Babalola

University
Ado-Ekiti (ABUAD)

Course Code and Title CVE828: Tropical Soils of Nigeria in Engineering Practice
Lecturer: Prof. S. A. Ola
Assignment Term Paper: Worldwide Case Studies of Practical Remediation of
Sheet and Gully Erosion
Student Name Aruaman Kelvin Ataria
Matric No: 21/PGC/ENG03/003
Due Date: 16/06/ 2022
ABSTRACT
Soil erosion occurs when rainwater washes away topsoil, which is rich in organics, nutrients, and soil
life. This process is linked to pollution of nearby water bodies and wetlands, as well as decreased
cropland productivity. Soil erosion by water (sheet and gully erosion) accounts for the highest loss of
soil directly linked to other global drivers of change like land use and climate change. Land use
symbolizes the economic and cultural activities carried out in a certain place. However, inappropriate
land use can cause soil erosion, which can have a negative effect on air and water quality, watershed
function, waste generation, wildlife habitat, and climate. Factors of soil erosion include rainfall, soil
erodibility, plant cover (vegetation), topography, and human activities such as deforestation,
overgrazing, and poor agricultural methods. The practical remediation/control of soil erosion can be
achieved by the following methods: mulching, zero tillage and minimum tillage, contour, terraces, a
grassed waterway, and appropriate land-use patterns, including the building of gabions, coupled with
the training of farmers on soil erosion control because they have poor knowledge about the benefits of
soil and water conservation. This term paper used academic works of literature to present information
about the impacts of sheet and gully erosion. Furthermore, it recommended that soil conservation based
on agricultural land use would be beneficial for the entire agro-ecological system. Intensive
afforestation, arable farming, and integrated watershed management are the most suitable land use
options for the area. It concluded that sheet and gully erosion is a major environmental problem that
needs to be managed by all stakeholders. Researchers should focus on catchment management measures
to reduce sheet and gully erosion.

Keywords: water erosion, sheet erosion, gully erosion, remediation, developing and developing
countries, erosion control measures.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 4
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Types of Soil Erosion ....................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Sheet Erosion.................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Gully Erosion ................................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Factors Which Influence Sheet and Gully Erosion (Water Erosion) ............................... 8
2.4.1 Land Use .................................................................................................................... 8
2.4.2 Rainfall ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.4.3 Soil Erodibility .......................................................................................................... 9
2.4.4 Plant Cover (Vegetation) ......................................................................................... 10
2.4.5 Ground Slope (Topography) .................................................................................... 11
2.4.6 Human Activities ..................................................................................................... 11
2.5 General Impact of Sheet and Gully Erosion................................................................... 14
2.6 Practical Remediation of Sheet and Gully Erosion ........................................................ 15
2.6.3 Contour Farming...................................................................................................... 18
2.6.4 Terraces ................................................................................................................... 18
2.6.5 Anti-Erosive Channel .............................................................................................. 19
2.6.6 Land-Use Patterns.................................................................................................... 19
3.0 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 21
4.0 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................... 21
5.0 RECOMMENDATION ..................................................................................................... 22
6.0 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 23
7.0 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 24

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List of Figures
Figure 1. Soil erosion by wind is initiated when wind speed exceeds the saltation threshold
velocity for a given field condition (USDA.GOV, 2016) ........ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2 The mechanism of water erosion on soil (EARTH OBSERVING SYSTEM, 2021) . 6
Figure 3. Impact of water erosion a farm land (Latham Seeds Agronomy Team, 2022) .......... 6
Figure 4. Impact of sheet erosion (Ritter, 2012) ........................................................................ 7
Figure 5. Road breakage as a result of erosion gully menace in the South-Eastern Part of
Nigeria (Eke and Ogba, 2021) ................................................................................................... 7
Figure 6. The erosive force of wind on an open field (Ritter, 2012) ......................................... 9
Figure 7. The evapotranspiration process is the loss of water from vegetation based on the
combination of processes of plant transpiration and soil evaporation (Keshtegar et al., 2022)
.................................................................................................................................................. 10
Figure 8. Unregulated dredging activity in Akwa Ibom that degrades the environment
(Mojeed, 2020) ......................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 9. Loss of farm land due to the illegal dredging and excavation activities (Mojeed,
2020) ........................................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 10. Deforestation activities (Moore, 2022)................................................................... 12
Figure 11.The “overgrazed” paddock (on left) grew back (on right) after an extended rest
period. These photos show the power of disruption (William, 2016) ..................................... 13
Figure 12. Jakarta’s deadly floods: Heavy flooding has displaced tens of thousands of people
(John, 2020) ............................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 13. Mulching practices for reducing soil water erosion (Prosdocimi, Tarolli, and
Cerdà, 2016) ............................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 14. Young soybean plants thrive in the residue of a wheat crop. This form of no till
farming provides good protection for the soil from erosion and helps retain moisture for the
new crop (Spears, 2018) .......................................................................................................... 17
Figure 15. Contour strip cropping system in Stuarts Draft Virginia incorporates many BMPs:
contour farming, crop rotation, no-till planting, crop residue use, cover crops and perennial
crops in rotation (Whitescaver, 2016) ...................................................................................... 18
Figure 16. Rwanda’s flagship Social Protection Programme, women and men in northern
Rwanda work on a public works site, building terraces to prevent soil erosion (DFID, 2012)
.................................................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 17. Gabion retaining wall of a small hill preventing soil erosion (LVHUA, 2022).... 20

