-2nd section has higher plasticity and its
maximum plasticity coefficient is up to 4.5.

2.1.4. Rock drillability experiment

As the F 38 mm cores is too small to test, we wrap them with
impermeable materials, then put them in the middle of the
100 mm  100 mm cement samples and polish the end face of
the cement. We test the samples following the industrial standard
(SY/T 5426-2000) (Table 4). The drillability value of sandstone is
about 5.7 and the mudstone is about 6.7 under the same Fig. 2. Stress–strain curves of mudstone under different confining pressure in
condition, the mudstone is easier to drill than sandstone. The Z-12-2-3 well. (a) Confining pressure of 15 MPa and (b) confining pressure of
30 MPa
drillability values of the L-2nd and L-3rd sections are medium to
hard and medium, respectively and the PRMB is soft to medium.
the rock abrasivity test. The bit axis load is 1000 N, bit rotary
2.1.5. Rock abrasivity test speed is 200 rpm and each test time lasts for 30 min. We use
Based on the characteristics of actual PDC drilling process, we water to cool the bit and flush the cuttings to simulate actual
use a modified rock drillability tester and a micro PDC bit to do condition of bottom-hole (Okubo et al., 2010). We measure the
36 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45

Table 3
Hardness and plasticity coefficient of core samples.

Well Depth (m) Section Lithological character UCS (MPa) Hardness (MPa) Plasticity coefficient

Z-11-2-2 3300.9 L-3rd Fine sandstone 64.6 593.8 1.9

Z-11-2-2 3303.1 L-3rd Fine sandstone 29.1 468.3 1.6
Z-11-7-4 2188.5 L-1st Pelitic siltstone 204.3 1895.5 1.6
Z-12-2-3 2937.8 L-2nd Silty mudstone 66.3 355.8 3.7
Z-12-2N-1 3329.5 L-2nd Silty mudstone 85.4 376.6 4.5

Table 4
Results of rock drillability experiment.

Item Well Depth (m) Section Lithological character Average drilling time (s) Drillability

Z-11-2-2 3159.1 L-3rd Fine sandstone 36.58 5.19

1 3300.9 L-3rd Fine sandstone 49.5 5.63
2 3303.1 L-3rd Fine sandstone 56.47 5.82
3 Z-11-7-4 2188.5 L-1st Pelitic siltstone 220.55 7.78
Z-12-2-3 2937.8 L-2nd Silty mudstone 97.67 6.61
4 2937.8 L-2nd Silty mudstone 109.09 6.77
5 2936.4 L-2nd Silty mudstone 98.95 6.63
2936.4 L-2nd Silty mudstone 105.05 6.71
6 Z-12-2N-1 3329.5 L-2nd Silty mudstone 111.24 6.80
3330.5 L-2nd Silty mudstone 89.13 6.48
7 3330.5 L-2nd Silty mudstone 92.31 6.53
8 C-9-2-3 3784.7 Z-2nd Pelitic siltstone 86.61 6.44
9 3785.5 Z-2nd Glutenite 28.5 4.83
3785.5 Z-2nd Glutenite 30.22 4.92
C-10-2-1 3341.5 Z-2nd Medium sandstone 27.17 4.76
10 3341.5 Z-2nd Medium sandstone 24.31 4.6
3348.7 Z-2nd Medium sandstone 24.18 4.6
3348.7 Z-2nd Medium sandstone 25.76 4.69

Table 5
Results of abrasivity test.

Item Well Depth (m) Section Lithological character Abrasivity (mg/cm3)

1 Z-11-7-4 2189 L-1st Pelitic siltstone 6.89

2 Z-11-2-3 2626 L-1st Silty mudstone 0.25
3 2660 L-1st Silty mudstone 0.43
4 2694 L-1st Shale 0.72
5 2938 L-2nd Silty mudstone 0.74
6 Z-12-2N-1 3330 L-2nd Silty mudstone 0.59
7 Z-11-2-2 3159 L-3rd Fine sandstone 1.10
8 3303 L-3rd Fine sandstone 0.97
9 C-9-2-3 3986 Z-2nd Fine sandstone 2.38
10 C-10-2-1 3348 Z-1st Medium sandstone 0.94
11 C-11-2-1 3571 Z-2nd Silty mudstone 0.58
12 4026 Z-3rd Medium sandstone 1.83
13 4224 Z-3rd Pebbled medium sandstone 2.13

