Physics

Paper No. : 09 Electronics

Module: 8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication

Development Team
Prof. Vinay Gupta ,Department of Physics and Astrophysics,
Principal Investigator University of Delhi, Delhi

Dr. Monika Tomar ,Physics Department ,Miranda House

Paper Coordinator
University of Delhi, Delhi

Prof. Vinay Gupta, Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, Delhi
Content Writer
Dr. Ayushi Paliwal, Department of Physics, Deshbandhu College, University of Delhi, Delhi

Prof. R. P. Tondon,Department of Physics and Astrophysics,

Content Reviewer
University of Delhi, Delhi

Electronics
Physics
8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 Description of Module
Subject Name Physics
Paper Name Electronics
Module Name/Title SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
Module Id 8.6

Electronics
Physics
8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
Learning Objectives
 Signal to Noise Ratio
 Noise in the frequency domain
 Source of Noise
 Equivalent noise resistance
 Noise factor
 Amplifiers in cascade
 Signal to Noise enhancement using Phase sensitive (lock-in) amplification-

1. Introduction
The main characteristics of communication electronic systems are SNR and bit error rate (BER) defined via
SNR . As usual, SNR can be defined as signal power to noise power ratio. This approach is developed
in many works. For example, contains a description of using of multiple linear regression with
coefficients chosen for different types of noise for defining of SNR. Estimation of SNR can be made
via relation between autocorrelation functions of a signal and noise shifted by time, but noise and
signal levels have arbitrary chosen values. Effective SNR estimation defined as difference between
standard SNR and signal quality indicator SNR is used in many areas of science and engineering such
as in wireless telecommunications systems, medicine, nuclear physics, neuroscience, sound technique ,
optoelectronics , nanotechnology , astrophysics etc.
2. Signal to Noise Ratio:

The relative magnitude of noise voltage is defined by

𝑆 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
𝑁
= 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

In decibels, (power ratio)

𝑆 (𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
(𝑑𝐵) = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
𝑁 (𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
Our aim is to increase S/N ratio so that detectability of signal is increased. Amplification is not useful because
noise is amplified by same factor as signal, i.e. we have to distinguish the signal from the noise. Noise may be
contributed by each stage of a measurement system. The noise voltage contributed by each stage is given by
𝑆
(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡)
𝑁
Noise figure, 𝐹 = 𝑆
(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)
𝑁

F=1 is no noise is contributed by the stage. F>1 for all real systems. F = 1.3 for many semiconductor devices.
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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 3. Noise in the frequency domain:

The average value of time varying noise is constant (as slowly varying) with time (dc), while noise has a
complex waveform. These differences are most conveniently described by the frequency spectrum. Fourier
transform is an efficient tool to convert an amplitude variation as a function of time f(t) to a complex
amplitude and phase spectrum as a function of frequency F().
+∞
𝐹(𝜔) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Some of the important Fourier transform of technical importance are given below:

The importance of frequency domain is that it can describe the frequency bandwidth in which the signal
information is carried and distinguish this from the frequency bandwidth over which noise exists.

For example, the waveform below can be analyzed in frequency domain as having two components: one
defining the signal and the other defining noise.

Because signal is likely to be well defined in time, the frequency spectrum which contains the signal
information is relatively limited in width as compared to noise spectrum. Hence, instruments are built with s
specific frequency bandwidth f so that all frequency components of a signal falling within the measurement
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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
bandwidth will be detected, all those outside will not be observed. Signal to noise ratio must therefore be
calculated taking into account the frequency bandwidth of the measurement system. The equivalent
bandwidth of a pulse of duration ‘T’ is
1
𝑓0 =
2𝑇
4. Source of Noise:
(a) Inherent fluctuations: some experimental systems are inherently unstable and lead to measurements
which fluctuate with time. This inherent noise has to be treated statistically or by noting the variation
over periods of time. For e.g. optical fluctuations in starlight, bad electrical contacts semiconductor
etc.
(b) Thermal or Johnson noise: the density of electron gas in a resistance R fluctuates spatially leading to
variations in potential difference vn between the contacts. The variations arise because of the thermal
motion of the electron gas (and possible frequencies are unlimited). This is termed as thermal or
Johnson noise (white noise).
Thermal energy available at temperature T is : kT

This energy is spread across the entire frequency spectrum. If the measurement system has a limited
bandwidth f, only a fraction of the energy will be measured.