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Soil erosion is regarded as one of the most dangerous land-degrading natural disasters in the
world due to either the impact of wind or very high-intensity rainfall, resulting in heavy runoff
and loss of soil. The loss of soil as a result of erosion is detrimental to both fauna and flora
(Artiola et al., 2019). Similarly, land-use changes and human activities further increase soil
erosion, which has a detrimental effect on agricultural production and, therefore, undermines
global food security. For example, soil erosion depletes valuable top soil, which is the most
productive component of the soil profile for agricultural uses. According to Issaka and Ashraf
(2017), soil erosion is more prevalent in areas with increasing population, agricultural
production, construction, and urbanization.

Soil erosion is categorized by three actions: soil loosening, transportation, and deposition.
These processes typically result in the transfer of topsoil, which is rich in organics, nutrients,
and soil life, to another place on-site where it accrues over time or transporting it off-site where
it accumulates in drainage channels (Shi et al., 2012). It is usually severe in sloppy, and
vulnerable areas. The process of soil erosion is linked to pollution of nearby water bodies and
wetlands, as well as decreased cropland productivity. Rainwater is a major cause of soil erosion
because it breaks up the soil, dislodges it from its surroundings, and then washes it away as
runoff. The type of land use also has an impact on soil erosion. The mechanisms of soil erosion
affect how much water a soil can hold, how quickly water flows over the soil, and how much
water pools beneath the surface.

Globally, soil erosion by water (sheet and gully erosion) accounts for the highest loss of soil
directly linked with other global drivers of change, like land use and climate change, and this
has a direct impact on the economies of developed and developing nations (Yang et al., 2003;
Borrelli et al., 2017). Dam siltation, for example, has cost many millions of dollars as a result
of sediment mobilization caused by erosion. Irrigation with saline or brackish water has
severely restricted agricultural production on hundreds of thousands of hectares around the
world (Mateo-Sagasta et al., 2017). Furthermore, soil erosion is associated with the
susceptibility to flooding and damage to infrastructure, including roads, utility networks, and
buildings. Therefore, the need to find practical solutions to reduce the negative impacts of sheet
and gully erosion by a significant margin is paramount. The aim of this term paper is to present
worldwide case studies of the practical remediation of sheet and gully erosion through the
review of academic works of literature.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Generally, soil erosion is simply the detachment, movement, and deposition of soil particles
from one location to another mostly under the influence of wind, water, and other agents
(Borreli et al., 2021). Erosion by wind is the process by which fine soil particles are swept
away by the wind's effect on the soil surface (Zobeck and Van Pelt, 2011). See Figure 1 below
which shows the process of wind erosion.

Figure 1. Soil erosion by wind is initiated when wind speed exceeds the saltation threshold
velocity for a given field condition (USDA.GOV, 2016)
The speed of wind, soil surface quality, and the quantity of plant cover all impact the severity
of wind erosion. Therefore, wind erosion is a major issue in many parts of the world,
specifically in dry and semiarid areas. It affects agricultural land across most of North-Eastern
Africa, as well as sections of Southern, Central, and Eastern Asia, Australia, Northwest China,
Southern South America, and North America (Mclvor et al., 2017). For example, in North-
Eastern Africa, 70% of the degraded soils are through wind erosion, 20% water erosion and
10% through nutrient depletion and soil salinization (IAASTD, 2002). On the other hand,
erosion by water is the removal of soil by water and the transportation of the eroded materials
to another location. According to Balasubramanian (2017), rain wears down the soil particles
and creates activities such as sheet and gully erosion which leads to downstream impacts such

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as floods and sedimentation. See Figure 2 and 3 below which shows the mechanism and impact
of water erosion on soil.