rock break volume with square calliper and wear weight loss of
bit cutters by a precision balance whose precision is 0.1 mg to
calculate rock abrasivity. Results are shown in Table 5. With high
content of quartz, the abrasivity of fine sandstone is higher than
that in the mudstone in Liusg-formation. The abrasivity of the
sandstone is low, pelitic siltstone is higher and fine sandstone is
the highest in Zhuh-formation. The abrasivity of sandstone is
related to particle size and gravel content.
2.2. Profiles of rock mechanics parameters
2.2.1. Predicted models of rock mechanics parameters by
logging data
Experiments can only test parameters of specific location.
To study rock mechanical parameters of the total formation,
logging data is the critical element to establish their prediction
models. We choose the commonly used rock mechanics prediction
models (Kong, 1985; Shi, 1987; Ameen et al., 2009; Rajabi et al.,
2010) and use the above testing results to calibrate the coefficients
of the prediction models by multi-variable linear regression
analysis. This method is explained by two typical examples as
shown below:
(1) Sonic travel time calculation method which is a common
method used for rock drillability prediction in recent years is not
suitable for the glutenite or the multi-variates formation (Yilmaz
et al., 2002; Bulent, 2008; Hoseinie et al., 2009). Spaar et al.
(1995) used the formation UCS to predict the PDC bit drillability,
and select the best PDC bit. The formation UCS is calculated from
logging data. When the PDC bit drillability is calculated from the
UCS, the cumulative error would be larger than the result which is
 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45 37

Table 6
Rock drillability prediction models and their errors.

Item Lithology Test value kd ¼ b0 þ b1 lnDT kd ¼ b0 þ b2 lnr kd ¼ b0 þ b3 lnV cl kd ¼ b0 þ b1 lnDT þ b2 lnr þ b3 lnV cl

Prediction Error (%) Prediction Error (%) Prediction Error (%) Prediction Error (%)

1 Fine sandstone 5.63 5.72 1.53 6.28 11.58 5.80 3.10 5.70 1.24
2 Fine sandstone 5.82 5.70  2.09 5.96 2.37 6.03 3.64 5.71  1.95
3 Pelitic siltstone 7.78 7.01  10.07 7.63  2.02 7.03  9.71 7.59  2.44
4 Silty mudstone 6.77 6.96 2.8 7.27 7.4 6.92 2.2 6.67  1.48
5 Silty mudstone 6.63 6.71 1.19 6.17  7.03 6.92 4.27 6.54  1.47
6 Silty mudstone 6.80 7.08 4.10 7.10 4.40 6.97 2.5 6.93 1.91
7 Silty mudstone 6.53 6.91 5.82 6.86 5.05 6.98 6.89 6.62 1.39
8 Pelitic siltstone 6.44 6.57 2.02 6.62 2.80 6.64 3.11 6.66 3.42
9 Glutenite 4.83 5.01 3.73 5.16 6.83 5.12 6.00 4.95 2.48
10 Medium sandstone 4.60 4.93 7.17 5.07 10.2 4.89 6.30 4.76 3.69

Table 7 Table 8
Summary statistics for model. Rock abrasiveness prediction models and their errors.

Model R2 S F Item Test Our Our Kong’s Kong’s Shi’ Kong’s

value model error (%) model error (%) model error (%)
H 0.99747 0.03985 6696.15 (1985) (1987)
Kd 0.10120 0.79910 1.68890
sc 0.48567 0.60454 14.1639 1 6.89 7.15 3.74 8.06 16.94 479.27 6,855.99
j 0.51308 0.58821 15.8060 2 0.25 0.25  1.20 0.27 8.80 0.25 0.80
H, Kd 0.99771 0.03785 3712.15 3 0.43 0.45 4.65 0.48 11.63 0.40  6.74
H, sc 0.99739 0.04085 3187.11 4 0.72 0.70  2.92 0.82 13.75 0.56  22.50
H, j 0.99889 0.02632 7682.33 5 0.74 0.77 3.78 0.83 12.43 0.79 6.62
Kd, sc 0.50933 0.61119 7.26629 6 0.59 0.58  2.20 0.65 10.51 0.56  5.76
Kd , j 0.76715 0.42103 23.0629 7 1.10 1.08  2.73 1.38 25.45 0.91  17.73
sc, j 0.75098 0.43541 21.1111 8 0.97 0.99 2.06 1.20 24.02 0.96  1.24
H, Kd, sc 0.99759 0.03885 2349.65 9 2.38 2.36  0.80 2.90 21.81 3.41 43.07
H, Kd, j 0.99891 0.02611 5206.85 10 0.94 0.96 1.81 1.37 45.64 0.78  17.23
Kd, sc, j 0.87747 0.31695 71.0331 11 0.58 0.60 2.76 0.65 11.38 0.53  9.31
H, sc, j 0.99884 0.02700 4867.70 12 1.83 1.80  1.86 2.59 41.42 1.81  0.98
H, Kd, sc, j 0.99890 0.02625 3863.79 13 2.13 2.10  1.36 3.25 52.77 2.20 3.38

