Instructor: Mrs. Necemi M.

Ybanez
Facebook Account: eishem ybanez
Phone Number: 0971754323
Email Address cemimacaluaybanez@gmail.com

BTLED 102
Home Economics an Overview

MODULE 1
Home economics education advocates for positive change in home life experiences for individuals
and families. It is the foundation of knowledge, attitudes and abilities that affect daily decision
making throughout our lives. Home economics consists of five interdependent areas:

 Human Development
 Food and Nutrition
 Financial Management
 Clothing and Textiles
 Shelter and Housing

Students critically examine significant concerns of daily life in terms of consequences to self, family,
and society. Home economics education contributes to the development of individuals and the
family as functioning units of society.

In addition, home economics prepares students to use entrepreneurial skills, accept challenges,
adjust and adapt in a climate of change, experiment and use creativity, make informed judgements,
and apply reasoned action to practical life situations.

Objectives

• Explain the process of development from the pre-natal period to adulthood

• Analyze the typical development of children from birth to five years of age
• Comprehend the different domains of human development

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Introduction:

This course exposes student to the study of child and human development
in order to gain a better understanding about variations and the influence of socio-cultural-
political realities on development. A critical understanding of theoretical perspectives of
development would aid in their application in teaching learning process.
Through close observation of children in their natural environments the teacher trainee-
would be able to situate their theoretical knowledge within realistic frames. This course
would also be able to equip the trainees to reflect and critique the normative notions of
childhood and adolescence.

Interest in human development is widespread largely because of curiosity about our

beginnings and a desire to improve the quality of human life. The process by which a baby
develops from a single cell is miraculous and few events are more exciting than a human
birth.
Human development is a continuous process that begins when an ovum is fertilized by a
sperm. Cell division, growth, differentiation, and even cell death, transform the fertilized
ovum into a multicellular human being.

Although important maturational changes continue to occur during the postnatal period
(infancy, childhood, adolescence and even adulthood), the formation of the organ systems
occurs between fertilization and birth, the prenatal period. The goals of this course are to
introduce you to the principals of embryogenesis that are being utilized to diagnose, correct,
and ultimately prevent congenital malformations and birth defects.

The cloning of the entire spectrum of human genes as well as the continuous development of
molecular methods to prevent congenital malformations has revolutionized the entire field of
modern embryology. The majority of these lectures will focus on the first eight weeks of life
( known as the embryonic period) when the organ systems develop. Additional lectures will
briefly introduce fetal maturation, birth, and the neonate.

COMMONLY USED TERMS:

Conceptus: Refers to the embryo and its extra-embryonic membranes, i.e. the products of
conception. It includes all structures that develop from the zygote, both embryonic and
extraembryonic. Hence, the conceptus includes not only the embryo but also the placenta
and its associated membranes.

Congenital malformations (birth defects): structural, behavioral, functional, or metabolic

disorders present at birth.

Embryo: This term refers to the developing human during the early stages of development.
The term is usually not used until the 2nd week, when a bilaminar (two layered) embryonic
disc is formed. The embryonic period extends until the end of the eighth week, by which
time all major structures and organs have formed.

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Fetus: After the embryonic period, the developing human is called a fetus. The fetal period (
ninth week to birth) is a period of maturation when many established organ systems develop
further. The developmental changes that take place during the fetal period are not as
dramatic as those that occur during the embryonic period, they are nevertheless very
important.

Morphogenesis: encompasses a cascade of complex, orderly sequenced interactions that

results in the development of shape of an organ or body form.

Neonate: The newborn; the neonatal period spans the period between birth and the end of
the 4th postnatal week.
Organogenesis: all of the events required to establish an organ, organ system, or a major
feature of the external body.

Primordium: the first cells or tissues of an organ to develop, i.e., its earliest stage of
development. The term anlage has a similar meaning. For example, the primordium or
anlage of the upper limb appears on about day 26 (E26).
Teratogen: an environmental agent that has the capacity to cause abnormal development and
birth defects. Because the basic organs develop during the 4th and 5th embryonic weeks,
exposure to a teratogen during that period can be particularly detrimental to normal
development.