Figure 2 The mechanism of water erosion on soil (EARTH Figure 3. Impact of water erosion a farm land
OBSERVING SYSTEM, 2021) (Latham Seeds Agronomy Team, 2022)

Nonetheless, Le Roux (2011), asserts that water erosion occurs primarily as a result of the
combination and interactive effects of five factors, including rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility,
slope steepness and slope length, crop management, and support practices. The impact of water
erosion can be detrimental to agricultural production. The South-Eastern part of Nigeria, as an
example, suffers from the extensive degradation of agricultural lands every year, and most of
these lands are turned into gullies as a result of water erosion (Chude, et al., 2021).
Additionally, erosion can affect water transportation and storage infrastructure, as well as
contribute to pollution from land surfaces. In a nutshell, most forms of soil erosion are governed
by water.

2.1 Types of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is classified into three types: sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion.
However, this term paper is only focused on sheet and gully erosion which are altogether
referred to as water erosion.

2.2 Sheet Erosion

Water follows a sheet of more or less consistent depth as it flows over soil on a mild and level
slope. Under these conditions, soil is removed in a consistent manner from all portions of the
region with a similar degree of slope (Desta and Adugna, 2012). Sheet erosion refers to the
somewhat uniform loss of surface soil caused by rainfall and runoff water (See Figure 4 below).
It is often difficult to recognize that any soil has disappeared, but after this process has occurred
several times, much of the original surface soil disappears, exposing the subsoil, which is not
as good a medium for plant growth as the surface soil was (Khaledi et al, 2014).
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Figure 4. Impact of sheet erosion (Ritter, 2012)

Shallow soils suffer a greater reduction in productivity than deep soils. Areas where loose,
shallow top soil overlies light subsoil are most susceptible to sheet erosion.

2.3 Gully Erosion

This is the movement of soil that happens when tiny, well-defined eroded channels grow
considerably in size (Balasubramanian, 2017). When the channels get bigger in size and shape
due to protracted occurrence of flow through them and cannot be removed by tillage operation,
these are called gullies (See Figure 5 below).

Figure 5. Road breakage as

a result of erosion gully
menace in the South-
Eastern Part of Nigeria
(Eke and Ogba, 2021)

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Gullies cause enormous amounts of topsoil and subsoil to be lost each year. In general, the
gully continues to spread as tunnelling, caving, and sliding occur at the gully head and along
the sides, accompanied by runoff transporting gully floor material downslope (Sattar, 2011).
This makes gully erosion to be regarded as one of the most severe types of soil erosion in dry
and semiarid environments

2.4 Factors Which Influence Sheet and Gully Erosion (Water Erosion)
Generally, the factors which cause sheet and gully erosion (water erosion) in developed and
developing countries include land use, rainfall, soil erodibility, plant cover, ground slope, and
human activities (deforestation, overgrazing). They all together intensify the prevalence of soil
erosion.

2.4.1 Land Use

Land use symbolizes the economic and cultural activities carried out in a certain place. Public
and private lands are used for completely different purposes. For example, urban growth is
uncommon on publicly held grounds, but privately owned lands are rarely conserved for
wildlife purposes (EPA, 2021). However, the inappropriate cultivation of crops or other
agricultural processes on land has the capability to reduce the overall structure of soil. As a
result, organic matter is reduced, making the soil more susceptible to the effects of rain and
water. Erosion may be exacerbated by tilling, in particular, because it can break up and soften
the soil structure. A study conducted in the West Showa Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia
to determine the factors that propagate soil erosion shows that inappropriate land use is one of
the major causes of erosion on farm lands (Leta and Megersa, 2022). Although inappropriate
land use is associated with soil erosion, it is inevitable that land use changes will occur at
different scales. These changes will have specific and cumulative effects on air and water
quality, watershed function, the generation of waste, wildlife habitat, and climate.

2.4.2 Rainfall
Rainfall intensity is one of the most important factors in soil erosion. The kinetic energy of
raindrops impacting the soil causes rainfall erosivity; the quantity of kinetic energy increases
with rainfall intensity, resulting in soil compaction and aggregate disintegration. (Suif, Razak,
and Ahmad, 2018). Rainfall intensity is measured by means of a recording rain gauge. For
example, recordings in Madagascar have shown that rainfall intensities of less than 1.5 mm/min
are rarely erosive, whereas rainfall intensities of over 2 mm/min are always erosive. The figure
of 2 mm/min is the cut-off point above which erosion occurs. On the other hand, in Arkansas,
USA, it is estimated that on uncovered, loamy soil with a slight slope (6 per cent), erosion
occurs as soon as the rainfall reaches 2.5 mm in 5 minutes (Leblond and Guérin, 1983). Thus,
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the influence of rainfall intensity increases with increasing soil humidity, i.e., with increasing
rainfall frequency. Soil covered by a film of water will disaggregate more readily and will have
more intense rainwater run-off. Variations in annual precipitation also have an impact on soil
loss, with years with more rainfall resulting in bigger amounts of soil washaways. According
to Ritter (2012), rainfall-induced soil displacement (raindrop splash) is typically strongest and
most evident during short-duration, elevated thunderstorms. Although the erosion induced by
longer-lasting and much fewer storms is usually not as spectacular or obvious as that caused
by thunderstorms, the quantity of soil loss can be substantial if accumulated over time. See
Figure 6 below for an example of the erosive force of wind.