calculated directly from the logging data. Jim and Osarumwense
(2000) calculated the formation strength and drillability from
porosity, sonic travel time, matrix rock velocity, degree of com-
paction, abrasiveness and hole clean requirements. The Jim and
Osarumwense’s model agrees with the complex formation well.
However it is very difficult to be used for multi-variates forma-
tions. In this study we use the shale content, rock density and sonic
travel time together to predict the drillabitliy of complex forma-
tion. The multi-parameters prediction model is expressed as:
kd ¼ b0 þ b1 lnDT þ b2 lnr þ b3 lnV cl
where kd is the drillability; DT is the sonic travel time, s; r is the
rock density, g/cm3; Vcl is the shale content; b0, b1, b2 and b3 are
coefficients. The prediction error of the model for sandstone is less
than 3.69% and 2.44% for mudstone, which are better than the
single parameter prediction model and the models discussed above
(Table 6).
(2) Spaar et al. (1995), Jim and Osarumwense (2000), Bulent
(2008), Hoseinie et al. (2008), Okubo et al. (2010) have obtained
the abrasiveness values of many different rocks and discussed the
rock abrasiveness changes under different experimental methods.
However, these studies can only show the abrasiveness values of
special rocks, the abrasivity of the formation is still unknown.
Ersoy et al. (2005) used two types of circular diamond to cut a
variety of ten types of rocks and established a wear rate predic-
tion model of the circular diamond saws with 19 variables, but
the variables were either the energy parameters or the rock
mechanics parameters, which cannot correlate with the logging
data to establish the rock abrasivity profile of the formation.
Rashidi et al. (2008, 2010) combined mechanical specific energy
and drilling rate models to estimate the real-time bit wear while
drilling, which can know the rock abrasivity indirectly. In drilling
practice, the rock abrasivity is usually measured by internal
frictional angle. However its value is still clearly unknown. Based
on the results of the abrasivity test, we established a rock
abrasiveness prediction model with multi-variables, which is
expressed as:
w ¼ aHb K cd sdc je ð3Þ
where w is the rock abrasiveness, mg/cm3; H is the hardness,
MPa; sc is the rock compressive strength, MPa; j is the internal
ð2Þ
frictional angle, 1; a, b, c, d and e are the coefficients.
Multi-variable linear regression analysis was carried out to
determine the relationships between H, Kd, sc and j. The multi-
variable regression coefficient (R2), standard deviation (S) and
statistic test value (F) for the full model are calculated as shown in
Table 7. We can see that the best correlation exists between H and
j with R2 ¼ 0.99889, S ¼0.02632 and F ¼7682.33, and its empiri-
cal coefficients a ¼ d 1:10026e4, b ¼1.42033 and e¼0.13066.
So, the prediction model can be expressed as:
w ¼ 1:10026e4UH1:42033 j0:13066 ð4Þ
Compared with other models (Kong, 1985; Shi, 1987), the
prediction error of out model is the minimum which is 2.73% for
sandstone and 4.65% for mudstone (Table 8).
Using these methods, the prediction models of the UCS,
Hardness and Plasticity coefficient are established, and their
prediction errors compared with the test results are calculated
which are shown in Table 9. Nomenclature of the prediction
models: c1, c2, d1, f1 and f2 are coefficients; Ed is the dynamic
Young’s modulus, MPa; G is the shear modulus, MPa; K is the bulk
modulus, MPa.
38 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45

Table 9
Prediction models of rock mechanics parameters and its precision.

Rock mechanics parameters Prediction model Prediction error Prediction error

in sandstone % in mudstone %

Drillability kd ¼ b0 þ b1 lnDT þ b2 lnr þ b3 lnV cl Þ 3.69 2.44

Abrasivity w¼1.10026e  4UH1.42033j0.13066 2.73 4.65
Hardness H ¼ c1 e0:0623Uc2 UDT 5.1 5.6
Plasticity coefficient K p ¼ d1 e0:03164V cl Ed 0:349 G0:03805 K 0:003034 4.2 3.4
UCS sc ¼ f1Ed(1  Vcl) þf2EdVcl 5.6 3.7

Fig. 3. Profiles of rock mechanics parameters of Z-12-2-3 well.