Noise power available to a measurement system of frequency bandwidth f: kTf

The resistor may be treated as a perfect ‘noiseless’ resistance R in series with an internal voltage
source Vn. The maximum power that can be transferred to an external load resistance RE occurs
𝑉𝑛
when RE = R. The terminal voltage is then 𝑉0 =
2

𝑉02 𝑉𝑛2
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑘𝑇. ∆𝑓 = =
𝑅𝐸 4𝑅

This rms noise voltage 𝑉𝑛 = √4𝑘𝑇𝑅∆𝑓

Johnson noise exists in all resistive circuits, it cannot be eliminated but its effects can be reduced.

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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 (c) Shot noise:
This occurs due to the collection of electrons at an electrode, or by diversion over a barrier.

Consider N number of charges q collected in time T

𝑞𝑁
Mean current, 𝐼0 = 𝑇

Since, this is a random process, there will be a statistical uncertainity of ±√𝑁 in the number of
charges collected in this time,

𝐼 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 √𝑁 1 1
= = =
𝐼0 𝑁 √𝑁 𝐼 𝑇 1/2
( 𝑜𝑞 )

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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 (d) 1/f noise: Many system show more noise power at low frequencies than predicted by
thermodynamics. Excess noise due to unknown effects at surfaces, contact barriers and improve with
device design. This noise is associated with the generation and recombination of minority carriers in
semiconductors.

Figureeeee

(e) Quantization noise: it occurs due to analog to digital conversion (observed in digital instruments like
multimeter, picometer etc.)
(f) High-frequency or transit time noise: in semiconducting devices, when the transit time of carriers
crossing a junction is comparable with the periodic time of the signal, some of the carriers may diffuse
back to the source or emitter.
(g) Generation-recombination noise: In semiconductor devices, some impurity centres will be ionized on a
random basis, being energized thermally, thus or randm generation of carriers occurs in the device.
Also, the carriers can recombine with ionized impurity centres on a random basis, either directly or
through trapping centres. The result is that conductivity of the semiconductor has a random
components giving rise to noise current.

Multiple noise sources: if several sources contribute to total noise power then

𝑁𝑃 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 𝑁𝑃(1) + 𝑁𝑃(2) + 𝑁𝑃(3) + __________________

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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 In terms of rms voltage contribution,

𝑉𝑛2 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 𝑉𝑛2 (1) + 𝑉𝑛2 (2) + 𝑉𝑛2 (3) + _________________________

Equivalent to the quadratic addition of standard deviations in error analysis.

Equivalent noise resistance:

Noise originating in a device (active or passive) can be represented by means of a fictitious resistance
Rn. Assuming, Rn to generate noise at room temperature, the actual device the being assumed
noiseless.

Figureeee

Figure (a) shows an amplifier with input resistance ‘Ri’ and equivalent noise resistance ‘Rn’. Noise
resistance should be part of manufacturer’s data for the device, given for specific operating
2
condition. The equivalent mean-square noise voltage (𝑉𝑛0 ) appearing due to ‘Rn’ is 4𝑅𝑛 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓. Figure
2
(b) shows the equivalent mean-square noise voltage 𝑉𝑛 , appearing at the input terminal of amplifier
is

𝑉𝑛2 = 4(𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑛 ) 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓

In effect, the amplifier noise is referred to the input circuit so that the amplifier be assumed as
noiseless.

Note: Rn is a fictitious resistance which does not affect the real resistance at the input. Here input
resistance remains at Ri even though the effective resistance from the point of view of noise
generation is (𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑛 ). Here, Rn is not involved in the reduction resistance.

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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 In general, for Thevenin equivalent circuit, the signal to noise power ratio of the system is

𝑆 𝑉𝑠2
=
𝑁 4(𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑛 ) 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓

Noise factor: the noise factor ‘F’ of an amplifier (or any network) may be defined as

𝑆
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑠𝑖 𝑃𝑛𝑜
𝐹= 𝑁 = ×
𝑆 𝑃𝑛𝑖 𝑃𝑠𝑜
𝑁 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Where Psi is the signal power available at the input,

Pni is the noise power available at the input

Pso is the signal power available at the output

Pno is the noise power available at the output

Temperature of the input source is definesd as room temperature (S/N at the output < S/N at the
input because amplifier or network will add noise i.e. F>1).