Figure 6. The erosive force of wind on an open field (Ritter, 2012)

2.4.3 Soil Erodibility
Soil erodibility is an estimate of a soil's ability to resist erosion based on its physical features.
Texture is the most noticeable feature, but structure, organic matter, and permeability also play
a role (Ritter, 2012). Similarly, sand, sandy loam, and loam-textured soils erode less readily
than silt, extremely fine sand, and clay-type soils (Oakes, 2011). On the other hand, tillage and
farming techniques that diminish soil organic matter levels or cause soil compaction contribute
to soil erodibility. Compacted subsurface soil layers, for example, can reduce infiltration and
increase runoff. Infiltration is also reduced by the creation of a soil crust, which tends to "close"
the surface. Furthermore, decreased nutrient levels, which are frequently connected with
subsoils, contribute to lower crop yields and overall crop cover. Past erosion also affects soil
erodibility, as exposed subsurface soils on eroded sites are more erodible than original soils

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due to poorer structure and lower organic matter (Albert, Adeyinka, and Peter, 2000). In a
nutshell, soils with faster infiltration rates, higher organic matter levels, and enhanced soil
structure are more resistant to detachment or erosion.

2.4.4 Plant Cover (Vegetation)

Plant cover or vegetation has a considerable and important effect on both the surficial and mass
stability of slopes. The stabilizing or protecting benefits of vegetation are determined by the
type of vegetation as well as the type of slope degradation process (Menashe, 1998). For
example, the protective effects of woody vegetation in the case of mass stability range from
mechanical reinforcement and restraint by the roots and stems to alteration of slope hydrology
as a result of soil moisture extraction through evapotranspiration (Gray and Sotir, 1996a).
Figure 7 shows the process leading to evapotranspiration.

Figure 7. The evapotranspiration process is the loss of water from

vegetation based on the combination of processes of plant
transpiration and soil evaporation (Keshtegar et al., 2022)

However, the loss of plant covers due to intensive overgrazing, deforestation, and bush burning
exposes soil to being detached and transported away by surface water runoff. Furthermore,
over-cultivation and compaction lead the soil to lose structure and cohesion, making it more
easily erodible. The topsoil will be removed first by erosion (Tsegaye, 2019). Few plants will
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grow in the soil once this nutrient-rich layer of soil is gone. Without topsoil and plants, the land
becomes desert-like and incapable of supporting life; this is known as desertification.

2.4.5 Ground Slope (Topography)

The flatness or uneven nature of a place is referred to as topography. The volume and flow of
surface runoff are substantially influenced by slope length and steepness (Chaplot and
Bissonnais, 2000). Long slopes direct more water to the slope's base, while steep slopes
enhance runoff velocity. Thus, both situations enhance the likelihood of erosion. Naturally, the
steeper the slope, the greater the amount of soil loss due to water erosion. For example, a four-
time increase in slope, according to hydraulic rules, is twice the velocity of flowing water
(Khan et al., 2020). This increased velocity can enhance erosive power fourfold and carry
capacity 32fold. It was discovered in one of the experiments conducted in the United States of
America that the loss of soil per hectare due to erosion in a maize plot of land was 12 tons when
the slope was 5 percent, but it was as high as 44.5 tons when the slope was 9 percent (MAIB,
2022). Therefore, soil erosion by water (sheet erosion and gully erosion) increases as the slope
length increases due to the greater accumulation of runoff. See Figure 8 as example of

2.4.6 Human Activities

Human actions such as deforestation, overgrazing, and poor agricultural methods have made
soil erosion a severe global concern. In addition to the diversion of natural drainage routes, the
incorrect orientation of roads, railways, embankments, and bridges has resulted in soil erosion.
Thus, it is correct to state that soil erosion is mostly a result of somewhat ill-guided human
activities and is also an issue that humans face.