2.2.2. Profiles of rock mechanics parameters
We established profiles of rock mechanics parameters in the
complex formation of 30 wells using prediction models. Taking
Z-12-2-3 well for example (Fig. 3), the average UCS values of two
sections are 81.4 MPa and 75.87 MPa, respectively, their plasticity
values are 3.8 to 5.2, and the maximum value is 262.2 MPa. The
strength of both sections is medium to hard. The strength of
sandstone is higher than mudstone. The upper part of the L-1st
section is soft and the lower part is medium to hard; the average
drillability value is 7.2 of the mudstone which contains siderite
 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45 39

Fig. 4. 3D drillability planes in the WSCS oilfields. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

and 4.8 of the sandstone; the entire section is medium in and L-3rd section makes the section hard to drill. The 3D
abrasivity, but it contains many high abrasive interbedded layers. drillability planes of PRMB showed that the Z-1st section is easy
The L-2nd section is medium to hard in strength; the average to drill and the Z-2nd and Z-3rd sections are medium. The deeper
drillability value is 7.3 of the mudstone and 6.4 of the sandstone. the well is, the harder the rock is.
We find that the rocks with low ROP are the compact mudstone
and shale. When the ROP decreases, the plasticity coefficient and
2.4. Rock breaking tests of complex formation
drillability increases. However, their shear, strength, hardness and
abrasivity decrease, which show that the plasticity and drillabilty
2.4.1. Single cutter crushing test
of the mudstone NGB formation are the major reasons that
Actual conditions of the bottom-hole are very important to study
decrease the ROP. This well agrees with the test results.
the rock breaking mechanism (Mishnaevsky, 1995; Kaitkay and Lei,
According to the profiles of 30 wells, we conclude that: the
2005; Jiang et al., 2007). Using a 601 chisel cutter, we measured the
UCS of the L-1st section in Z-5-7, Z-11-2, and Z-11-7 oilfields are
rock breaking volume of the same dimension samples with the same
80 to 160 MPa. The L-1st section has hard interbedded layer
axis force under different confining pressures by a modified equip-
whose strength value is higher than 180 MPa. The strength value
ment for mechanical testing and simulation (MTS). The rock breaking
of the L-2nd section is 70 to 90 MPa. The L-3rd section has higher
volume decreases when confining pressure increases (Fig. 5). And
abrasivity and aeolotropism than the upper sections, its strength
then we measured the breaking force of the 601 chisel cutter with the
value is 80 to 120 MPa and some parts are up to 150 MPa. The
same rock breaking volume under different confining pressures
strength of Zhuh-formation is 50 to 120 MPa, its drillability is 4 to
(Fig. 6). More power is needed to break the same volume of rock
7, plasticity coefficient is about 2, and abrasivity is 2 to 8.
under higher confining pressure, which shows that chip hold-down
effect is obvious under high confining pressure. Moreover, the
2.3. 3D drillability planes of complex formation
breaking forces of medium-sandstone in the Z-1st section with 601
chisel cutter and ovoid cutter are measured under 20 MPa confining
We drew 3D drillability planes of the two basins by geographic
pressure. Ovoid cutter need more force (190.3 Kgf) than chisel cutter
coordinates, section information and drillability profiles. The 3D
(139.9 Kgf).
drillability planes provided clearly drillability distribution of each
section (Fig. 4). The blue area represents easy to drill and red is
hard. The main reason of low drillability (red color) in the L-1st 2.4.2. Micro PDC bit shearing test
section is high value of strength and abrasivity caused by highly Micro PDC bit is used to study the laws between cutter type,
content of siderite, pyrite and gravels. Compact shale in the L-2nd weight on bit (WOB), rotary speed and breaking efficiency
40 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45
Fig. 5. Breaking volume and the confining pressure.
Fig. 6. Breaking force and the confining pressure.
Fig. 7. Chisel cutter.
(Andersen and Azar, 1993; Zou, 2003; Wang et al., 2008). We use
chisel cutter (Fig. 7) and planar cylindrical PDC cutter to drill the
silty mudstone in the L-2nd section to test their sensitivity of
penetration. The diameter of the PDC bit is 32 mm. The two
cutters are both j 13.32 mm  4.5 mm, and their back rake and
side rake are 201 and 151, respectively. Fig. 8 shows that breaking
force increases by cutting depth. For the same breaking force, the
cutting depth of the planar cylindrical PDC cutter is smaller than
the chisel cutter. The WOB of 12-1/400 and 8-1/200 well sections has
an obvious effect on rock breaking (Fig. 9). The greatest effect
happens in fine sandstone. The shearing efficiency is proportion
Fig. 8. Relationship between cutting force and depth.
Fig. 9. Relationship between WOB and ROP.
Fig. 10. Relationship between rotary speed and ROP.
to the rotary speed (Fig. 10). Compared with the WOB, the rotary
speed can improve the ROP much more quickly in plastic
mudstone from the test results shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
2.4.3. Discussion
When bit drills from the soft to hard formations, the WOB and
torque on top cutters of bit are continuous increasing; once
drilling into a new soft formation, the WOB and torque decreases
but the load on the other cutters increases. These working
conditions accelerate the backward whirl of the bit (Dykstra
et al., 1994). The PDC bit cutters are easily crushed and broken
under this severe condition. Different sizes and shapes of gravels
 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45 41