The available power gain, G is

𝑃𝑠𝑜
𝐺=
𝑃𝑠𝑖
𝑃𝑛𝑜
⟹𝐹=
𝐺𝑃𝑛𝑖

𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑛𝑜 = 𝐹 𝐺𝑃𝑛𝑖

And 𝑃𝑛𝑖 = 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓, thus

𝑃𝑛𝑜 = 𝐹𝐺𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓
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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 This is output noise power which is increased by the factor F.

Noise factor ‘F’ in terms of Rn: The output

𝑆 𝑉𝑠2
=
𝑁 4(𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑛 )𝑘𝑇∆𝑓

Because both signal and noise will be amplified by same amount and noise of amplifier is taken into
account by Rn.

We know that, the available input S/N is

𝑆 𝑉𝑠2
( ) =
𝑁 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 4𝑅𝑝 𝑘𝑇∆𝑓

Therefore,

𝑆
(𝑁) 𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑛
𝑖𝑛
𝐹= =
𝑆 𝑅𝑛
(𝑁)
𝑜𝑢𝑡

F can be expressed in dB where it is known as Noise Figure.

Noise figure = 𝐹𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 𝐹 (kn case where Rn = 0, F = 1 which implies that 𝐹𝑑𝐵 = 0 𝑑𝐵

𝑃𝑛𝑜
Amplifier input noise in terms of F: The total noise referred to the input can be represented by 𝐺
as

𝑃𝑛𝑖(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 𝐹𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓

The source contributes 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓 of this, therefore the amplifier must contribute Pna, where

𝑃𝑛𝑎 = 𝐹𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓 − 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓

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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 Amplifiers in cascade

Figureeee

In the above figure, the noise input to the amplifier 1 is 𝐹1 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓 and therefore the noise input to the
amplifier 2 is G1 times this plus the contribution from amplifier 2 itself.

Noise input to the amplifier 2 = 𝐺1 𝐹1 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓 + (𝐹2 − 1)𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓

The output noise power which is that from amplifier 2 is G2 times the input noise power to amplifier
2,

𝑃𝑛0 = 𝐺2 𝐺1 𝐹1 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓 + 𝐺2 (𝐹2 − 1)𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓

The overall gain is 𝐺 = 𝐺1 𝐺2, so that the overall noise factor is

𝑃𝑛𝑜
𝐹=
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝑃𝑛𝑖

𝐺2 𝐺1 𝐹1 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓 + 𝐺2 (𝐹2 − 1)𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓
=
𝐺2 𝐺1 𝐹1 𝑘𝑇 ∆𝑓

𝐹2 − 1
𝐹 = 𝐹1 + ( )
𝐺1

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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 The argument can be extended for additional amplifiers as

𝐹2 − 1 𝐹3 − 1
𝐹 = 𝐹1 + ( )+( )+ −−−−−−
𝐺1 𝐺1 𝐺2

This is known as Friiss formula. Here G is power ratio.

Signal to Noise enhancement

Phase sensitive (lock-in) amplification-

Figureee

A switch allows the signal to pass to some form of averaging circuit either directly (+) of via an
inverting amplifier (-). The switch is driven by an ac voltage at frequency f and its position is denoted
by the polarity shown. The averaging circuit produces a time average of the waveform existing at the
output of the switch.

Figureeee

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8.6 SNR (signal to noise ratio) in instrumentation and communication
 The waveforms existing in this circuit at different parts of the ac cycle under various circumstances
are given below:

(i) If the switch frequency and the signal frequency are identical and the two waveforms are in phase,
the negative going parts of the signal waveform are inverted and the output of the averager is
positive and finite.

(ii) if the switch frequency and the signal frequency are identical but the two waveforms are 90o out of
phase, the output of the switch is a complex ac waveform equally spaced about the origin. The output
of the average is zero.

Summary

 Signal to Noise Ratio

 Noise in the frequency domain
 Source of Noise i.e. inherent fluctuations, thermal or Johnson noise, shot noise, 1/f noise,
quantization noise, high frequency or transit-time noise, generation-recombination noise
 Equivalent noise resistance
 Noise factor
 Amplifiers in cascade
 Signal to Noise enhancement using Phase sensitive (lock-in) amplification-

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