There is no effective planning, and buildings are erected haphazardly, with little respect for
natural flood pathways or drainage systems (Adedeji, Odufuwa, and Adebayo, 2012).
Individuals constructing houses and excavating sand and other types of soil carelessly along
established roadside, for example, especially in underdeveloped and developing countries. As
rain continues to fall on these excavated places, they grow into places bound for erosion (See
Figure 8 and 9 below). From a global perspective, each year, significant areas of vegetative
cover are destroyed for farming and construction purposes, which alternatively expose soil to

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erosion agents such as water and wind (Toy, Foster, and Renard, 2002). In circumstances such
as these, the soil cannot survive the erosive impacts of precipitation since it has been exposed.

Figure 8. Unregulated dredging activity in Figure 9. Loss of farm land due to the illegal
Akwa Ibom that degrades the environment dredging and excavation activities (Mojeed,
(Mojeed, 2020) 2020)
Deforestation
Deforestation is a major cause of soil erosion, perhaps the primary cause. By anchoring the soil
and sheltering it from the elements, trees provide a great benefit to the soil. As a result of
destroying forests, the land becomes exposed, so it is susceptible to being washed or blown
away by the elements. See an example of deforestation activity below (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Deforestation activities (Moore, 2022)

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Without plant cover, erosion can occur and sweep the land into rivers. Many of the agricultural
plants that have replaced the trees can't hold onto the soil, and many of these plants, such as
coffee, cotton, palm oil, soybeans, and wheat, can actually increase the negative impact of soil
erosion (Moore, 2022). Agricultural producers move on as the land loses its fertile soil, clearing
more forest to continue the soil loss cycle. For example, a study conducted in the Lake Kivu
Basin, D.R. Congo-Rwanda, concluded that the major cause of soil erosion and threat to water
conservation is as a result of deforestation and natural grassland conversion to agricultural land
use (Karamage et al., 2016). It is worthy of note that as much as half of the world’s topsoil has
already diminished because of deforestation. Since the beginning of the 20th century, it is
estimated that 3.9 million square miles of forest have been lost (World Wildlife Fund, 2022).
The huge loss of forest area has no doubt led to a significant increase in topsoil erosion.

Overgrazing
Converting natural ecosystems into pasture land does not cause as much damage to the land as
growing crops, but this change in land use can result in a high rate of erosion as well as a loss
of nutrients (World Wildlife Fund, 2022). Similarly, overgrazing, also known as intensive
grazing, occurs when livestock graze vegetation before it has recovered from a previous
grazing state (Rinkesh, 2022). Overgrazing, in other words, occurs when vegetation or pasture
is repeatedly removed from the area and it is not given enough time to grow again. In the event
of overgrazing, the ground may become eroded and compacted due to wind and rain.
Consequently, plants cannot grow and water cannot penetrate, damaging soil microbes and
causing serious erosion of the land.

Figure 11.The “overgrazed” paddock (on left) grew back (on right) after an extended rest
period. These photos show the power of disruption (William, 2016)

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2.5 General Impact of Sheet and Gully Erosion
Generally, both types of erosion are referred to as water erosion. The primary impacts of water
erosion are a decrease in soil quality and a decrease in the water-holding capacity of many
degraded soils (Balasubramanian, 2017). The disintegration of aggregates and the removal of
smaller particles or whole layers of soil or organic materials can weaken and potentially affect
the texture of the structure (Wang et al., 2017). The loss of natural nutrients and applied
fertilizers has a direct impact on crop emergence, growth, and yield. Organic matter from the
soil, residues, and any added manure is lightweight and easily moved off the field.

Also, the sediments that enter streams or watercourses can cause the clogging of stream and
drainage channels, fill reservoirs, and decrease downstream water quality. Sediment can build
up on downslope and contribute to road degradation (Mekonnen et al., 2015). Increased
flooding may also occur as a result of degraded soil's diminished ability to absorb water. The
transfer of silt and agricultural contaminants into water systems is the primary consequence of
both forms of water erosion (Artiola et al., 2019). This can result in dam silting, lake ecological
damage, and drinking water pollution.

Furthermore, according to Atapattu and Kodituwakku (2009), pesticides and fertilizers affect
or pollute downstream water supplies, marshes, and lakes because they are typically transferred
with the eroding soil into them. The rapid flow of water due to erosion results in the loss of
valuable property, decreased water quality as silt and fertilizers enter the stream, and can cause
a threat to infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and buildings.