damage the top and the nose of the bit cutters or even cause the ensure bit life. According to the bit design parameters used for
blades fracture. The damaged PDC bit wears out quickly in the selecting bits (Nygaard and Hareland, 2007), some recommenda-
high abrasivity formation, which is proved by the PDC bits used in tions are given: (1) Single row of cutters or decrease the cutter
the PRMB formation (Fig. 11). density. Warren and Armagost (1988) had proved that more
cutters removed, the larger ROP increased. When more than 16
of a total 39 cutters were removed, the ROP was increased by 15%
3. Field experiences and recommendations for the Carthage limestone tests. (2) F 16 mm or F 19 mm cutter,
which is selected by drilling cost per meter method. Larger cutter
The rock UCS of the two basins is between 60 and 160 MPa and is more efficient in rock removal than smaller one (Glowka,
rock drillability is 4–7.3. The IADC code 323 and 537 are selected 1989a), and smaller cutter would wear more seriously (Sinor
for PDC bit and tricone bit of the NGB and PRMB medium et al., 1998). (3) Higher back rake angle, which makes the bit
hardness formations separately. The IADC code of PDC bit is the much sharper and decides the ROP of new PDC bits (Sinor et al.,
same as field used bit. Compared with the field used 517 tricone 1998). (4) Five or six blades, which is selected by drilling cost per
bit, the aggressivity of selected tricone bit is much worse. Field meter method. Too many blades would lead to more cutter
applications show that the drilling time and cost per meter of the numbers that is not allowable. (5) Higher cutter exposure height,
PDC bit are less than the tricone bit in both NGB and PRMB which can cut into the plastic rock deeper. (6) Wedge sharper
oilfields (Table 10). So, we choose PDC bit which has much more
aggressivity for the NGB and PRMB formations.
We combine methods of drilling cost per meter and structure Table 10
parameter to select PDC bit (Fig. 12) (Bejda et al., 1995; Sun et al., Field applications of PDC bit and cone bit.
2000; Zhu et al., 2008). First evaluate the used bits by drilling cost
Formation Bit type Footage ROP Time Drilling cost
per meter method, and select the best PDC bits used in adjacent well;
(m) (m/h) (h) (10,000/m)
then determine the IADC code of the selected PDC bits according to
the rock drillability; finally the optimization PDC bit structure is NGB Cone bit 110.8 5 22.16 6.07
recommended according to structure parameter method, and results PDC bit 141.7 6.5 21.8 4.95
ZRMB Cone bit 179.78 2.66 67.59 3.84
of rock mechanics experiments and rock breaking tests.
PDC bit 460.17 8.68 53.01 3.31

3.1. Bit selection and drilling methods of the NGB oilfields

3.1.1. Bit selection of the NGB oilfields

According to the calculation of the drilling cost per meter of 62
PDC bits in 22 drilled wells, the bit structure with lowest drilling
cost is 6 blades with F 16 mm cutters in 12.2500 section and
5 blades with F 19 mm cutters in 8.500 section. We also collect
their footage, ROP, cutters abrasion, cutters cracking, cutters
breakage, bit balling and trip-out for low ROP frequency shown
in Fig. 13. Most of the bits wear slightly, and the trip-out for low
ROP is below 10%. For the plastic formation of the NGB, how to
improve the aggressivity of the bit is the key point to improve the
ROP. However, the L-1st and L-2nd sections have some siderite,
pyrites, shale, and sandstone interbedded layers; the L-3rd sec-
tion has some glutenites and sandstone interbedded layers, which
would make the bit wear seriously. So, the wearlessness of the bit
cutter needs to be considered. Chisel cutter is vulnerable to be
abrasion, so it is better to use planar cylindrical PDC cutter to Fig. 12. Optimized methods of PDC bit.

Fig. 11. Field applications of PDC bits in PRMB.