Trimester: Obstetricians divide the nine calendar months, or period of gestation, into three
month periods called trimesters (stages of intrauterine development). The critical period of
development occurs during the first trimester.
Zygote: a diploid cell resulting from fertilization of an ovum (mature female germ cell) by a
sperm. A zygote is the beginning of a new human being.

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What Are the Eight Stages of Human Development?

If human development is the study of how people change throughout their lives, how and
when does this development happen? Many scientists and psychologists have studied various
aspects of human development, including ego psychologist Erik Erikson.
He examined the impact of social experiences throughout an individual’s life and theorized
that psychosocial development happens in eight sequential parts.

What are the eight stages of human development?

Stage 1 — Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust

In the first stage of human development, infants learn to trust based on how well their
caregivers meet their basic needs and respond when they cry. If an infant cries out to be fed,
the parent can either meet this need by feeding and comforting the infant or not meet this
need by ignoring the infant. When their needs are met, infants learn that relying on others is
safe; when their needs go unmet, infants grow up to be less trusting.

Stage 2 — Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

In addition to autonomy versus shame and doubt, another way to think of the second stage is
independence versus dependence. Like in the first stage, toddlers go through this stage
responding to their caregivers. If caregivers encourage them to be independent and explore
the world on their own, toddlers will grow up with a sense of self-efficacy. If the caregivers
hover excessively or encourage dependence, these toddlers grow up with less confidence in
their abilities.
For example, if a toddler wants to walk without assistance in a safe area, the caregiver should
encourage this autonomy by allowing the independent behavior. If the caregiver insists on
holding the toddler’s hand even when it’s not necessary, this attention can lead to doubt later
in life.

Stage 3 — Preschool Years: Initiative vs. Guilt

During the preschool years, children learn to assert themselves and speak up when they need
something. Some children may state that they’re sad because a friend stole their toy. If this
assertiveness is greeted with a positive reaction, they learn that taking initiative is helpful
behavior. However, if they’re made to feel guilty or ashamed for their assertiveness, they
may grow up to be timid and less likely to take the lead.

Stage 4 — Early School Years: Industry vs. Inferiority

When children begin school, they start to compare themselves with peers. If children feel
they’re accomplished in relation to peers, they develop strong self-esteem. If, however, they
notice that other children have met milestones that they haven’t, they may struggle with self-
esteem. For example, a first grader may notice a consistently worse performance on spelling
tests when compared with peers. If this becomes a pattern, it can lead to feelings of
inferiority.

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Stage 5 — Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion
The adolescent stage is where the term “identity crisis” originated, and for good reason.
Adolescence is all about developing a sense of self. Adolescents who can clearly identify
who they are grow up with stronger goals and self-knowledge than teenagers who struggle to
break free of their parents’ or friends’ influences. Adolescents who still deeply depend on
their parents for social interaction and guidance may experience more role confusion than
teenagers who pursue their own interests.

Stage 6 — Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation

In young adulthood, which begins roughly at age 20, people begin to solidify their lifelong
bonds; many people enter committed relationships or marriages, while others form lifelong
friendships. People who can create and maintain these relationships reap the emotional
benefits, while those who struggle to maintain relationships may suffer from isolation. A
young adult who develops strong friendships in college may feel more intimacy than one
who struggles to form and maintain close friendships.

Stage 7 — Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

In middle adulthood, people tend to struggle with their contributions to society. They may be
busy raising children or pursuing careers. Those who feel that they’re contributing
experience generativity, which is the sense of leaving a legacy. On the other hand, those who
don’t feel that their work or lives matter may experience feelings of stagnation. For example,
a middle-aged adult who’s raising a family and working in a career that presumably helps
people may feel more fulfilled than an adult who’s working at a day job that feels
meaningless.

Stage 8 — Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair

As adults reach the end of life, they look back on their lives and reflect. Adults who feel
fulfilled by their lives, either through a successful family or a meaningful career, reach ego
integrity, in which they can face aging and dying with peace. If older adults don’t feel that
they’ve lived a good life, they risk falling into despair.

Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development. Piaget’s theory is widely used in
education programs to prepare teachers to instruct students in developmentally appropriate
ways. The theory is based on four stages:

Sensorimotor — In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old), children learn object
permanence, which is the understanding that people and objects still exist even when they’re
out of view.