We have seen and are still experiencing the risks of soil erosion play out around the world.
Jakarta’s deadly floods in the early part of 2020 are a prime example (John, 2020). Eroded
sediments from further upstream clogged Jakarta’s rivers and canals, causing them to overflow
(See Figure 12, which shows the devastating effect it had on people). Similarly, erosion-related
floods have also occurred in many other countries, such as Colombia, India, the
Philippines, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Sulaeman and Westhoff, 2020).

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Figure 12. Jakarta’s deadly floods: Heavy flooding has displaced tens of thousands of
people (John, 2020)
Soil erosion is not only an environmental issue; it also causes huge losses to the economy.
According to Sartori et al. (2019), global economic losses from soil erosion were estimated to
be around $8 billion due to reduced soil fertility, decreased crop yields, and increased water
usage. In Java, Indonesia, soil erosion is responsible for a 2% loss in total agricultural GDP,
taking into account the losses farmers face directly and the losses others face downstream
(STRUTT, 2009). Another study showed that the negative impact of soil erosion in Sleman, a
district located in Java, costs 17% of an average farmer’s net income per hectare of agricultural
land (Möller and Ranke, 2006). According to CAGN (2021), the agriculture industry in the
United States of America (USA) loses approximately $44 billion per year due to erosion. This
cost includes lost productivity, sedimentation, and water contamination. The annual loss of
farm income is expected to be $100 million. According to Sulaeman and Westhoff (2020), soil
erosion costs European countries an estimated $1.38 billion in annual agricultural productivity
losses and about $171 million in lost GDP (about 1 percent of total GDP). Similarly, soil
erosion causes an estimated $10 billion in economic loss in South Asia each year (Jie et al.,
2002).

2.6 Practical Remediation of Sheet and Gully Erosion

Erosion is a big issue impacting soils all around the world. The fast expansion of the world's
population has resulted in greater land cultivation (Borrelli et al., 2017). This increases the
strain on land use and causes soil to lose structure and cohesiveness, making it more prone to
erosion. While water (sheet and gully) erosion is regarded as the major source of soil

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degradation worldwide, innovative techniques that restore critical soil processes might help
degraded soils regain their productivity and prevent further damage. Many countries around
the world that experience the negative impacts of water erosion (sheet and gully) have since
devised innovative means to help reduce and contain the erosion menace. However, developed
and developing countries experience erosion at various levels, so a summary of the practical
remediation of water erosion is presented.

Sheet erosion control begins with the preservation of ground cover, soil structure, and organic
matter in the soil. Reducing topsoil compaction prevents the development of splash erosion.
Another alternative for protection is to cover the soil surface with mulch.

On the other hand, gully erosion control solutions are essentially a set of approaches aimed at
preventing more water access to the land. Such methods of limiting gully erosion entail the use
of fences, banks, and various structural structures to prevent more water access to the land.

2.6.1 Mulching
Mulching, is any layer of material applied to the soil's surface to protect it from erosion and the
evaporative effects of wind and sun (Majoro et al., 2020). It increases water holding capacity,
reduces compaction, and supplies nutrients and organic matter to the soil. Cover crops improve
soil health and structure, reduce the need for costly inputs, slow erosion and runoff, increase
water infiltration and retention, and protect water quality. Trees and shrubs protect the soil
surface from raindrop impact and ensure soil stability (Patil, Kelkar, and Bhalerao, 2013). See
Figure 13 below showing the benefit of mulching compare to a non-mulched area of land, as
means of preventing soil and water erosion.

Figure 13. Mulching practices for reducing soil water erosion

(Prosdocimi, Tarolli, and Cerdà, 2016)
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2.6.2 Zero Tillage and Minimum Tillage
They are methods of soil cultivation. Crop residue mulch is used for erosion control (See Figure
14 below). From a soil perspective, the benefits of no-till farming far outweigh those of tillage-
based systems. No-till practices allow the soil structure to stay intact and also protect the soil
by leaving crop residue on the soil surface (Spears, 2018). Improved soil structure and soil
cover increase the soil’s ability to absorb and infiltrate water, which in turn reduces soil erosion
and runoff and prevents pollution from entering nearby water sources. No-till practices also
slow evaporation, which not only means better absorption of rainwater, but it also increases
irrigation efficiency, ultimately leading to higher yields, especially during hot and dry weather.

Figure 14. Young soybean plants thrive in the residue of a wheat crop. This form of no till
farming provides good protection for the soil from erosion and helps retain moisture for the
new crop (Spears, 2018)

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2.6.3 Contour Farming
Contour farming is one of the most commonly used agronomic measures for soil and water
conservation in hilly agro-ecosystems and sloppy lands (Kumawat et al., 2020). All the
agricultural operations, viz., ploughing, sowing, inter-culture, etc., are practiced along the
contour line.