42 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45
Fig. 13. Field applications of PDC bits in NGB.
Fig. 14. 50 passes on the wet VTL test with octagon granite.
Fig. 15. Normal force at the same cutting speed.
blade using equal cutting principle, which is more aggressivity
than the flat blade profile for a given WOB, and also can protect
the bit and avoid bit balling (Glowka, 1989b). (7) Hydraulic
structure optimization with computer fluid dynamics (CFD)
simulation technology to avoid bit balling.
A new Tiger cutter was developed specially for the PDC bit used
in the complex formation. The sintering pressure of the diamond
powder was raised to get more D–D chemical bonds which
switches the physical bond of diamond powder to chemical bond,
and improves the shock resistance and wearlessness of the new
cutter. New formula of compact and sintering process reduces the
metal residue in Tiger cutter which is 20% less than the standard
cutter, therefore improve its thermostability. The wear resistance
of the Tiger cutter is two times of the standard cutter seen in 50
passes on the wet Vertical Turret Lathe (VTL) test with octagon
granite (Fig. 14). In order to get the same cutting speed in the later
period of tests, the WOB on Tiger cutter is 50% less than the
standard cutter, which shown that the Tiger cutter could keep
sharp for a longer time (Fig. 15). The wearlessness (life) of the
Tiger cutter is increased by 50% without the decrease of shock
resistance known by the drop weight impact test.
According to the rock mechanic parameters and rock breaking
mechanism: (1) we choose 6 blades with F 16 mm double rows
cutters and 30–40 cutters for the L-1st section to improve the
shock resistance; (2) In the L-2nd section where the plasticity
coefficient is up to 3 to 5: choose 5 blades with F 19 mm cutters
for more aggressivity in both the 12.25 and 8.500 sections, increase
the cutters exposure height or reduce the cutters number,
improve the shock resistance and wearlessness of the cutters for
hard sandstone formation, use steel structure for well guidance
quality and high aggressivity; (3) The L-3rd section (mudstone
with 11% glutenite): choose 6 blades with F 16 mm cutters to
keep the shock resistance and wearlessness in the 12.2500 section,
choose 5 blades with F 19 mm double rows cutters and higher
cutters arrangement density in the 8.500 section, choose matrix
structure for better shock resistance and wearlessness.
3.1.2. Drilling methods of the NGB oilfields
Rock breaking mechanism of the NGB formation shows that the
rotary speed has greater effect on the plastic mudstone than the
WOB. The PDC bits wear slightly in the adjacent wells. The bottom-
hole temperature of the NGB oilfields is not higher than 120 1C. So,
down-hole drilling motor with high rotary speed is suggested for this
area. According to the rock mechanics tests: the best rotary speed for
the 12.2500 bit is 150–180 rpm, and the maximum rotary speed is
200 rpm in order to ensure the life of bit bearing; For 8.500 bit, the best
rotary speed is 200 rpm and the maximum is 250 rpm. For the plastic
mudstone formation in the L-2nd section, the balling up has occurred
on 5.3% PDC bits, which should be avoided in future drilling
operations. Three measures are taken: (1) larger displacement of
mud pump. Using down-hole drilling motor, the displacement of
mud pump used in adjacent wells is only 3000 lpm in the 12.2500
section and 2000 lpm in the 8.500 section, which is a little smaller. We
suggest the best displacement of mud pump is over 3300 lpm in the
12.2500 section and over 2200 lpm in the 8.500 section. (2) The smaller
WOB is suggested, because bit balling is less likely to occur at low
WOB (Warren and Armagost, 1988). In the L-2nd section, we
suggested the WOB of 3–7 t for the 8.500 bits and 5–7 t for the
12.2500 bits. The high content of glutenite wears out the bit too fast, so,
the best WOB in the L-3rd section is 3 to 6 t. (3) Using powerful
inhibition and lubrication drilling fluid. The suggested WOB and
rotary speed are consistent with the Motor and PDC bit parameters
given by Motahhari et al. (2007, 2008).
3.2. Bit selection and drilling methods of the PRMB oilfields
3.2.1. Bit selection of the PRMB oilfields
The PRMB formation is medium hard, abrasive and hetero-
geneous formation. PDC bits wear seriously here, and trip-out
 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45
because of low ROP is up to 40%–64% (Fig. 11). The main reason of
frequently trips out is the early damage of the bits. High shock
resistance and wearlessness is the key critical to improve the bit