Preoperational — In the preoperational stage (2-7 years old), children develop symbolic
thought, which is when they begin to progress from concrete to abstract thinking. Children in
this stage often have imaginary friends.

Concrete operational — In the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old), children solidify
their abstract thinking and begin to understand cause and effect and logical implications of
actions.

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Formal operational — In the formal operational stage (adolescence to adulthood), humans
plan for the future, think hypothetically, and assume adult responsibilities.
Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg created a theory of human development based on moral development
concepts.

The theory comprises the following stages:

Preconventional — In the preconventional stage, people follow rules because they’re afraid
of punishment and make choices only with their best interests in mind.

Conventional — In the conventional stage, people act to avoid society’s judgment and follow
rules to maintain the systems and structures that are already in place.

Postconventional — In the postconventional stage, a genuine concern for the welfare of

others and the greater good of society guides people.

Psychosexual Theory
Sigmund Freud popularized the psychosexual theory. The theory comprises five stages:

Oral — In the oral stage (birth to 1 year old), children learn to suck and swallow and may
experience conflict with weaning.

Anal — In the anal stage (1-3 years old), children learn to withhold or expel feces and may
experience conflict with potty training.

Phallic — In the phallic stage (3-6 years old), children discover that their genitals can give
them pleasure.

Latency — In the latency stage (roughly 6 years old through puberty), they take a break from
these physical stages and instead develop mentally and emotionally.

Genital — In the genital stage (puberty through adulthood), people learn to express
themselves sexually.
Ideally, children move through each phase fluidly as their sexual libidos develop, but if
they’re stuck in any of the phases, they may develop a fixation that hinders their
development.

Behavioral Theory

The behavioral theory focuses solely on a person’s behaviors rather than the feelings that go
alongside those behaviors. It suggests that behaviors are conditioned in an environment due
to certain stimuli.

Behavioral theorists believe that behavior determines feelings, so changing behaviors is

important because this will in turn change feelings.

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The attachment theory focuses on the deep relationships between people across their lifetime.
An important attachment theory finding is that children must develop at least one strong
bond in childhood to trust and develop relationships as adults. The attachment theory
comprises four stages:

Asocial or pre-attachment (birth to 6 weeks old)

Indiscriminate attachment (6 weeks old to 7 months old)

Specific or discriminate attachment (7-9 months old)

Multiple attachments (10 months old or later)

Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory builds upon the behavioral theory and postulates that people learn
best by observing the behavior of others. They watch how others act, view the consequences,
and then make decisions regarding their own behavior accordingly. The four stages in this

theory are:

Attention

Retention

Reproduction

Motivation

Why Do We Study Human Growth and Development?

The study of human growth and development offers a wealth of value for personal and
professional growth and understanding. Many reasons exist for why we study human growth
and development.

Common benefits include the following:

To gain a better understanding of one’s own life experiences. This can help people personally
reach an understanding of what childhood events shaped their adulthood.

To gain knowledge of how social context impacts development. This knowledge can be
invaluable for professionals like teachers as they gain a deeper understanding of their
students.

To help others understand and contextualize the ups and downs of life. This helps therapists
and psychologists better aid their clients in self-discovery.

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To understand how societal change can support growth and development. This understanding
helps decision-makers in schools change the educational culture for the better.

To become a more effective research, teacher, or leader in many different industries.

Understanding human development deeply and in context has many professional benefits that
can lead to greater insight.

To support the physical and mental health of individuals throughout their life span.
Professionals like doctors, nurses, and therapists must understand human growth and
development to better support their clients.

Resources: More Information on Theories of Human Development

BetterHelp, “Behavioral Theory, Behavioral Psychology, or Behaviorism? How Behavior
and Personality Intersect”
Encyclopedia Britannica, “Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development”

 Healthline, “What Are Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development?”

 PositivePsychology.com, “What Is Attachment Theory? Bowlby’s 4 Stages Explained”
 Psychology Today, Social Learning Theory
 SimplyPsychology, “Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory”
 SimplyPsychology, Theories of Psychology
 Verywell Mind, “The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development”

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