Figure 15. Contour strip cropping system in Stuarts Draft Virginia incorporates many
BMPs: contour farming, crop rotation, no-till planting, crop residue use, cover crops and
perennial crops in rotation (Whitescaver, 2016)
The ridges and furrows formed across the slope build a continual series of small barriers to the
flowing water, which reduces the velocity of runoff and thus reduces soil erosion and nutrient
loss (Dimelu, Ogbonna, and Enwelu, 2013). It conserves soil moisture in low rainfall areas due
to increased infiltration rate and time of concentration, while in high rainfall areas it reduces
soil loss (Lui et al., 2014). In both situations, it reduces soil erosion, conserves soil fertility and
moisture, and thus improves overall crop productivity (see Figure 15 above). However, the
effectiveness of this practice depends upon the rainfall intensity, soil type, and topography of
a particular locality.

2.6.4 Terraces
They help to reduce runoff velocity and soil loss, increase soil moisture content, reduce
evaporation, and minimize erosion (FAO, 2000). Contour bunds are progressive terraces suited
to flat areas of slopes less than 16% (IWRM, 2016). According to Savadogo, Bayala, and
Kalinganire (2017), they can reduce soil erosion and increase soil water holding capacity. As
an example, the yield for maize farmland under contour bund management increased from 35%
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to 38% while for millet and sorghum, the yield increased from 30% to 60% (Savadogo, Bayala,
and Kalinganire, 2017). Terraces are developed as a means to combat soil erosion both in
developing and developed countries. See Figure 16 showing the construction of terraces in
Rwanda.

Figure 16. Rwanda’s flagship Social Protection Programme, women and men in northern
Rwanda work on a public works site, building terraces to prevent soil erosion (DFID, 2012)

2.6.5 Anti-Erosive Channel

On the other hand, an anti-erosive channel prevents runoff water from upper hills from entering
cropped land. It is constructed by planting protective grasses along the channel and by ensuring
the collecting drain does not slope too much. In addition, according to a study conducted by
Fiener and Auerswald in 2003, grassed waterways filter runoff sediments and pollutants,
reducing runoff and sediments by 90% to 10% and 97% to 77%, respectively.

2.6.6 Land-Use Patterns

This refers to how people use land. Land use involves the management and change of the
natural environment. Land utilized for industrial agriculture often erodes at a far faster rate than
land with natural vegetation or land used for sustainable agricultural techniques. According to
Lui, Bruins and Heberling (2018) improved land use methods, such as terrace construction, no-

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till farming, and tree planting, can help to minimize erosion. conservation, land management,
and best management practices.

2.6.7 Gabions
Gabions are retaining walls made of a hexagonal mesh of galvanized steel wire filled with
natural stones (William, 1997). They are used to reduce runoff velocity and increase the
stability of sloping surface areas with seepage problems (See Figure 17 below). Also, the use
of a sediment trap which is an earthen embankment constructed across a waterway helps to
slow the evacuation of runoff and remove sediments (William, 1997).

Figure 17. Gabion retaining wall of a small hill preventing soil erosion (LVHUA, 2022)

Furthermore, the introduction and use of structures that stabilize the grade or control head
cutting in natural or constructed channels are also known as grade stabilization structures.
These structures are said to lower the channel grade and flow velocity, effectively stepping
runoff water down a hill at a controlled rate (Lewandowsk et al., 2015). Earth embankments
with pipe spillways or mechanical structures of concrete, masonry, steel, aluminum, or treated

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wood can be used for grade stability. The design is dependent on the site conditions, but these
buildings should be able to handle runoff from a storm with a 25-year frequency.

Water is retained, regulated, or controlled by mechanical structures. Mechanical spillways are

classified into three types: drop, drop inlet, and chute (Huffam et al., 2012). The embankment
in a detention pond detains and impounds water while forcing storm flow via the spillway. The
entrance to the culvert might be round, square, or rectangular, with a square edge, hood, or
flared opening.

Furthermore, all the practical remediation of water erosion will not be effective if farmers are
not well equipped with the knowledge to be part of the solution. Farmers need training on soil
erosion control because they have poor knowledge about the benefits of soil and water
conservation. This is because most soil and water conservation techniques are costly to build
especially in developing countries. Poverty and limited knowledge are limiting factors. Thus,
institutions must be constrained in the adoption of soil conservation measures. Sharing
knowledge among farmers and training could enhance adoption.