life. Sinor et al. (1998) have proved that heavy set PDC bits can be
a detriment to the drilling performance in hard formations, that is
to say the cutter density should not be too heavy for the hard
formation of the PRMB. Ignoring the thermal effects, cutters on
the crown wear up to three times faster than those near the
center (Glowka, 1985). So, the equal wear criterion needs to be
used instead of the equal volume criterion to assign cutter density
in glutenite formation, which means that the PDC bit should be
arranged less aggressive cutters inside the cone and more aggres-
sive cutters toward the gage. For the hard, abrasive and hetero-
geneous formation, Mensa-Wilmot et al. (2000) designed a
specialized non-circular PDC cutter to enhance limestone pre-
fracturing, so as to improve the PDC bit performance. However,
when this kind of non-circular PDC cutter is used in the main
sandstone with gravels formation, it would be easily crushed.
Mensa-Wilmot et al. (2003) developed a new generation cutter to
minimize its deterioration rate and avoid impact damage. This
new cutter improves the PDC bit life in hard rock drilling
environments, and it achieves more than 100% ROP improvement
over the roller cone bit. Clayton et al. (2005) used the thermal
mechanical integrity (TMI) technique to develop an advanced Z3
PDC cutter. The bit fitted with Z3 cutter drilled 58% more footage
at a 40% higher ROP than the average of all competitor offsets. For
the 8.500 section in the PRMB, we have designed three new types
of PDC cutters (SW-3, SW-4 and SW-7) which have more wear-
lessness and shock resistance. Compared with conventional PDC
cutters SW-1, the wearlessness of SW-3, SW-4 and SW-7 rises by
15%, 77% and 65%, respectively, and the shock resistance rises by
89%, 21%, and 33%, respectively. In the Z-2nd and Z-3rd section,
6 blades with double rows F 16 mm or F 19 mm cutters and
40–50 cutter density are suggested. We design the crown heel
cone by the equal wearing principle:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z  2
r
h¼ 1dr þC r Zr s ð5Þ
rs
where h is the axial distance of cutter at rs, r is the bit radius, rs is
the radial distance of the cutter and C is the integral constant. The
more hard formation the bit is suitable for, the bigger the rs is, and
the much shorter the crown heel cone is.
3.2.2. Drilling methods of the PRMB oilfields
Bit speed was shown to increase the rate of wear, from basically
no wear at 60–80 rpm to 20% wear for a bit rotating at 270 rpm
through the same formations (Sinor et al., 1998). Increased bit
rotary speed is detrimental to bit life, even under conditions where
thermal-wear effects are not important (Glowka, 1989b). So, high
Fig. 16. 8.500 TS1952SS bit fitted with the Tiger cutters used in Z-10-8-1 well.
43
rotary speed is not suitable for the high aeolotropism glutenite
formation. The only way to raise the ROP is to improve the
aggressivity and wearlessness of the PDC cutters under proper
rotary speed of top drive. Recommended rotary speed is 100 to
150 rpm and the speed should be faster in the mudstone than that
in the sandstone. The best WOB in the Z-2nd section is 3 to 8 t,
which can help the cutters keeping from seriously wear and
cracking. The best WOB in Z-3rd section is 3 to 8 t. These WOB
and rotary speed well agree with the deepwater drilling para-
meters in both hard and abrasive formations in Jubilee field
formation (Murphy et al., 2010). Absorber is suggested to reduce
the bit vibration through interbedded stratum, so as to decrease
cutter breakage, cracking and wear.
4. Field applications
4.1. Field application in Z-10-9-1 well
We designed a new 5 blades PDC bit (TS1952SS) with F
19 mm Tiger cutters for the 8.500 section in the L-2nd and L-3rd
section. The strength of braze welding for the new bit is increased
by 19% and shear force is raised from 170 MPa to more than
200 MPa using QAg-N welding material and special flux. For the
same welding strength the welding area is decreased by 12%, and
the cutter exposure height is increased by 15% to 65%. The back
rake angle of the cutters on the bit shoulder is 31 bigger than the
conventional one, which strengthens the shock resistance of the
bit shoulder. Two inches length of the gage protection surface is
used to protect the bit diameter. Low cutters arrangement density
and high cutters exposure height strengthen the aggressivity of
the bit. We use computational fluid dynamics to optimize its
hydraulic structure in order to avoid bit balling.
TS1952SS bit assembled with the downhole drilling motor was
trip into the Z-10-9-1 well on October 17th, 2010. The drilling