3.0 METHODOLOGY
This term paper relied mostly on academic works of literature sourced from the internet to
present information that is somewhat complete to the ability of the researcher. The impacts of
sheet and gully erosion coupled with summarised practical remediation methods were drawn
from the literature. It is widely accepted that sheet and gully erosion results in the removal of
vital top-deep soil and any contained nutrients, a decline in soil nutrients affects its biological
properties and also the physical properties. While this may be true, there were limitations to
the research due to the varying geographical locations of sheet and gully erosion.

4.0 DISCUSSION
From the review above, we see that sheet and gully erosion cause soil degradation to varying
degrees, but with almost the same results. Sheet and gully erosion results in the removal of
vital top-deep soil and any contained nutrients. A decline in soil nutrients affects its biological
properties and also its physical properties. It is clear from the review that the direct
consequences of sheet and gully erosion include flooding, water and soil contamination, and
loss of agricultural and infrastructural land such as roads and buildings. Also, sheet and gully
erosion cause the most soil loss and are intimately linked to other global change drivers such
as land use and climate change. Water (sheet and gully) erosion causes severe degradation and
loss of the uppermost layer of fertile soil, which is important for flora growth, and this may
reduce water absorption and storage.

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The practical remediations of sheet and gully erosion presented in this term paper are
considered to be only a fraction of the methods by which sheet and gully erosion can be
prevented, as developed and developing countries apply what works best for them. However,
mulching seems to be implemented as a method for the control of sheet and gully erosion in
developed and developing countries around the world. Simply put, mulching is any layer of
material placed on the soil's surface to protect it from erosion and evaporation caused by wind
and sun. Also, cover crops promote soil health and structure, lowering the need for expensive
inputs, slowing erosion and runoff, increasing water infiltration and retention, and protecting
water quality. Trees and shrubs shield the soil surface from raindrops and maintain soil
stability.

5.0 RECOMMENDATION

The severity of the soil erosion problem in Nigeria, especially in the south-eastern part,
necessitates a comprehensive soil conservation program to prevent catastrophic erosion. Soil
conservation measures should be farming system and land use practices that ensure sustainable
soil productivity while maintaining ecosystem and anthropogenic influence balances. In the
design of soil conservation strategies, the permissible soil loss tolerance should be set so as to
avoid catastrophe in the event of the failure of such strategies. In the United States of America,
the permissible soil erosion loss is between 2.5 and 12.5 t ha-1 y-1 (Renard et al., 1996), while
in the Czech Republic, Holy (2015) noted that the permissible soil loss was between 1.0 to 16
t ha-1 y-1 in very deep soil of 120 cm thickness. Obi (1982) observed that for a highly weathered,
porous and deep ultisol in south-eastern Nigeria, the tolerable soil loss was about 10 t ha-1 y-
1
under maize production, with appreciable loss in the production capacity of the soil.

As a result, the recommendations for soil conservation based on agricultural land use would be
beneficial for the entire agro-ecological system. The most suitable land use option for the area
is the combination of intensive afforestation, arable farming, and integrated watershed
management. Rural farmers can afford these practices because they are considered cheap.
Additionally, they are very sustainable and do not damage the soil. This is intended to reduce
soil loss and prevent the development of fresh gullies in the area. Agricultural land Based on
topographic variations, major soil distribution, soil erosion potential, hydrology, and other
geomorphological variables, agricultural land use should be determined. The South-Eastern
should be partitioned into 4 broad sections based on their location on the landscape. The
lowlands and valley floors, which also contain sediments, should be used for rainfed and

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irrigated farming of arable crops. The main soil conservation strategies should be those that
improve plant nutrient availability and land levelling in the case of irrigation and drainage.

6.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, water erosion (sheet and gully) takes away topsoil, which is rich in organics,
nutrients, and soil life, causing soil erosion. This process has been linked to contamination of
water and wetlands, as well as decreased farmland productivity. Rainfall, soil erodibility, plant
cover (vegetation), terrain, and human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, and bad
agricultural methods are all factors that contribute to the severity of soil erosion. Thus, water
erosion (sheet and gully erosion) is a major environmental problem that needs to be managed
by all stakeholders. Researchers should focus on catchment management measures to reduce
sheet and gully erosion. To reduce sheet and gully erosion, governments should enact laws for
afforestation and against deforestation, prioritize dry season farming, and empower
landholders, farmers, and NGOs to adopt and implement soil erosion control measures at an
early stage. Additionally, no amount of realistic sheet and gully erosion remediation will be
helpful if farmers are not well-equipped to be a part of the solution. Farmers require soil erosion
control training because they are unaware of the advantages of soil and water conservation.
This is due to the high expense of constructing most soil and water conservation systems,
particularly in developing nations.

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