formations were the L-1st and L-2nd section. The average rotary
speed was 233.7 rpm, the WOB was 6.2 t, displacement of mud
pump was 2156 lpm, mud density was 1.294 g/cm3 and drilling
time was 34.62 h. The bit drilled from 1832 m to 2512.5 m, the
footage was 680.5 and average the ROP was 19.6 m/h. At the
depth of 1850 m in the L-2nd section, logging data shows that
there are a lot of pyrite in the medium sandstone, but Z-10-8-1
well which is not far from Z-10-9-1 has no pyrite at this depth.
A 6 blades bit with F 16 mm cutters was used in Z-10-8-1 well
whose average ROP was 9 m/h and footage was 216 m. Compared
with Z-10-8-1, the footage of Z-10-9-1 increases by 215% while
the ROP rises by 117.8%. The bit IADC wear evaluation expression
was 1-3-WT-A-X-I-NO-BHA, it performed well in the Liusg-
formation (Fig. 16).
44 H.-Y. Zhu et al. / Ocean Engineering 44 (2012) 33–45
Fig. 17. 8.500 ST636RS bit used in C-13-1-10 well
4.2. Field application in C-13-1-10 well
For the 8.500 section in the PRMB, we have designed three new
types of PDC cutters (SW-3, SW-4 and SW-7) which have fine
wearlessness and shock resistance. Compared with conventional
PDC cutters SW-1, the wearlessness of SW-3, SW-4 and SW-7
rises by 15%, 77% and 65%, respectively, and the shock resistance
rises by 89%, 21%, and 33%, respectively. A new 6 blades PDC bit
(ST636RS) with F 16 mm cutters is used in Zhuh-formation. The
SW-3, SW-4 and SW-7 cutters are arranged at the same location
of different blade to improve bit aggressivity and wearlessness
(Fig. 17). The Zhuh-formation from 3638.69 m to 4293.76 m of
C-13-1-10 well is drilled by a single bit with double rows of
cutters. Average rotary speed is 97.2 rpm, the WOB is 6.03 t,
displacement of mud pump is 3182 lpm, drilling time is 34.62 h,
footage is 655.07 m and the ROP is 23.90 m/h. The bit IADC wear
evaluation expression is 1-1-WT-A-X-1/16-NO-TD which means
the bit can be reused.
Between the depths of 3937 m to 4134 m in the Z-2nd section
of C-13-1-15 well is drilled by a single bit. The drilling time is
7 hours, footage is 197 m and the ROP is 28.14 m/h. The bit IADC
wear evaluation expression is 1-1-WT-S-X-1-NO-TD, which
shows that the bit wears slightly.
Our new designed ST636RS bit raises the footage by 98% and
the ROP by 149% compared with the old ST636RS bit used in
C-13-1-9. The wear evaluation expression of the old ST636RS bit
IADC is 3-2-WT-A-X-1/16-BT-TD whose inner and outer cutters
have been severely worn with breakage. The new ST636RS bit
wears slightly without cracking and breakage under the same
condition, which shows that this new bit is better than the
old one.
5. Conclusion
There are compact mudstone, sandstone, and interbedded glute-
nite, siderite and pyrite in the WSCS oilfields. Many interbedded
stratums are found in the high aeolotropism formation. The main
elements of the NGB are mudstone interbedded with shale and
sandstone, the percentage of glutenite in the L-3rd section is 11%. The
UCS of Liusg-formation is 60–160 MPa, and the drillability is 5 to 8, so
the bit IADC code for Liusg-formation is M323. For plastic mudstone
with low ROP, the best way is to improve the bit aggressivity and
increase the rotary speed. Optimized TS1952SS PDC bit (5 blades with
F 19 mm cutters) for Liusg-formation assembled with downhole
drilling motor rises the footage by 215% and ROP by 117.8% compared
with adjacent well. The main elements of PRMB are sandstone
interbedded with some mudstone, the percentage of glutenite is
more than 6%. The UCS of Zhuh-formation is 50–120 MPa, and the
drillability is 4–7. Bit IADC code for Zhuh-formation is M323. In the
Z-2nd and Z-3rd section we use 6 blades with F 16 mm or F 19 mm
cutters to seek balance among the aggressivity, shock resistance and
wearlessness. The more aggressive 5 blades with F 19 mm cutters
are fit for the Z-1st formation. For hard and brittle sandstone and
glutenite, low WOB and rotary speed are the better way to avoid
cutters cracking and breakage. The new designed ST636RS PDC bit
raises the footage by 98% and the ROP by 149%. This paper has
systematically analyzed the rock mechanic characteristic of complex
formation, and the faster drilling techniques are easy and effective,
which can be used for the drilling optimization of other complex
formations.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Dr. Li Yingying for proof reading and to the
unknown reviewers. This work was supported by the National
Science and Technology Major Project of the Ministry of Science
and Technology of China (No. 2008ZX05026-001).
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